State-building in Azerbaijan: The search for consolidation

Middle East Journal

Volumn 55, Issue 2, 2001, Pages 216-234

  Kamrava, Mehran ^a  

^a CALIFORNIA STATE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0035286046     PISSN: 00263141     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Article

References (80)

1. See, for example, Peter Ferdinand, ed. The New States of Central Asia and Their Neighbors, (New York: Council on Foreign Relations Press, 1994); Jo-Ann Gross, ed. Muslims in Central Asia: Expressions of Identity and Change, (Durham, NC Duke University Press, 1992); Mehrdad Haghayeghi, Islam and Politics in Central Asia, (New York: St. Martin's, 1995); Michael Mandelbaum, ed. Central Asia and the World, (New York: Council on Foreign Relations Press, 1994); David Menasheri, Central Asia Meets the Middle East, (London: Frank Cass, 1998); Richard Pomfret, The Economies of Central Asia, (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1995), and Ahmed Rashid, The Resurgence of Central Asia: Islam or Nationalism? (London: Zed Press, 1994).
2. See, for example, Peter Ferdinand, ed. The New States of Central Asia and Their Neighbors, (New York: Council on Foreign Relations Press, 1994); Jo-Ann Gross, ed. Muslims in Central Asia: Expressions of Identity and Change, (Durham, NC Duke University Press, 1992); Mehrdad Haghayeghi, Islam and Politics in Central Asia, (New York: St. Martin's, 1995); Michael Mandelbaum, ed. Central Asia and the World, (New York: Council on Foreign Relations Press, 1994); David Menasheri, Central Asia Meets the Middle East, (London: Frank Cass, 1998); Richard Pomfret, The Economies of Central Asia, (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1995), and Ahmed Rashid, The Resurgence of Central Asia: Islam or Nationalism? (London: Zed Press, 1994).
3. See, for example, Peter Ferdinand, ed. The New States of Central Asia and Their Neighbors, (New York: Council on Foreign Relations Press, 1994); Jo-Ann Gross, ed. Muslims in Central Asia: Expressions of Identity and Change, (Durham, NC Duke University Press, 1992); Mehrdad Haghayeghi, Islam and Politics in Central Asia, (New York: St. Martin's, 1995); Michael Mandelbaum, ed. Central Asia and the World, (New York: Council on Foreign Relations Press, 1994); David Menasheri, Central Asia Meets the Middle East, (London: Frank Cass, 1998); Richard Pomfret, The Economies of Central Asia, (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1995), and Ahmed Rashid, The Resurgence of Central Asia: Islam or Nationalism? (London: Zed Press, 1994).
4. See, for example, Peter Ferdinand, ed. The New States of Central Asia and Their Neighbors, (New York: Council on Foreign Relations Press, 1994); Jo-Ann Gross, ed. Muslims in Central Asia: Expressions of Identity and Change, (Durham, NC Duke University Press, 1992); Mehrdad Haghayeghi, Islam and Politics in Central Asia, (New York: St. Martin's, 1995); Michael Mandelbaum, ed. Central Asia and the World, (New York: Council on Foreign Relations Press, 1994); David Menasheri, Central Asia Meets the Middle East, (London: Frank Cass, 1998); Richard Pomfret, The Economies of Central Asia, (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1995), and Ahmed Rashid, The Resurgence of Central Asia: Islam or Nationalism? (London: Zed Press, 1994).
5. See, for example, Peter Ferdinand, ed. The New States of Central Asia and Their Neighbors, (New York: Council on Foreign Relations Press, 1994); Jo-Ann Gross, ed. Muslims in Central Asia: Expressions of Identity and Change, (Durham, NC Duke University Press, 1992); Mehrdad Haghayeghi, Islam and Politics in Central Asia, (New York: St. Martin's, 1995); Michael Mandelbaum, ed. Central Asia and the World, (New York: Council on Foreign Relations Press, 1994); David Menasheri, Central Asia Meets the Middle East, (London: Frank Cass, 1998); Richard Pomfret, The Economies of Central Asia, (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1995), and Ahmed Rashid, The Resurgence of Central Asia: Islam or Nationalism? (London: Zed Press, 1994).
