'On going up in the world': Nation, region and the land elevation debate in Sweden

Annals of Science

Volumn 58, Issue 1, 2001, Pages 17-50

  Nordlund, Christer ^a  

^a UMEÅ UNIVERSITY   (Sweden)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0035240935     PISSN: 00033790     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/000337901457687     Document Type: Article

References (200)

1. Gerard De Geer, Om Skandinaviens Geografiska Utveckling efter Istiden (On the Geographical Development of Scandinavia since the Ice Age), Sveriges Geologiska Undersökning Series C, 161a (Stockholm, 1896), 150. In Swedish: 'Hvad närmast angår Skandinavien, hafva vi funnit, huru detta land småningom så att säga vuxit fram ur is och vatten'.
2. Urban Hjärne, Den Beswarade och Förklarade Anledningens Andra Flock, Om Jorden och Landskap i Gemen (On the Earth and Landscape in General) (Stockholm, 1706).
3. For recent research, see, for example, Tore Posse, A Mathematical Model of the Shore Level Displacement in Fennoscandia, SKB Technical Report 96-24 (Stockholm, 1996).
4. Arvid Gustaf Högbom, Nivåförändringarna i Norden: Ett Kapitel ur den Svenska Naturforskningens Historia (Changes of Sea-Level in Scandinavia: A Chapter in the History of Swedish Science) (Göteborg, 1920);
5. Eugēne Wegmann, 'Changing ideas about moving shorelines', Towards a History of Geology. Proceedings of the New Hampshire Inter-Disciplinary Conference on the History of Geology, edited by Cecil J. Schneer, 7-12 September 1967 (Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1969), 386-414;
6. Tore Frängsmyr, Geologi och skapelsetro: Föreställningar om Jordens Historia från Hiärne till Bergman (Geology and the Doctrine of the Creation: Ideas about the History of the Earth from Hiärne to Bergman) (Stockholm: Almqvist & Wiksell, 1969);
7. Sten Lindroth, Svensk Lärdomshistoria: Frihetstiden (Swedish History of Science and Ideas: The Age of Freedom) (1978), 2nd edition (Stockholm: Norstedts, 1997), 282-92.
8. Gösta Lundqvist, Kvartärgeologisk Forskning i Sverige under Ett Sekel (Research in Quaternary Geology in Sweden During One Century). Sveriges Geologiska Undersökning Series C, 561 (Stockholm, 1958).
9. Arvid Gustaf Högbom, 'Huru Naturen danat Sverige' ('How Nature founded Sweden'), Sveriges Rike: Handbok för det Svenska Folket (The Kingdom of Sweden: Manual for the Swedish People), 2 vols, edited by Johan Fredrik Nyström (Stockholm: Ljus, 1899), I, 1-90.
10. See also Gunnar Eriksson, Kartläggarna: Naturvetenskapens Tillväxt och Tillämpningar i det Industriella Genombrottets Sverige 1870-1914 (The Surveyers: The Growth and Application of Science in Sweden in the Early Industrial Era 1870-1914), Umeå Studies in the Humanities, 15 (Umeå, 1978), 103.
11. Sverker Sörlin, 'Natur och kultur: om skogen och fosterlandet i det industriella genombrottets Sverige' ('Nature and culture: forest and patriotism in Sweden in the early industrial era'), Lychnos 1981-1982, 87-144 (103).
12. Ludwik Fleck, 'To look, to see, to know' (1947), Cognition and Fact - Materials on Ludwick Fleck, edited by R. S. Cohen and T. Schnelle (Dordrecht: Reidel, 1986), 129-51 ;
13. David Oldroyd, Thinking about the Earth: A History of Ideas in Geology, Studies in the History and Philosophy of the Earth Sciences (London: Athlone, 1996), 4-6, 150.
14. Concerning a similar situation in northern Britain, see, for example, David Oldroyd, 'Early ideas about glaciation in the English Lake District: the problem of making sense of glaciation in a glaciated region', Annals of Science, 56 (1999), 175-203 (177).
15. 'Quaternary' (Kvartärtiden) was the Swedish term for the combination of 'Pleistocene' and 'Holocene', which was used in Britain. Thus Quaternary geology (Kvartargeologi) was the part of historical geology that analysed the Quaternary epoch.
16. The concepts 'thought collective' and 'thought style' are borrowed from Ludwik Fleck, Uppkomsten och Utvecklingen av Ett Vetenskapligt Faktum: Meaning till Läran am Tankestil och Tankekollektiv (Entstehung und Entwicklung einer wissenschaftlichen Tatsache: Einfurung in die Lehre von Denkstil und Denkkollektiv) (1935), Swedish translation (Stockholm: Symposion, 1997), 99-110.
17. Bengt E. Halden, 'Högsta Kustlinjen - nytt namn på gammalt begrepp' ('Highest Coastline - a new name for an old concept'), Geologiska Föreningens i Stockholm Förhandlingar (Transactions of the Geological Society of Stockholm), 55 (1933), 429-30.
18. See also Bengt E. Halden, 'Högsta Kustlinjen i Kilsbergen, Närke. Ett exempel på deltametodens användning' ('The Highest Coastline at Kilsbergen, Närke'), Geologiska Foreningens i Stockholm Förhandlingar (Transactions of the Geological Society of Stockholm), 56 (1934), 314-22.
