Ideology and self-interest: Nursing, medicine, and the elimination of the midwife

Nursing History Review

Volumn 9, Issue , 2001, Pages 99-126

  Dawley, Katy ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ARTICLE; FEMALE; HISTORY; HUMAN; MATERNAL CARE; MIDWIFE; NEWBORN; NURSE MIDWIFE; PREGNANCY; UNITED STATES;

FEMALE; HISTORY, 20TH CENTURY; HUMANS; INFANT, NEWBORN; MATERNAL-CHILD NURSING; MIDWIFERY; NURSE MIDWIVES; PREGNANCY; UNITED STATES;

EID: 0035218671     PISSN: 10628061     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1891/1062-8061.9.1.99     Document Type: Article

References (181)

1. The term midwife will be used to refer to all midwives in the United States who were not first educated in nursing. Those who received formal nursing and midwifery education will be referred to as nurse-midwives. The nonnurse African American, Hispanic, colonial, and pioneer midwives were educated through the traditional apprenticeship route. Immigrant midwives arriving in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries were very well educated in European schools of midwifery and, as will be shown, better educated in the care of pregnant women than American physicians during the same period. After 1902, nursing became a route of entry for some English midwives, but in England, as in the rest of Europe, the term midwife is preferentially used and will be used in this paper to refer to midwives practicing in their countries of origin. By the second decade of the twentieth century all nurses working in private visiting nurse agencies and government-supported public health agencies referred to themselves as public health nurses. I will uses the term public health nurse to describe all nurses who provided care in the home. Public health nurses began providing prenatal care in the late nineteenth century. They referred to this work as prenatal work, prenatal supervision, prenatal nursing, and prenatal nursing care. In this paper I will use the term prenatal care when discussing the care and its content and prenatal nursing and prenatal nurse when discussing the service and provider. Maternity nursing will be used when referring to a service that has prenatal, intrapartum, and postpartum components.
2. For examples of this argument see Judy Barrett Litoff, The American Midwife Debate: A Sourcebook on Its Modern Origins (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood, 1996); Jane Pacht Brickman, "Public Health Midwives and Nurses, 1880-1930" in Nursing History: New Perspectives, New Possibilities, ed., Ellen Condliffe Lagemann, (New York: Teachers College Press, 1983); Judy Barrett Litoff, American Midwives 1860 to the Present (Westport Conn.: Greenwood, 1978); Frances E. Kobrin, "The American Midwife Controversy: A Crisis of Professionalization," Bulletin of the History of Medicine 40, no. 4 (1966): 350-63 (hereafter cited as BHM).
3. For examples of this argument see Judy Barrett Litoff, The American Midwife Debate: A Sourcebook on Its Modern Origins (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood, 1996); Jane Pacht Brickman, "Public Health Midwives and Nurses, 1880-1930" in Nursing History: New Perspectives, New Possibilities, ed., Ellen Condliffe Lagemann, (New York: Teachers College Press, 1983); Judy Barrett Litoff, American Midwives 1860 to the Present (Westport Conn.: Greenwood, 1978); Frances E. Kobrin, "The American Midwife Controversy: A Crisis of Professionalization," Bulletin of the History of Medicine 40, no. 4 (1966): 350-63 (hereafter cited as BHM).
4. For examples of this argument see Judy Barrett Litoff, The American Midwife Debate: A Sourcebook on Its Modern Origins (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood, 1996); Jane Pacht Brickman, "Public Health Midwives and Nurses, 1880-1930" in Nursing History: New Perspectives, New Possibilities, ed., Ellen Condliffe Lagemann, (New York: Teachers College Press, 1983); Judy Barrett Litoff, American Midwives 1860 to the Present (Westport Conn.: Greenwood, 1978); Frances E. Kobrin, "The American Midwife Controversy: A Crisis of Professionalization," Bulletin of the History of Medicine 40, no. 4 (1966): 350-63 (hereafter cited as BHM).
5. For examples of this argument see Judy Barrett Litoff, The American Midwife Debate: A Sourcebook on Its Modern Origins (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood, 1996); Jane Pacht Brickman, "Public Health Midwives and Nurses, 1880-1930" in Nursing History: New Perspectives, New Possibilities, ed., Ellen Condliffe Lagemann, (New York: Teachers College Press, 1983); Judy Barrett Litoff, American Midwives 1860 to the Present (Westport Conn.: Greenwood, 1978); Frances E. Kobrin, "The American Midwife Controversy: A Crisis of Professionalization," Bulletin of the History of Medicine 40, no. 4 (1966): 350-63 (hereafter cited as BHM).