6. See, for example, Peter Ferdinand, ed. The New States of Central Asia and Their Neighbors, (New York: Council on Foreign Relations Press, 1994); Jo-Ann Gross, ed. Muslims in Central Asia: Expressions of Identity and Change, (Durham, NC Duke University Press, 1992); Mehrdad Haghayeghi, Islam and Politics in Central Asia, (New York: St. Martin's, 1995); Michael Mandelbaum, ed. Central Asia and the World, (New York: Council on Foreign Relations Press, 1994); David Menasheri, Central Asia Meets the Middle East, (London: Frank Cass, 1998); Richard Pomfret, The Economies of Central Asia, (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1995), and Ahmed Rashid, The Resurgence of Central Asia: Islam or Nationalism? (London: Zed Press, 1994).
7. See, for example, Peter Ferdinand, ed. The New States of Central Asia and Their Neighbors, (New York: Council on Foreign Relations Press, 1994); Jo-Ann Gross, ed. Muslims in Central Asia: Expressions of Identity and Change, (Durham, NC Duke University Press, 1992); Mehrdad Haghayeghi, Islam and Politics in Central Asia, (New York: St. Martin's, 1995); Michael Mandelbaum, ed. Central Asia and the World, (New York: Council on Foreign Relations Press, 1994); David Menasheri, Central Asia Meets the Middle East, (London: Frank Cass, 1998); Richard Pomfret, The Economies of Central Asia, (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1995), and Ahmed Rashid, The Resurgence of Central Asia: Islam or Nationalism? (London: Zed Press, 1994).
8. Human Rights Watch, Azerbaijan: Seven Years of Conflict in Nagorno-Karabakh,. (New York: Human Rights Watch, 1994).
9. Nora Dudwick, "The Cultural Construction of Political Violence in Armenia and Azerbaijan." Problems of Post-Communism, (July/August 1995), pp. 18-23; and, Fereydoun Safizadeh. "On the Dilemmas of Identity in the Post-Soviet Republic of Azerbaijan," Caucasian Regional Studies, Vol. 3, No. 1, (1996), (http://poli.vub.ac.be/publi/crs/eng/0301-04). Site accessed on April 16, 1999.
10. Nora Dudwick, "The Cultural Construction of Political Violence in Armenia and Azerbaijan." Problems of Post-Communism, (July/August 1995), pp. 18-23; and, Fereydoun Safizadeh. "On the Dilemmas of Identity in the Post-Soviet Republic of Azerbaijan," Caucasian Regional Studies, Vol. 3, No. 1, (1996), (http://poli.vub.ac.be/publi/crs/eng/0301-04). Site accessed on April 16, 1999.
11. Manijeh Sabi, "The Impact of Economic and Political Transformation on Women: The Case of Azerbaijan," Central Asian Survey. (1999) Vol. 18, No. 1, pp. 111-120.
12. Cynthia Croissant, Azerbaijan, Oil and Geopolitics, (Commack, NY: Nova Science, 1998).
13. Joseph Kechichian and Theodore Karasik. "The Crisis in Azerbaijan: How Clans Influence the Politics of and Emerging Republic," Middle East Policy, Vol. 4, Nos. 1-2, (1995), pp. 57-71.
14. Michael Ochs, Azerbaijan: Oil, Domestic Stability and Geopolitics in the Caucasus, (1996), (http:// www.ksg.harvard.edu/csia/sdi/Ochs.htm). Site accessed on April 16, 1999.
15. Dilip Hiro. "The Emergence of Multi-Party Politics in the Southern Caucasus: Azerbaijan," Perspectives on Central Asia, Vol. 2, No. 11, (February 1988). (http://www.cpss. org/casianw/perca0298.txt). Site accessed on April 16, 1999; and Dilip Hiro, Between Marx, and Muhammad: The Changing Face of Central Asia, (London: HarperCollins, 1994).