19. In this way, the Highest Marine Border can be compared with the well-known 'Wallace line'. See, for exam pie, George G. Simpson, 'Too many lines: the limits of the Oriental and Australian zoogeographic regions', Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society, 121 (1977), 107-20;
20. Wilma George, 'Wallace and his Line', Wallace's Line and Plate Tectonics, edited by T. C. Whitmore (Oxford, 1981), 3-8;
21. Jane R. Camerini, 'Evolution, biogeography and maps: an early history of Wallace's Line', Isis (1993), 700-27.
22. See also Peter J. Bowler, The Fontana History of the Environmental Sciences (London: Fontana Press, 1992), 354;
23. James Moore, 'A world away: Wallace's Malthusian moment', Science Unbound: Geography, Space and Discipline, Idéhistoriska Skrifter 24, edited by Brian Dolan (Umeå: Institutionen för Idéhistoria, Umeå Universitet, 1998), 127-51.
24. Bowler (note 11), 231.
25. David J. Hess, Science Studies: An Advanced Intoduction (New York: New York University Press, 1997), 105.
26. See, in particular, Leopold von Buch, Resise durch Norwegen und Lappland (Berlin, 1810);
27. Charles Lyell, 'On the proofs of a gradual rising of the land in certain parts of Sweden', Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, 125 (1835), 1-39, and the later editions of his Principles of Geology.
28. On the cooperation between Lyell and Babbage in their efforts to demonstrate the occurrence of land subsidence and elevation, see Brian Dolan, 'Representing novelty: Charles Babbage, Charles Lyell, and experiments in early Victorian geology', History of Science, 16 (1998), 299-327.
29. Jöns Jacob Berzelius, Läsning för Folket (Reading for the People) (Stockholm, 1839), 310-386.
30. See also Tore Frängsmyr, Gubben som gräver: Människor och Miljöer i Vetenskapens Värld (Digging Man: People and Milieux in the World of Science) (Stockholm: Fischer & Rye, 1989), 145. In Swedish, 'Den svenska vallens höjning'.
31. Per Gustaf Rosen, 'Om Östersjöns medelvattenstånd och svenska kustens höjning' ('On the water level in general of the Baltic Sea, and the elevation of the Swedish coast'), Ymer (1888), 71-86 (81). In the 1870s, Sweden and Prussia co-operated in this research.
32. Tore Frängsmyr, Upptäckten av Istiden: Studier i den Moderna Geologins Framtäxt (The Discovery of the Ice Age: Studies in the Development of Modern Geology) (Stockholm: Almqvist & Wiksell, 1976), 161;
33. Thomas F. Jamieson, 'On the history of the last geological changes in Scotland', The Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society of London, 21 (1865), 161-203.
34. Otto Torell, 'Undersökningar öfver istiden, part 1' ('Investigations concerning the Ice Age, part 1), Kungliga Vetenskapsakademiens Öfversigt (Survey of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences Activities), 29 (10) (1872);
35. 'Undersökningar öfver istiden, part 2' ('Investigations concerning the Ice Age, part 2'), Kungliga Vetenskapsakademiens Öfversigt (Survey of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences Activities), 30 (1) (1873).
36. Sveriges Geologiska Undersökning (Swedish Geological Survey) (SGU) was established in 1858.
37. Thomas F. Jamieson, 'On the cause of the depression and re-elevation of the land during the glacial period', The Geological Magazine, New Series, 9 (10) (1882), 400-7.
38. Ulf Danielsson, 'Darwinismens inträngande i Sverige, I' ('On the development of Darwinism in Sweden, I'), Lychnos 1963-64, 157-210;
39. 'Darwinismens inträngande i Sverige, II' (On the development of Darwinism in Sweden, II'), Lychnos 1965-66, 261-327.
40. On the relationship between science and nationalism in Sweden during the nineteenth century, see, for example, Sven Widmalm, 'Mellan kartan och verkligheten: geodesi och kartläggning, 1695-1860' ('Between map and reality: geodesy and surveying, 1695-1860'), Doctoral Dissertation, Skrifter 10, Institutionen för Idé- och Lärdomshistoria, Uppsala Universitet, Uppsala (1990), 18, 46, 101, 106;
41. Urban Wråkberg, 'Vetenskapens Vikingatåg: perspektiv på Svensk polarforskning, 1860-1930' ('The Viking raids of science: perspectives on Swedish polar research, 1860-1930'), Doctoral Dissertation, Skrifter 12, Institutionen för Idé- och Lärdomshistoria, Uppsala Universitet, Uppsala (1995), chapter 6.
42. Carl Wilhelm Paijkull, Istiden i Norden: Ett Geologiskt Utkast (The Ice Age in Scandinavia: A Geological Outline) (Stockholm: Albert Bonniers Förlag, 1867), 1, 66, 148.
43. Michael Jones, 'Landhöjningen i Zachris Topelius ögon' ('Land elevation in the thinking of Zachris Topelius'), Österbotten (1971), 205-32;
44. Michael Jones, Finland: Daughter of the Sea, Studies in Historical Geography (Folkestone: Dawson, 1977), 13-7;
45. Christer Nordlund, 'Huru Gud skapade Finland: om Topelius och landhöjningens kulturpolitiska betydelse' ('How God created Finland: on Topelius and the cultural importance of land elevation'), Finsk Tidskrift: Kultur, Ekonomi, Politik (Journal for Finland: Culture, Economy, Politics), 6 (1998), 349-59.
46. Axel Erdmann, Bidrag till Kännedomen om Sveriges Qvartära Bildningar (Contributions to the Understanding of the Quaternary Deposits in Sweden), Sveriges Geologiska Undersökning Series C, 1 (Stockholm, 1868).
47. Axel Erdmann, Sveriges Geologiska Undersökning Series C, Ibid., 2, 15.
48. Axel Erdmann, Sveriges Geologiska Undersökning Series C, Ibid., 140.
49. Lars Elenius, 'Förlusten av Finland - ett Svenskt Trauma' ('The loss of Finland - a Swedish trauma'), Svenska Överord: En Bok om Gränslöshet och Begränsningar (Swedish Bombast: A Book about Boundlessness and Limitations), edited by Raoul Granqvist (Stockholm: Symposion, 1999), 75-92.