6. See Samuel Eliot Morrison and Henry Steele Commager, The Growth of the American Republic (New York: Oxford University Press, 1962), 2.
7. Elizabeth Ewen, Immigrant Women in the Land of Dollars: Life and Culture on the Lower East Side, 1890-1925 (New York: Monthly Review, 1985), 61-62. Eva Schwartz, my grandmother, left the Ukraine at age sixteen around 1902. This is part of her story as told to me.
8. See Alan Dawley, Struggles for Justice (Cambridge, Mass.: The Belknap Press of Harvard University, 1991) for a discussion of the Gilded Age and workforce changes during the Gilded Age and the Progressive Era.
9. Edwin Chadwick, an English epidemiologist documented that in England the average age of death for gentry was thirty-six, for tradesmen, was twenty-two, and for laborers was sixteen. See The Committee for the Study of the Future of Public Health, Division of Health Sciences Institute of Medicine, The Future of Public Health (Washington, D.C.: National Academy, 1988). See also Richard A. Meckel, Save the Babies: American Public Health Reform and the Prevention of Infant Mortality 1850-1929 (Baltimore, Md.: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1990), for a discussion of the work of mid-nineteenth century public health epidemiologists Lemmuel Shattuck in Boston and John Griscom in New York City, whose findings were similar to Chadwick's.
10. Edwin Chadwick, an English epidemiologist documented that in England the average age of death for gentry was thirty-six, for tradesmen, was twenty-two, and for laborers was sixteen. See The Committee for the Study of the Future of Public Health, Division of Health Sciences Institute of Medicine, The Future of Public Health (Washington, D.C.: National Academy, 1988). See also Richard A. Meckel, Save the Babies: American Public Health Reform and the Prevention of Infant Mortality 1850-1929 (Baltimore, Md.: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1990), for a discussion of the work of mid-nineteenth century public health epidemiologists Lemmuel Shattuck in Boston and John Griscom in New York City, whose findings were similar to Chadwick's.
11. Irvine Loudon, Death in Childbirth: An International Study of Maternal Care and Maternal Mortality 1800-1950 (Oxford: Clarenden, 1992).
12. On maternal mortality, see Loudon, Death in Childbirth; Neal Devitt, "The Statistical Case for the Elimination of the Midwife: Fact vs. Prejudice, 1890-1935," parts 1 and 2, Women and Health 4, no. 1 (1979): 81-96 (hereafter cited as WH); WH 4, no. 2 (1979): 169-87 ; U.S. Bureau of the Census, Historical Statistics of the Unites States Colonial Times to 1957 (Washington, D. C.: U. S. Government Printing Office, 1961); Edward P. Davis, "The Lives of Mothers and Children: How can We Save Them?," The Public Health Nurse Quarterly 9, no. 3 (1917): 246-52 (hereafter cited as PHNQ); Grace L. Meigs, Maternal Mortality for All Conditions Connected With Childbirth, United States Department of Labor Children's Bureau Publication, no. 19 (Washington, D. C.: Government Printing Office, 1917); reprinted by Litoff, The American Midwife Debate; Two public health nurses, Carolyn Conant van Blarcom prior to 1911 and Mary Beard in 1924, were funded by Foundations to study why maternity care in Europe had better maternal and infant outcomes. Both published on the education and skill of European midwives, and Blarcom was educated as a nurse-midwife. See Vern Bullough, "Carolyn Conant van Blarcom, 1879-1960" Vern Bullough, Olga Maranjian, & Alice P. Stein, eds., American Nursing: A Biographical Dictionary (New York: Garland, 1988), 327-28; Karen Buhler-Wilkerson, "Mary Beard, 1876-1946" A Biographical Dictionary, 19-22; Van Blarcom's and Beards writings are discussed later in this paper.
13. On maternal mortality, see Loudon, Death in Childbirth; Neal Devitt, "The Statistical Case for the Elimination of the Midwife: Fact vs. Prejudice, 1890-1935," parts 1 and 2, Women and Health 4, no. 1 (1979): 81-96 (hereafter cited as WH); WH 4, no. 2 (1979): 169-87 ; U.S. Bureau of the Census, Historical Statistics of the Unites States Colonial Times to 1957 (Washington, D. C.: U. S. Government Printing Office, 1961); Edward P. Davis, "The Lives of Mothers and Children: How can We Save Them?," The Public Health Nurse Quarterly 9, no. 3 (1917): 246-52 (hereafter cited as PHNQ); Grace L. Meigs, Maternal Mortality for All Conditions Connected With Childbirth, United States Department of Labor Children's Bureau Publication, no. 19 (Washington, D. C.: Government Printing Office, 1917); reprinted by Litoff, The American Midwife Debate; Two public health nurses, Carolyn Conant van Blarcom prior to 1911 and Mary Beard in 1924, were funded by Foundations to study why maternity care in Europe had better maternal and infant outcomes. Both published on the education and skill of European midwives, and Blarcom was educated as a nurse-midwife. See Vern Bullough, "Carolyn Conant van Blarcom, 1879-1960" Vern Bullough, Olga Maranjian, & Alice P. Stein, eds., American Nursing: A Biographical Dictionary (New York: Garland, 1988), 327-28; Karen Buhler-Wilkerson, "Mary Beard, 1876-1946" A Biographical Dictionary, 19-22; Van Blarcom's and Beards writings are discussed later in this paper.