16. Dilip Hiro. "The Emergence of Multi-Party Politics in the Southern Caucasus: Azerbaijan," Perspectives on Central Asia, Vol. 2, No. 11, (February 1988). (http://www.cpss. org/casianw/perca0298.txt). Site accessed on April 16, 1999; and Dilip Hiro, Between Marx, and Muhammad: The Changing Face of Central Asia, (London: HarperCollins, 1994).
17. Joel Migdal, "The State in Society: An Approach to Struggles for Domination," Joel Migdal, Atul Kohli, and Vivienne Shue, eds. State Power and Social Forces: Domination and Transformation in the Third World. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994), p. 16.
18. Michael Mann, The Sources of Social Power, Volume 2. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993), p. 47.
19. Peter Evans, Embedded Autonomy: States and Industrial Transformation. (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1995).
20. Mehran Kamrava, Cultural Politics in the Third World, (London: UCL Press, 1999).
21. Joel Migdal, "Studying the State," in Mark Irving Lichbach and Alan Zuckerman, eds. Comparative Politics: Rationality, Culture, and Structure. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997), pp. 208-235.
22. The most important aspects of the contract included US $7.4 billion earmarked for investments in Azerbaijan and the expected prod action of 511 million tons of oil. The contract also stipulated that the production share be divided among several oil companies, principally the State Oil Company of Azerbaijan (SOCAR), with a 10% share, and 17% for British Petroleum, 17% for Amoco, 10% for Lukoil, 9.8% for Pennzoil, 9.5% for Unocal, 8.6% for Statoil, 2.4% for Itochu, 6.7% for Ramco, and 1.7% for Delta. Nasib Nassibi. "The Independent Azerbaijan's Oil Policy," (1998) (http://www-scf.usc.edu/~baguirov/azeri/ nasibzade1.html). Site accessed on February 20, 2001.
23. World Bank, Country Assistance Strategy: Republic of Azerbaijan. (Washington, DC: World Bank, 1999), p. 14.
24. Country Assistance Strategy, p. 13.
25. Ali Nagiyev, Minister of Labor and Social Welfare, Azerbaijan Republic. Interview with author. (Baku: January 18, 2000).
26. Eric Nordlinger, "Taking the State Seriously," Myron Weiner and Samuel Huntington, eds. Understanding Political Development. (New York: HarperCollins, 1987), pp. 353-390.
27. Tadeusz Swietochowski. 1994, "Azerbaijan: A Borderland at Crossroads of History," in Fredrick Starr, ed. The Legacy of History in Russia and the New States of Eurasia. (London, M. E. Sharpe, 1994), p. 292.
28. See Human Rights Watch, Azerbaijan.
29. Swietochowski, "Azerbaijan: A Borderland at Crossroads of History," p. 292.
30. Dilip Hiro, "Aliyev Wins Again." Middle East International, No. 588, (1998), p. 17.
31. Karen Dawisha and Bruce Parrott, Russia and the New States of Eurasia: The Politics of Upheaval (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994).
32. Hiro, "The Emergence of Multi-Party Politics in the Southern Caucasus: Azerbaijan;" Swietochowski, "Azerbaijan: A Borderland at the Crossroads of History," p. 295.
33. Hiro, "The Emergence of Multi-Party Politics in the Southern Caucasus: Azerbaijan;" Swietochowski, "Azerbaijan: A Borderland at the Crossroads of History," p. 295.
34. A thorough account of Elchibey's presidency and the events leading to his overthrow can be found in Hiro. Between Marx and Muhammad.
35. Kechichian and Karasik, "The Crisis in Azerbaijan," p. 58.
36. In a later interview with a Russian newspaper, Mutalibov claimed that Aliyev had convinced Col. Husseinov to become first the PM to acquire the necessary experience for later becoming President, promising to hold the office of the presidency himself for no more than a few years. Within a year, the Prime Minister was dismissed and forced to flee to Moscow. He was later tried in absentia and convicted of complicity in the coup attempts of 1994 and 1995. In 1997, Moscow arrested and extradited Husseinov to Baku, where he is currently in prison.