50. Benedict Anderson, Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism (London: Verso, 1983);
51. Ernest Gellner, Nations and Nationalism (Oxford: Blackwell, 1983).
52. For a comparison of Anderson and Gellner, see, for example, Thomas Hylland Eriksen, Ethnicity and Nationalism: Anthropological Perspectives (London: Pluto Press, 1993), 98-100.
53. 'Introduction: inventing traditions', The Invention of Tradition, edited by Eric J. Hobsbawm and Terence Ranger (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983);
54. Bruce G. Trigger, Arkeologins Idéhistoria (A History of Archaeological Thought) (1989), Swedish translation (Stockholm: Symposion, 1993).
55. See also Lars Sellberg, 'Av kärlek till fosterland och folk: Gabriel Djurklou och dialektforskningen' ('On the love of one's native country and people: Gabriel Djurklou and the research on dialects'), Doctoral Dissertation, Skrifter 11, Institutionen för Idé- och Lärdomshistoria, Uppsala Universitet, Uppsala (1993);
56. Evert Baudou, Gustaf Hallström - Arkeolog i Världskrigens Epok (Gustaf Hallström - An Archaeologist in the Epoch of World Wars) (Stockholm: Natur och Kultur, 1997).
57. On the 'historicism perspective' in geology, see David Oldroyd, 'Historicism and the rise of historical geology, part I', History of Science, 17 (1979), 191-213;
58. 'Historicism and the rise of historical geology, part II', History of Science, 17 (1979), 227-257.
59. On this relationship between nature and nationalism in Sweden at the end of the nineteenth century and the beginning of the twentieth, see, for example, Humanekologi: Naturens Resurser och Människans Försörjning (Human Ecology: Nature's Resources and Humanity's Maintenance), edited by Sverker Sörlin (Stockholm: Carlssons, 1992), 381-406;
60. Björn Hettne, Sverker Sörlin and Uffe Østergård, Den Globala Nationalismen: Nationalstatens Historia och Framtid (Global Nationalism: The History and Future of the Nation State) (Stockholm: Studieförbundet Näringsliv och Samhälle Förlag, 1998), chapters 6 and 7;
61. Gunnar Broberg, 'När Svenskarna uppfann Sverige: anteckningar till ett hundraårsjubileum' ('When the Swedes invented Sweden: notes for a centennial anniversary'), Tänka, Tycka, Tro: Svensk Historia Underifrån (To think, to consider, to believe: Swedish history from below), edited by Gunnar Broberg, Ulla Wikander and Klas Åmark (Stockholm: Ordfronts Förlag, 1994), 171-96.
62. For ideas on 'national landscapes', see Nationallandskap (National Landscape), edited by Tapio Heikkilä, Mikko Mansikka and Carita Strandeil, Miljöministeriet (Helsingfors, 1993);
63. Sverker Sörlin, 'The articulation of territory: landscape and the constitution of regional and national identity', Norwegian Journal of Geography, 53 (1999), 103-12.
64. Elisabeth Crawford, Nationalism and Internationalism in Science, 1880-1939: Four Studies of the Nobel Population (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992), 36.
65. Elisabeth Crawford, Nationalism and Internationalism in Science, 1880-1939: Four Studies of the Nobel Population, Ibid., 37.
66. Bert Mårald, '1809 års "eviga" gränser: kring maktens geografi och skiftande sverigekartor' ('The "eternal" borders of 1809: on the powers of geography and the changing maps of Sweden'), Svenska Överord: En Bok om Gränslöshet och Begränsningar (Swedish Bombast: A Book about Boundlessness and Limitations), edited by Raoul Granqvist (Stockholm: Symposion, 1999), 59-73.
67. Albrecht Penck, 'Schwankungen des Meeresspiegels', Jahrbuch des Geographische Gesellschaft zu München, 7 (1882). See also Frängsmyr (note 17), 159.
68. Leonard Holmström, Om strandlinjens förskjutning å Sveriges kuster' ('On the displacement of shore-lines along the coasts of Sweden'), Kungliga Vetenskapsakademiens Handlingar (Proceedings of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences), 22 (1888), 3.
69. 'Mötet den 2 februari 1888' ('Minutes from the meeting of 2 February 1888'), Geologiska Föreningens i Stockholm Förhandlingar (Transactions of the Geological Society of Stockholm), 10-11 (1888-9), 85.
70. Eduard Suess, Das Antlitz der Erde, 5 vols (Vienna, 1883-1909);
71. Eduard Suess, The Face of the Earth, translated by H. B. C. Sollas, 5 vols (Oxford, 1904-24).
72. Eduard Suess, 'Über die vermeintlichen säkulären Schwankungen einzelner Theile der Erdorberfläche', Verhandlung der Kaiserlich-Königlichen Geologischen Reichsanstalt (1880).
73. Oldroyd (note 7), 176.
74. For a general discussion on the debates concerning the cooling of the Earth in this time, see, for example, Bowler (note 11), 231-35.
75. Suess (note 39, Engl. transl.), II, 538.
76. Gabriel Gohau, A History of Geology, revised and translated by Albert V. Carozzi and Marguerite Carozzi (New Brunswick, New Jersey: Rutgers University Press, 1990), 182.
77. Suess (note 39, Engl. transl.), II, 413.
78. Wegmann (note 3), 399.
79. Suess (note 39, Engl. transl.), II, 402; Holmström (note 37), 4-5. On the relationship between Holmström and Suess, see, for example, Frängsmyr (note 17), 160.
80. Wegmann (note 3), 399-400.
81. Gohau (note 44), 175.
82. See also Mott T. Greene, Geology in the Nineteenth Century: Changing Views of a Changing World (Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press, 1982), 188.