14. On maternal mortality, see Loudon, Death in Childbirth; Neal Devitt, "The Statistical Case for the Elimination of the Midwife: Fact vs. Prejudice, 1890-1935," parts 1 and 2, Women and Health 4, no. 1 (1979): 81-96 (hereafter cited as WH); WH 4, no. 2 (1979): 169-87 ; U.S. Bureau of the Census, Historical Statistics of the Unites States Colonial Times to 1957 (Washington, D. C.: U. S. Government Printing Office, 1961); Edward P. Davis, "The Lives of Mothers and Children: How can We Save Them?," The Public Health Nurse Quarterly 9, no. 3 (1917): 246-52 (hereafter cited as PHNQ); Grace L. Meigs, Maternal Mortality for All Conditions Connected With Childbirth, United States Department of Labor Children's Bureau Publication, no. 19 (Washington, D. C.: Government Printing Office, 1917); reprinted by Litoff, The American Midwife Debate; Two public health nurses, Carolyn Conant van Blarcom prior to 1911 and Mary Beard in 1924, were funded by Foundations to study why maternity care in Europe had better maternal and infant outcomes. Both published on the education and skill of European midwives, and Blarcom was educated as a nurse-midwife. See Vern Bullough, "Carolyn Conant van Blarcom, 1879-1960" Vern Bullough, Olga Maranjian, & Alice P. Stein, eds., American Nursing: A Biographical Dictionary (New York: Garland, 1988), 327-28; Karen Buhler-Wilkerson, "Mary Beard, 1876-1946" A Biographical Dictionary, 19-22; Van Blarcom's and Beards writings are discussed later in this paper.
15. On maternal mortality, see Loudon, Death in Childbirth; Neal Devitt, "The Statistical Case for the Elimination of the Midwife: Fact vs. Prejudice, 1890-1935," parts 1 and 2, Women and Health 4, no. 1 (1979): 81-96 (hereafter cited as WH); WH 4, no. 2 (1979): 169-87 ; U.S. Bureau of the Census, Historical Statistics of the Unites States Colonial Times to 1957 (Washington, D. C.: U. S. Government Printing Office, 1961); Edward P. Davis, "The Lives of Mothers and Children: How can We Save Them?," The Public Health Nurse Quarterly 9, no. 3 (1917): 246-52 (hereafter cited as PHNQ); Grace L. Meigs, Maternal Mortality for All Conditions Connected With Childbirth, United States Department of Labor Children's Bureau Publication, no. 19 (Washington, D. C.: Government Printing Office, 1917); reprinted by Litoff, The American Midwife Debate; Two public health nurses, Carolyn Conant van Blarcom prior to 1911 and Mary Beard in 1924, were funded by Foundations to study why maternity care in Europe had better maternal and infant outcomes. Both published on the education and skill of European midwives, and Blarcom was educated as a nurse-midwife. See Vern Bullough, "Carolyn Conant van Blarcom, 1879-1960" Vern Bullough, Olga Maranjian, & Alice P. Stein, eds., American Nursing: A Biographical Dictionary (New York: Garland, 1988), 327-28; Karen Buhler-Wilkerson, "Mary Beard, 1876-1946" A Biographical Dictionary, 19-22; Van Blarcom's and Beards writings are discussed later in this paper.