37. Hiro. "Aliyev Wins Again," p. 17.
38. Leila Aliyeva, "Political Leadership Strategies in Azerbaijan," (1995) (http://socrates. berkeley.edu/ ~bsp/caucasus/aliyeva.html). Site accessed on April 16, 1999.
39. Vafa Guluzade, Zerkalo, No. 26, (June 29, 1996), pp. 1-2.
40. Kechichian and Karasik, "The Crisis in Azerbaijan," p. 63.
41. For a general overview of Azerbaijan's foreign policy as discussed by Foreign Minister Hasan Hasanov see, Hasanov. Bakinskiy Rabochiy, (Baku)(August 7, 1996), pp. 7-8.
42. This is not to imply that Aliyev has put a halt to Azerbaijan's very close relations with Turkey. He has, however, taken great care to address some of the concerns that Iran and Russia had in regards to Elchibey's espousal of pan-Turkic unity.
43. Close commercial and diplomatic cooperation between Baku and Washington serves the interests of both parties, as the United States can also use Azerbaijan as a base for keeping an eye on Iran and, to a lesser extent, Russia. On a related matter, Bulent Aras maintains that Azerbaijan is actively cultivating economic ties with China and Japan to build up its war-torn economy. See his, "Azerbaijan: Far Eastern Friends," Middle East International, (March 13, 1998), p. 16.
44. A further indication of the government's attempt to identify Azerbaijan as European is the change from the Cyrillic alphabet to Latin, not unlike, incidentally, a similar change initiated in Turkey by Kemal Atatürk.
45. According to World Bank figures, for example, from 1989 to 1994 Azerbaijan's agricultural production fell by some 60%, and oil production fell from 13.8 to 9.6 million metric tons between 1987 and 1994. World Bank. "Azerbaijan." (1999). (http://wbln0018.worldbank.org/ECA/eca.nsf/e0ffcdc243d27734852567d10012f8f4/). Site accessed on February 1, 2000.
46. World Bank. "Azerbaijan-Institution Building. . . Technical Assistance Credit." (1995). (http:// www.worldbank.org/pics/pid/az8283.txt). Site accessed on February 1, 2000.
47. World Bank. Country Assistance Strategy, p. 12
48. According to the Ministry of Internal Affairs, "corruptibility" rose steadily throughout the second half of the 1990s, increasing by some 169% from 1992 to 1998. The Ministry does not provide a definition of what it means by "corruptibility." Ministry of Internal Affairs. Crime Statistics for Azerbaijan Republic for 1992-1998, (Baku: Ministry of Internal Affairs, 1999).
49. "Azerbaijan: Aliyev Announces Radical Reform of Economic Management," Interfax, (January 15, 1996), in FBIS-SOV-96-010, January 17, 1996; Interfax. "Azerbaijan: Aliyev Accuses Cabinet of Economic Mismanagement," Interfax. July 11, 1996, in FBIS-SOV-96-135, July 15, 1996.
50. "Azerbaijan: Aliyev Announces Radical Reform of Economic Management," Interfax, (January 15, 1996), in FBIS-SOV-96-010, January 17, 1996; Interfax. "Azerbaijan: Aliyev Accuses Cabinet of Economic Mismanagement," Interfax. July 11, 1996, in FBIS-SOV-96-135, July 15, 1996.
51. Quoted in Nikolay Zherebtsov, Andrey Petrovskiy, and Boris Yunanoz, "Azerbaijan: Aliyev's Oil, Geopolitical Policies Assessed," Interfax, (1996), in FBIS-SOV-96-201, October 31, 1998.
52. Ali Nagiyev, Minister of Labor and Social Welfare, Azerbaijan Republic. Interview with author. (Baku: January 18, 2000).
53. Justin Burke. RFERL 2/1/00: Azerbaijan Faces Energy Crunch. (http://www.soros. org/azerbaijan /omri/0680.html). Site accessed on February 3, 2000.