83. Christer Nordlund, 'Surveying Sweden: the early organisation of the geological society of Stockholm', Science Unbound: Geography, Space and Discipline, Idehistoriska Skrifter 24, edited by Brian Dolan (Umeå: Institutionen för Idéhistoria, Umeå Universitet, 1998), 153-74.
84. Högbom (note 3), 132. The famous book by James Geikie, The Great Ice Age and its Relation to the Antiquity of Man (London, first published 1874)
85. as well as the book by James Croll, Climate and Time in their Geological Relations: A Theory of Secular Changes of the Earth's Climate (London, 1875) were, for example, not looked upon as particularly significant contributions in this context.
86. See, for example Edvard Erdmann, Populär Geologi (Jemte Mineralogi): En Framställning af Jordytans Sammansättning, Bildning och Fortfarande Omgestaltning, med Afseende Fastat vid Svenska Förhållanden (Popular Geology (and Mineralogy): A Survey of the Structure of the Earth's Surface, its Foundation and Continuous Change, with Special Regard to the Circumstances in Sweden) (Stockholm, 1874).
87. On Erdmann and the Geological Museum, see Christer Nordlund, Organising geology for display: The Museum of the Swedish Geological Survey, 1871-1915', Nordisk Museologi (Nordic Museology), 2 (1999), 111-31.
88. Edvard Erdmann, 'Geologi' ('Geology'), Nordisk Familjebok: Konversationslexikon och Realencyklopedi (The Swedish Encyclopaedia), 9 (Stockholm, 1908), 977. In Swedish, 'Hvad särskildt kvartärtidens aflagringar och företeelser beträffar, utforskas de med städse ökad framgång, så att Sverige inom denna gren af geologien i många afseenden går i speisen och visar vägen för utländska forskare.'
89. The Society was indeed dominated by men. Its first female member was not elected until 20 years after the foundation of the Society. In 1892, the partner of Svante Arrenius, B. A. Sofia Rudbeck, became a member.
90. (Note 38).
91. The most extensive articles on Gerard De Geer's life and work are Gösta Lundqvist, 'Gerard Jacob De Geer', Levnadsteckningar över Kungliga Svenska Akademiens Ledamöter (Biographies of the Members of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences), 10 (Stockholm, 1968), 1-133;
92. Hans W:son Ahlmann, 'Gerard De Geer på Spetsbergen' ('Gerard De Geer at Spitsbergen'), Levnadsteckningar över Kungliga Svenska Akademiens Ledamöter (Biographies of the Members of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences), 10 (Stockholm, 1968), 135-80;
93. Erik Nilsson, 'Gerard De Geer: geokronologen' (Gerard De Geer: the geochronologist'), Levnadsteckningar över Kungliga Svenska Akademiens Ledamöter (Biographies of the Members of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences), 10 (Stockholm, 1968), 213-50.
94. See also Lennart von Post, 'Gerard Jacob De Geer', Svenskt Biografiskt Lexikon (Swedish Biographical Dictionary), vol. 10 (Stockholm, 1931), 550-67;
95. Urban Wråkberg, Ett Babylon i Ultima Thule: Den Geografiska Namngivningens Historia i det Europeiska Arktis (The History of Geographical Naming at the European Arctic), The Northern Space. The International Research Network on the History of Polar Science, 3 (Umeå, 1996).
96. Gerard De Geer, 'Om Skandinaviens nivåförändringar under qvartärperioden, part 1' ('On the differences of level in Scandinavia during the Quaternary, part 1'), Geologiska Föreningens i Stockholm Förhandlingar (Transactions of the Geological Society of Stockholm), 10-11 (1888-9), 366-79;
97. 'Om Skandinaviens nivåförändringar under Qvartärperioden, part 2' ('On the differences of level in Scandinavia during the Quaternary, part 2'), Geologiska Föreningens i Stockholm Förhandlingar (Transactions of the Geological Society of Stockholm), 12 (1890), 61-110.
98. De Geer (note 58), 'part 1', 366. Articles not written in Scandinavian languages were excluded from the Geologiska Föreningens i Stockholm Förhandlingar (Transactions of the Geological Society of Stockholm). English, German and French were not accepted until 1907.
99. Geologiska Föreningens i Stockholm Förhandlingar (Transactions of the Geological Society of Stockholm), Ibid., 371. In Swedish, 'Den bäst kända Förskjutningen af strandlinien i Skandinavien icke i nämnvärd mån berott på vexlingar i hafvets vattenstånd, vare sig allmänna eller lokala, utan väsentligen haft sänkningar och höjningar i jordskorpan till orsak.'
100. Adolf Erik Nordenskiöld, 'On the gradual rising of the land in Sweden', Nature, 39 (1889), 488-92 (490).
101. De Geer (note 58), 'part 1', 367.
102. Adolf Erik Nordenskiöld, 'On the gradual rising of the land in Sweden', Nature, Ibid., 371.
103. De Geer (note 58), 'part 2', 62-3.
104. De Geer (note 58), 'part 1', 367; 'part 2', 68-9.
105. On Grove Karl Gilbert, see, for example, Stephen J. Payne, 'Certain allied problems in mechanics: Grove Karl Gilbert at the Henry mountains', Two Hundred Years of Geology in America, Proceedings of the New Hampshire Bicentennial Conference on the History of Geology, edited by Cecil J. Schneer (New Hampshire, 1979).
106. Grove Karl Gilbert, 'Contributions to the history of Lake Bonneville', Second Annual Report of the United States Geological Survey (1882), 169-200; De Geer (note 58), 'part 2', 72.
107. De Geer (note 58), 'part 2', 78.
108. Grove Karl Gilbert, 'Contributions to the history of Lake Bonneville', Second Annual Report of the United States Geological Survey, bid., 81.