16. On maternal mortality, see Loudon, Death in Childbirth; Neal Devitt, "The Statistical Case for the Elimination of the Midwife: Fact vs. Prejudice, 1890-1935," parts 1 and 2, Women and Health 4, no. 1 (1979): 81-96 (hereafter cited as WH); WH 4, no. 2 (1979): 169-87 ; U.S. Bureau of the Census, Historical Statistics of the Unites States Colonial Times to 1957 (Washington, D. C.: U. S. Government Printing Office, 1961); Edward P. Davis, "The Lives of Mothers and Children: How can We Save Them?," The Public Health Nurse Quarterly 9, no. 3 (1917): 246-52 (hereafter cited as PHNQ); Grace L. Meigs, Maternal Mortality for All Conditions Connected With Childbirth, United States Department of Labor Children's Bureau Publication, no. 19 (Washington, D. C.: Government Printing Office, 1917); reprinted by Litoff, The American Midwife Debate; Two public health nurses, Carolyn Conant van Blarcom prior to 1911 and Mary Beard in 1924, were funded by Foundations to study why maternity care in Europe had better maternal and infant outcomes. Both published on the education and skill of European midwives, and Blarcom was educated as a nurse-midwife. See Vern Bullough, "Carolyn Conant van Blarcom, 1879-1960" Vern Bullough, Olga Maranjian, & Alice P. Stein, eds., American Nursing: A Biographical Dictionary (New York: Garland, 1988), 327-28; Karen Buhler-Wilkerson, "Mary Beard, 1876-1946" A Biographical Dictionary, 19-22; Van Blarcom's and Beards writings are discussed later in this paper.
17. On maternal mortality, see Loudon, Death in Childbirth; Neal Devitt, "The Statistical Case for the Elimination of the Midwife: Fact vs. Prejudice, 1890-1935," parts 1 and 2, Women and Health 4, no. 1 (1979): 81-96 (hereafter cited as WH); WH 4, no. 2 (1979): 169-87 ; U.S. Bureau of the Census, Historical Statistics of the Unites States Colonial Times to 1957 (Washington, D. C.: U. S. Government Printing Office, 1961); Edward P. Davis, "The Lives of Mothers and Children: How can We Save Them?," The Public Health Nurse Quarterly 9, no. 3 (1917): 246-52 (hereafter cited as PHNQ); Grace L. Meigs, Maternal Mortality for All Conditions Connected With Childbirth, United States Department of Labor Children's Bureau Publication, no. 19 (Washington, D. C.: Government Printing Office, 1917); reprinted by Litoff, The American Midwife Debate; Two public health nurses, Carolyn Conant van Blarcom prior to 1911 and Mary Beard in 1924, were funded by Foundations to study why maternity care in Europe had better maternal and infant outcomes. Both published on the education and skill of European midwives, and Blarcom was educated as a nurse-midwife. See Vern Bullough, "Carolyn Conant van Blarcom, 1879-1960" Vern Bullough, Olga Maranjian, & Alice P. Stein, eds., American Nursing: A Biographical Dictionary (New York: Garland, 1988), 327-28; Karen Buhler-Wilkerson, "Mary Beard, 1876-1946" A Biographical Dictionary, 19-22; Van Blarcom's and Beards writings are discussed later in this paper.
18. On maternal mortality, see Loudon, Death in Childbirth; Neal Devitt, "The Statistical Case for the Elimination of the Midwife: Fact vs. Prejudice, 1890-1935," parts 1 and 2, Women and Health 4, no. 1 (1979): 81-96 (hereafter cited as WH); WH 4, no. 2 (1979): 169-87 ; U.S. Bureau of the Census, Historical Statistics of the Unites States Colonial Times to 1957 (Washington, D. C.: U. S. Government Printing Office, 1961); Edward P. Davis, "The Lives of Mothers and Children: How can We Save Them?," The Public Health Nurse Quarterly 9, no. 3 (1917): 246-52 (hereafter cited as PHNQ); Grace L. Meigs, Maternal Mortality for All Conditions Connected With Childbirth, United States Department of Labor Children's Bureau Publication, no. 19 (Washington, D. C.: Government Printing Office, 1917); reprinted by Litoff, The American Midwife Debate; Two public health nurses, Carolyn Conant van Blarcom prior to 1911 and Mary Beard in 1924, were funded by Foundations to study why maternity care in Europe had better maternal and infant outcomes. Both published on the education and skill of European midwives, and Blarcom was educated as a nurse-midwife. See Vern Bullough, "Carolyn Conant van Blarcom, 1879-1960" Vern Bullough, Olga Maranjian, & Alice P. Stein, eds., American Nursing: A Biographical Dictionary (New York: Garland, 1988), 327-28; Karen Buhler-Wilkerson, "Mary Beard, 1876-1946" A Biographical Dictionary, 19-22; Van Blarcom's and Beards writings are discussed later in this paper.