54. Alan Richards and John Waterbury, A Political Economy of the Middle East, 2nd ed. (Boulder, CO: Westview, 1996), p. 14.
55. Naomi Collett, "Azerbaijan: Trials of a state in transition," Middle East International (February 7, 1997), pp. 19-21.
56. Commission on Security and Cooperation in Europe, Report on Azerbaijan's November 1995 Parliamentary Election: Baku, Lenkoran, Lerik, (1996) (http://www.house.gov/csce/azrbelctrpt.html). Site accessed on April 16, 1999.
57. An English translation of the Azerbaijani constitution is available online at, http://www. Constitu-tional.org/const-contents.htm.
58. Namiq Abbasov. Minister of National Security, Azerbaijan Republic. Interview with author. (Baku: January 18, 2000).
59. Conspiracy theories are not unique to Azerbaijan and often form an integral part of society's perceptions of the body politic in the Middle East. See Daniel Pipes, The Hidden Hand: Middle East Fears of Conspiracy, (New York: St. Martin's Griffin, 1998).
60. Turan (Azerbaijan News Agency), "Azerbaijanis Indicted over 1995 Coup Attempt Jailed." Turan. (December 11 1997), in FBIS-SOV-97-345, December 15, 1997.
61. "Azerbaijan: Aliyev Demands Stronger Discipline in Armed Forces," Interfax, (October 9, 1996), in FBIS-SOV-96-198, October 11, 1996.
62. Sh. Mursaloglu. "Defense Ministry Condemns Mass Media for Negative Reports About Situation in Armed Forces," Zerkalo, (Baku) (September 12, 1998), in FBIS-SOV-98-265, September 22, 1998.
63. The Popular Front won four seats. Four other opposition parties were barred from participating in the elections, and many independent candidates were disqualified. A number of other, smaller parties either boycotted the elections or did not have enough of a viable support base to field candidates. At last count, there were more than thirty political parties in existence in Azerbaijan, though fewer than a handful actually qualify as such.
64. Commission on Security and Cooperation in Europe, Report on Azerbaijan's November 1995 Parliamentary Elections.
65. Justin Burke, RFERL 122299: Ruling Party Hold Congress, (http://www.soros.org/ azerbaijan / omri/0624.html). Site accessed on February 3, 2000.
66. Burke, Ruling Party Hold Congress.
67. Leonard Binder, In a Moment of Enthusiasm: Political Power and the Second Stratum in Egypt. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1978).
68. Cyrus Tabrizli, Minister of Information and Press, Azerbaijan Republic. Interview with author. (Baku: January 17, 2000).
69. Ojur Zalov, Deputy Minister of Internal Affairs, Azerbaijan Republic. Interview with author. (Baku: January 17, 2000).
70. Ochs, Azerbaijan.
71. Hasan Hasanov, Zerkalo, No. 42, (November 11, 1995), pp. 7-8.
72. Namiq Abbasov, Minister of National Security, Azerbaijan Republic. Interview with author. (Baku: January 18, 2000).
73. Additionally, Ilham Aliyev is also the President of the Azerbaijan Olympic Committee.
74. Jackson defines "quasi-states" as those that "disclose limited empirical statehood: their populations do not enjoy many of the advantages traditionally associated with independent statehood. Their governments are often deficient in the political will, institutional authority, and organized power to protect human rights or provide social welfare." Robert Jackson, Quasi-States: Sovereignty, International Relations and the Third World. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992). p. 21.
75. "Azeri President Said Ready to Stand for Third Term," Turan (September 6, 1999), in FBIS-SOV-1999-0906, September 7, 1999.
76. As of February 2001, the address for the website was http://www.ilham-aliyev.com.
77. Zalov, Deputy Minister of Internal Affairs. Interview with author.
78. Ministry of Internal Affairs. Crime Statistics for Azerbaijan Republic for 1992-1998.
79. Tabrizli, Minister of Information and Press. Interview with author.
80. Hiro, "Aliyev Wins Again," p. 17.