109. James A. Secord, 'King of Siluria: Roderick Murchison and the imperial theme in nineteenth-century British Geology', Victorian Studies, 25 (1982), 426-31;
110. James A. Secord, Controversy in Victorian Geology: The Cambrian-Silurian Dispute (1986) (Oxford: Princeton University Press, 1990 (paperback)), 124-32.
111. See also Robert A. Stafford, Scientist of Empire: Sir Roderick Murchison, Scientific Exploration and Victorian Imperialism (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989).
112. For a general discussion on imperialism and biogeography, see, for example, Janet Browne, 'Biogeography and empire', Cultures of Natural History, edited by Nicholas Jardine, James A. Secord and Emma Spary (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997), 305-21.
113. In Swedish, 'Längst upp i norr ett blodrött snitt; där vidtog Ryssland, tomt och vitt'.
114. Sverker Sörlin, 'Monument and memory: landscape imagery and the articulation of territory', Worldviews: Environment, Culture, Religion, 2 (1998), 269-79 (274).
115. See, for example, the discussion by Arvid Gustaf Högbom, Om Högsta Marina Gränsen i Norra Sverige (On the Highest Marine Border in the North of Sweden), Sveriges Geologiska Undersökning Series C, 165 (Stockholm, 1896),
116. and Gösta Lundqvist, Beskrivning till Karta över Landisens Avsmältning och Hösta Kustlinjen i Sverige (Description Accompanying the Map of the Melting of Inland Ice and the Highest Coastline in Sweden), Sveriges Geologiska Undersökning Series B, 18a (Stockholm, 1961), 99.
117. Later, there was a discussion at the Geological Society of Stockholm, as to who it was that first developed the elevation theory in Sweden. It is, however, clear that the person was De Geer. See 'Mötet den 7 april 1904' ('Minutes from the meeting of 7 April 1904'), Geologiska Föreningens i Stockholm Förhandlingar (Transactions of the Geological Society of Stockholm), 25-26 (1903-4), 219-39.
118. Gerard De Geer, 'Quaternary changes of level in Scandinavia', Bulletin of the Geological Society of America, 3 (1891), 65-8;
119. 'On Pleistocene changes of level in eastern North America', Proceedings of the Boston Society of Natural History, 25 (1892), 454-77.
120. Axel Erdmann, Öfversigt öfter Glaciallerans Utbredning inom Södra Delen av Sverige, Upprättad 1860-65 (A Survey of the Extension of Glacial Clay in Southern Sweden, Established 1860-65), Sveriges Geologiska Undersökning Series B, 2a (Stockholm, 1866). See also Högbom (note 3), 113.
121. 'Mötet den 5 mars 1891' ('Minutes from the meeting of 5 March 1891'), Geologiska Föreningens i Stockholm Fo̊rhandlingar (Transactions of the Geological Society of Stockholm), 14 (1892), 147.
122. Wegmann (note 3), 402.
123. See, for example, the discussion by Arvid Gustaf Högbom, 'Geologins utveckling under del nittonde århundradet' ('The development of geology during the twentieth century') (1921), Det Nittonde Århundradet (The Twentieth Century), vol. 7 (Stockholm: P. A. Nordstedt & Söner, 1925), 95-9; Fleck (note 9), 110-22.
124. Henrik Munthe, 'Studier öfver Baltiska hafvets qvartära historia' ('Studies in the Quaternary history of the Baltic Sea'), Bihang till Kungliga Vetenskapsakademiens handlingar (Appendix to the Proceedings of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences), 18, II (1) (Stockholm, 1892);
125. Alfred Gabriel Nathorst, Jordens Historia: Efter M. Neumayrs 'Erdgeschichte' och Andra Källor Utarbetad med Särskild Hänsyn till Nordens Urvärld (The History of the Earth: After M. Neumayrs 'Erdgeschichte' and Other Sources, Prepared with Special Reference to the Pre-Historic Epoch in Scandinavia), 2 vols (Stockholm: F. & G. Beijers, 1894);
126. Gunnar Andersson, Svenska Växtvärldens Historia: I Korthet Framställd (The History of the Vegetal World of Sweden: Briefly Described) (Stockholm: P. A. Norstedt, 1896);
127. De Geer (note 1); Arthur Hollender, 'Om Sveriges nivåförändringar efter människans invandring' ('On the differences of level in Sweden since the arrival of man'), Geologiska Föreningens i Stockholm Förhandlingar (Transactions of the Geological Society of Stockholm), 23 (1901), 231-74.
128. It was Henrik Munthe that established the 'Ancylus Lake theory', namely that the Baltic Sea during post-glacial time had been the largest lake in the world. In 1884, Munthe discovered fossils of the fresh-water mollusc Ancylus fluviatilis (and Limnea ovata) on the island of Gotland in the Baltic Sea. Since these species only live in fresh water and had never been found in water on Gotland, Munthe came to the conclusion that the entire Baltic Sea had once been a huge lake. The reason for this was, according to Munthe, that the south of Sweden had formerly been connected to Denmark because of a 'local elevation' in this part of the Baltic region (Öresund). The theory was first published in Henrik Munthe, 'Om postglaciala aflagringar med Ancylus fluviatilis på Gotland' ('On post-glacial deposits, containing Ancylus fluviatilis, on Gotland'), Kungliga Vetenskapsakademiens Öfversigt (Survey of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences Activities), 10 (1887), 719-32
129. . On this topic, see also Henrik Munthe, Studier öfver Gottlands Senkvartära Historia (Studies in the Late Quaternary History of Gotland), Sveriges Geologiska Undersökning Series C, 4a (1910).
130. On Henrik Munthe, see, for example, Gösta Lundqvist, 'Henrik Vilhelm Munthe: statsgeolog, professor' ('Henrik Vilhelm Munthe: government geologist, and professor'), Levnadsteckningar över Kungliga Svenska Vetenskaps Akademiens Ledamöter (Biographies of the Members of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences), 9 (Uppsala, 1968), 547-682.
131. Munthe (note 79), 90.
132. Thomas F. Jamieson, 'The Scandinavian glacier, and some inferences derived from it', The Geological Magazine, 8 (9) (1891), 386-92; Munthe (note 79), 108-110.
133. Ulf Lindberg, Alfred Gabriel Nathorst: Geolog, Paleontolog och Polarforskare (Alfred Gabriel Nathorst: Geologist, Palaeontologist and Polar Researcher), The Northern Space. The International Research Network on the History of Polar Science, 6 (Umeå, 1996).
134. Nathorst (note 79), II, 1061. In Swedish, 'När Suess uttalade sig mot fastlandets vertikala rörelser, voro de qvartära nivåförändringarne inom Skandinavien endast ofullständigt kända, medan vi nu, tack vare företrädesvis De Geers undersökningar och sammanställningar af samtliga iakttagelser, kunna göra oss en ganska åskådlig bild af desamma....'
135. Andersson (note 79), 2.
136. De Geer (note 1), 150. De Geer chiefly used the concept 'Scandinavia' but it is clear that Sweden was the centre of the story.
137. Ulf Lindberg, Alfred Gabriel Nathorst: Geolog, Paleontolog och Polarforskare (Alfred Gabriel Nathorst: Geologist, Palaeontologist and Polar Researcher), The Northern Space. The International Research Network on the History of Polar Science, Ibid., 150.
138. Ulf Lindberg, Alfred Gabriel Nathorst: Geolog, Paleontolog och Polarforskare (Alfred Gabriel Nathorst: Geologist, Palaeontologist and Polar Researcher), The Northern Space. The International Research Network on the History of Polar Science, Ibid., 156. In Swedish, 'Arbetsfältet är i sällsynt grad rikt och tacksamt, vägen är, om ock stundom mödosam, dock numera till sin hufvudriktning utstakad och dess mål är ej ringa; det kan med hänsyn till fosterbygdens inflytande på människans skarplynne närmast uttryckas med orden: känn dig själf.' 'Know thyself was also the motto that Arthur Hazelius at the same time used when he established the open-air museum Skansen in Stockholm, displaying the typical cultural heritage of each administrative province in Sweden. 'Know thy country' was, incidentally, the motto of the Swedish Tourist Association, founded in 1885.
139. On the relation between nature, nationalism and 'outdoor life' in Sweden in the late nineteenth century, see Friluftshistoria: Från 'Härdande Friluftslif' till Ekoturism och Miljöpedagogik (History of (Swedish) Outdoor Life: From 'Outdoor Life that Makes One Fit and Hardy' to Eco Tourism and Environmental Pedagogy), edited by Sverker Sörlin and Klas Sandell (Stockholm: Carlssons, 2000), chapter 1.
140. Friluftshistoria: Från 'Härdande Friluftslif' till Ekoturism och Miljöpedagogik (History of (Swedish) Outdoor Life: From 'Outdoor Life that Makes One Fit and Hardy' to Eco Tourism and Environmental Pedagogy), edited by Sverker Sörlin and Klas Sandell, Ibid., 150. In Swedish, 'i hvad riktning det [Skandinavien] kan väntas fortsätta sin utveckling'.
141. Friluftshistoria: Från 'Härdande Friluftslif' till Ekoturism och Miljöpedagogik (History of (Swedish) Outdoor Life: From 'Outdoor Life that Makes One Fit and Hardy' to Eco Tourism and Environmental Pedagogy), edited by Sverker Sörlin and Klas Sandell, Ibid., 6. In Swedish, 'ett land, hvars nuvarande natur framgått ur en sällsynt växlande, nära nog sagolik geografisk utveckling'.
142. Friluftshistoria: Från 'Härdande Friluftslif' till Ekoturism och Miljöpedagogik (History of (Swedish) Outdoor Life: From 'Outdoor Life that Makes One Fit and Hardy' to Eco Tourism and Environmental Pedagogy), edited by Sverker Sörlin and Klas Sandell, Ibid., 91.
143. Friluftshistoria: Från 'Härdande Friluftslif' till Ekoturism och Miljöpedagogik (History of (Swedish) Outdoor Life: From 'Outdoor Life that Makes One Fit and Hardy' to Eco Tourism and Environmental Pedagogy), edited by Sverker Sörlin and Klas Sandell, Ibid., 91. 'Öfversallt hafva de delar af den gamla kusten, som skjutit längst in emot landets centrala trakter, blifvit mest upplyftade, under det därifrån aflägsnare delar blifvit allt mindre, och till sist alls icke höjda öfver den nuvarande hafsytan....Då inom höjningsområdet så väl hafsbottnen som landets inre delar, enligt vittnesbörden från långt ut i det forntida hafvet belägna öar och långt in i det samtida landet inskjutande fjordar, tydligen deltagit i kustliniens höjning, hafva kurvorna med ledning af närmast befintliga observation spunkier framdragits äfven över nämnda områden.'
144. De Geer had also loaned some of the maps to Nathorst who used them in his book Jordens Historia (The History of the Earth) (note 79).
145. De Geer (note 1), 85.
146. On this topic, see, for example, Sverker Sörlin, 'Framtidslandet: debatten om Norrland och naturresurserna under del industriella genombrottet' ('Land of the future: The Debate on Norrland and its Natural Resources at the Time of the Industrial Breakthrough'), Doctoral Dissertation (Stockholm: Carlssons, 1988). Norrland is the Swedish name of the northern part of Sweden, from the river Dalalven northwards.
147. Other early studies in Norrland were as follows: Axel Lindström, Jordslagen inom Vesternorrlands Län (Soil Types in the County of Vesternorrland), Sveriges Geologiska Undersökning Series C, 92 (1888);
148. Torbjörn Fegraeus, 'Om de lösa jordaflagringarna i några af Norrlands elfdalar' ('On soil deposits in some of the river valleys of Norrland'), Geologiska Föreningens i Stockholm Förhandlingar (Transactions of the Geological Society of Stockholm), 12 (1890).
149. Edvard Erdmann, Geologiska Brottstycken: Tillfällighetens Skämt av En Elak (Geological Fragments: Accidental Occurrences of an Evil One), Festskrift till Geologiska Föreningens 25-års jubileum (Miscellany on the Occasion of the 25th Anniversary of the Geological Society) (Stockholm, 1896), 4.
150. See, for example, Ulf Lindberg, Geologi som Kartläggning: Kring Tillkomsten at Sveriges Geologiska Undersökning (Geology as Mapping: On the Foundation of the Swedish Geological Survey) (Umeå: Department of History of Science and Ideas, Umeå; University, 1996).
151. The most detailed study of the work and life of Högbom is still Carl Wiman, 'A la mämoire de Arvid Gustaf Högbom', Bulletin of the Geological Institution of the University of Upsala, 30 (1939-41), 1-55.
152. See also Helge Nelson, 'Professor A. G. Högbom och svensk geografi' ('Professor A. G. Högbom and Swedish geography'), Svensk Geografisk Årsbok (Swedish Geographical Yearbook) (Lund, 1940), 152-61;
153. Per Geijer, 'Arvid Gustaf Högbom', Levnadsteckningar over Kungliga Svenska Vetenskapsakademiens Ledamöter (Biographies of the Members of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences), 9 (1968), 1-22.
154. ArvidGustaf Högbom, 'Iakttagelser rörande Jemtlands glaciala geologi, med en inledande öfversigt af berggrunden' ('Observations concerning glacial geology in Jämtland Province, with an introductory survey of the bedrock'), Doctoral Dissertation, Uppsala (Stockholm, 1885).
155. Högbom's first article about shoreline displacement in the north of Sweden was 'Om sekulära höjningen vid Vesterbottens kust' ('On secular land uplift along the coast of Vesterbotten'), Geologiska Föreningens i Stockholm Förhandlingar (Transactions of the Geological Society of Stockholm), 8-9 (1886-7), 19-25.
156. See, for example, the magnum opus by Arvid Gustaf Högbom, Norrland: Naturbeskrifning (Norrland: Description of Nature), Norrländskt Handbibliotek, 1 (Uppsala: Almqvist & Wiksell, 1906).
157. De Geer (note 58), 'part 2', 71.
158. Gunnar Andersson, 'Om elfaflagringar och nivåförändringar i mellersta Norrland' ('On river deposits and changes of level in central Norrland'), Geologiska Föreningens i Stockholm Förhandlingar (Transactions of the Geological Society of Stockholm), 16 (1894), 6-7.
159. Gunnar Andersson, 'Norrländska elfdalsaflagringarnes bildningssatt och ålder' ('Age and origin of river deposits in Norrland'), Geologiska Föreningens i Stockholm Förhandlingar (Transactions of the Geological Society of Stockholm), 17 (1895), 496-506 (497).
160. Arvid Gustaf Högbom, 'Om elfaflagringar och nivåförändringar i Norrland' ('On river deposits and changes of level in Norrland'), Geologiska Föreningens i Stockholm Förhandlingar (Transactions of the Geological Society of Stockholm), 17 (1895), 485-95.
161. Lundqvist (note 4), 21.
162. Högbom (note 73).
163. Arvid Gustaf Högbom, Geologiska Föreningens i Stockholm Förhandlingar (Transactions of the Geological Society of Stockholm), Ibid., 21.
164. Hans Hausen, The History of Geology and Mineralogy in Finland 1828-1918, The History of Learning and Scienœ in Finland 1828-1918 (Helsingfors, 1968), 57.
165. Gerard De Geer, 'Om den senkvartära landhöjningen kring Bottniska viken' ('On the Late Quaternary land elevation around the Gulf of Bothnia'), Geologiska Föreningens i Stockholm Förhandlingar (Transactions of the Geological Society of Stockholm), 20 (1898), 369-93.
166. The article was also published in Sveriges Geologiska Undersökning Series C, 178 (Stockholm, 1899).
167. Sveriges Geologiska Undersökning Series C, Ibid., 374. In Swedish, 'De i somras utförda bestämningarna af den högsta marina gränsen visa emellertid, att denna alldeles icke ligger högst ut emot kusten och lägre inåt landet utan tvärtom är högst längst in åt vester med en icke mot nordvest utan mot öster eller ost-sydost starkt lutande gradient.'
168. Sveriges Geologiska Undersökning Series C, Ibid., 371.
169. Arvid Gustaf Högbom, 'Till frågan om den senglaciala
170. See, for example, the discussion by Fredrik Svenonius, Resehandbok öfver Lappland och Öfriga Delar af Väster- och Norrbottens Län (Guidebook to Lapland and Other Parts of the Counties of Västerbotten and Norrbotten) (Stockholm, 1904), 28.
171. Erdmann (note 97), 10-1. In Swedish, 'Men D. G. [De Geer] säger, att del måste vara så. Han påstår, att landet förut varit snedt och krokigt; därför har gränserna icke kunnat göras på annat sätt.'
172. Henrik Munthe, 'Några iakttagelser öfver Yoldiagränsen inom Norrbotten' ('Some observations of the Yoldia border in Norrbotten'), Geologiska Foreningens i Stockholm Förhandlingar (Transactions of the Geological Society of Stockholm), 22 (1900), 491-511.
173. Arvid Gustaf Högbom, 'Om några fluvioglaciala erosionsföreteelser' ('On some erosion phenomena related to glaciation'), Geologiska Föreningens i Stockholm Förhandlingar (Transactions of the Geological Society of Stockholm), 23 (1901), 83-94 (83-85).
174. Sörlin (note 95), 163-7.
175. Högbom (note 101). See also, for example, Norrlandsfrågan (The Norrland Question), Föreningen Heimdals Politiska Småskrifter, 4 (Uppsala, 1906).
176. Sörlin (note 95), 163-7.
177. Gustaf Linnarsson, Beskrifning till Geologiskt Kartblad, Latorp (Description of the Geological Map of Latorp), Sveriges Geologiska Undersökning Series Aa 55 (Stockholm, 1875), 29.
178. Sven K. J. Johansson, Per Simonsson and Bertil Charlie Wallin, Skuleskogen: Nationalparken i Höga Kusten (The Skule Forest: The Raised Coast National Park) (Bjästa, 1984), 14-5, 21-3;
179. Christer Westerdahl, Kulturhistoria Kring Skuleskogen och Nätra Fjällskog (The Culture History of the Skule Forest and the Nätra Forest), Örnsköldsviks Museums Småskriftserie, 23 (Örnsköldsvik, 1989), 5-28.
180. James A. Secord, The People's Evolution (manuscript), 453-492.
181. On the scientific debate about Glen Roy, see, for example, Martin Rudwick, 'Darwin and Glen Roy: a "great failure" in scientific method?', Studies in History and Philosophy of Science, 5 (1974), 99-185.
182. De Geer (note 58), 'part 2', 77.
183. Munthe (note 79), 91.
184. Nathorst (note 79), II, 1026.
185. Svenonius (note 114), 24. It should, incidentally, be noted that Svenonius was born in Lapland.
186. Arvid Gustaf Högbom, 'Nya bidrag till kännedomen om de kvartära nivåförändringarna i norra Sverige' ('New contributions to understanding of the Quaternary changes of level in the north of Sweden'), Geologiska Föreningens i Stockholm Förhandlingar (Transactions of the Geological Society of Stockholm), 26 (1904), 469-92.
187. This is also presented by Högbom (note 101), 201-8.
188. Arvid Gustaf Högbom, 'Quatärgeologische Studien im mittleren Norrland', Geologiska Föreningens i Stockholm Förhandlingar (Transactions of the Geological Society of Stockholm), 31 (1909), 557-91 (564).
189. See, for example, Gösta Lundqvist, 'Kvartärgeologin i Sverige under åren 1926-1945' ('The Quaternary geology in Sweden during the years 1926-1945'), Geologiska Föreningens i Stockholm Förhandlingar (Transactions of the Geological Society of Stockholm), 68 (1946), 268-302;
190. Ragnar Sandegren, 'De senkvartära nivåförändringarnas problem: en återblick over de senaste 25 årens forskning i Sverige' ('The problem of Late Quaternary changes of level: a retrospect of the last 25 years of research'), Geologiska Föreningens i Stockholm Förhandlingar (Transactions of the Geological Society of Stockholm), 68 (1946), 303-18;
191. Matti Sauramo, 'Studier över de senglaciala nivåförändringarna i Fennoslandia: två; föredrag' ('Studies in late glacial changes of level in Fennoscandia: two lectures'), Geologiska Föreningens i Stockholm Förhandlingar (Transactions of the Geological Society of Stockholm), 69 (1947), 79-107.
192. Fredtjof Nansen, The Strandflat and Isostasy, Videnskabssällskapet i Kristiania I, Matematisknaturvidenskabelig klasse 1921, 11 (Kristiania, 1922);
193. Wilhelm Ramsay, On relations between crustal movements and variation of sea-level during the Late-Quaternary time, especially in Fennoscandia', Bulletin de la Commission Géologique de Finlande, 66 (Helsingfors, 1924);
194. Wilhelm Ramsay, 'Nivåförändringar och stenåldersbosättning i det baltiska området' ('Changes of sea level and Stone Age settlements in the Baltic Region'), Fennia, 47 (Helsingfors, 1926), 1-68;
195. Väianö Tanner, 'Studier över kvartärsystemet i Fennoskandias nordliga delar: IV. Om nivåförändringarna och grunddragen av den geografiska utvecklingen efter istiden i Ishavsfinland samt om homotaxin av Fennoskandias kvartära marina avlagringar' ('Studies on the Quaternary system in the northern parts of Fennoscandia: IV. On changes of sea level and the essential feature of the geographical development after the Ice Age in Arctic Finland, and the homotaxis of marine quaternary deposits'), Bulletin de la Commission Géologique de Finlande (Helsingfors, 1930), 1-33.
196. On the internationalization of Swedish science, see, for example, Sverker Sörlin, De Lärdas Republik: Om Vetenskapens Internationella Tendenser (The Republic of Scholars: On the International Tendencies in Science) (Malmö: Liber-Hermods, 1994) and its 'appendix', 275.
197. Lundqvist (note 73), 100. A good overview of present ideas concerning Scandinavian Quaternary geology is given by Joakim Donner, The Quaternary History of Scandinavia (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995).
198. Höga Kustenutredningen: Huvudrapport 1974 (The Raised Coast Investigation: Main Report 1974) (1975).
199. A stimulating discussion on historians of geology and field work is given by David Oldroyd, 'Non-written sources in the study of the history of geology: pros and cons, in the light of the views of Collingwood and Foucault', Annals of Science, 56 (1999), 395-415.
200. Nomination by Sweden: The Raised Coast, for inclusion in the World Heritage List - Natural Property, UNESCO (1998), 3; Örnsköldsviks Allehanda (The newspaper for the town Örnsköldsvik), 26 (May 1999), 5.