19. On maternal mortality, see Loudon, Death in Childbirth; Neal Devitt, "The Statistical Case for the Elimination of the Midwife: Fact vs. Prejudice, 1890-1935," parts 1 and 2, Women and Health 4, no. 1 (1979): 81-96 (hereafter cited as WH); WH 4, no. 2 (1979): 169-87 ; U.S. Bureau of the Census, Historical Statistics of the Unites States Colonial Times to 1957 (Washington, D. C.: U. S. Government Printing Office, 1961); Edward P. Davis, "The Lives of Mothers and Children: How can We Save Them?," The Public Health Nurse Quarterly 9, no. 3 (1917): 246-52 (hereafter cited as PHNQ); Grace L. Meigs, Maternal Mortality for All Conditions Connected With Childbirth, United States Department of Labor Children's Bureau Publication, no. 19 (Washington, D. C.: Government Printing Office, 1917); reprinted by Litoff, The American Midwife Debate; Two public health nurses, Carolyn Conant van Blarcom prior to 1911 and Mary Beard in 1924, were funded by Foundations to study why maternity care in Europe had better maternal and infant outcomes. Both published on the education and skill of European midwives, and Blarcom was educated as a nurse-midwife. See Vern Bullough, "Carolyn Conant van Blarcom, 1879-1960" Vern Bullough, Olga Maranjian, & Alice P. Stein, eds., American Nursing: A Biographical Dictionary (New York: Garland, 1988), 327-28; Karen Buhler-Wilkerson, "Mary Beard, 1876-1946" A Biographical Dictionary, 19-22; Van Blarcom's and Beards writings are discussed later in this paper.
20. On maternal mortality, see Loudon, Death in Childbirth; Neal Devitt, "The Statistical Case for the Elimination of the Midwife: Fact vs. Prejudice, 1890-1935," parts 1 and 2, Women and Health 4, no. 1 (1979): 81-96 (hereafter cited as WH); WH 4, no. 2 (1979): 169-87 ; U.S. Bureau of the Census, Historical Statistics of the Unites States Colonial Times to 1957 (Washington, D. C.: U. S. Government Printing Office, 1961); Edward P. Davis, "The Lives of Mothers and Children: How can We Save Them?," The Public Health Nurse Quarterly 9, no. 3 (1917): 246-52 (hereafter cited as PHNQ); Grace L. Meigs, Maternal Mortality for All Conditions Connected With Childbirth, United States Department of Labor Children's Bureau Publication, no. 19 (Washington, D. C.: Government Printing Office, 1917); reprinted by Litoff, The American Midwife Debate; Two public health nurses, Carolyn Conant van Blarcom prior to 1911 and Mary Beard in 1924, were funded by Foundations to study why maternity care in Europe had better maternal and infant outcomes. Both published on the education and skill of European midwives, and Blarcom was educated as a nurse-midwife. See Vern Bullough, "Carolyn Conant van Blarcom, 1879-1960" Vern Bullough, Olga Maranjian, & Alice P. Stein, eds., American Nursing: A Biographical Dictionary (New York: Garland, 1988), 327-28; Karen Buhler-Wilkerson, "Mary Beard, 1876-1946" A Biographical Dictionary, 19-22; Van Blarcom's and Beards writings are discussed later in this paper.
21. Devitt, "The Statistical Case," part 2, p < 0.005 for all births at home in 1921; Julius Levy, "Maternal Mortality and Mortality in the First Month of Life in Relation to Attendant at Birth," American Journal of Public Health 13, no. 2 (1923): 88-95 (hereafter cited as AJPH).
22. Devitt, "The Statistical Case," part 2, p < 0.005 for all births at home in 1921; Julius Levy, "Maternal Mortality and Mortality in the First Month of Life in Relation to Attendant at Birth," American Journal of Public Health 13, no. 2 (1923): 88-95 (hereafter cited as AJPH).
23. Devitt, "The Statistical Case," part 2, p > < 0.0005 for all comparisons; Julius Levy, "Maternal Mortality," 88-95. Levy shows that midwife maternal mortality rate is 22/10,000 live births and physician maternal mortality rate is 87/10,000 live births in Newark in 1921. He also shows that maternal mortality in Philadelphia, 1914-1930, was 8.5/10,000 for midwives and 74.6/10,000; for physicians, and the maternal mortality rate among African American women in Alabama, Kentucky, and Virginia, 1927-1928, was 51/10,000 for midwives and 111/10,000 for physicians.
24. Devitt, "The Statistical Case," part 2, p > < 0.0005 for all comparisons; Julius Levy, "Maternal Mortality," 88-95. Levy shows that midwife maternal mortality rate is 22/10,000 live births and physician maternal mortality rate is 87/10,000 live births in Newark in 1921. He also shows that maternal mortality in Philadelphia, 1914-1930, was 8.5/10,000 for midwives and 74.6/10,000; for physicians, and the maternal mortality rate among African American women in Alabama, Kentucky, and Virginia, 1927-1928, was 51/10,000 for midwives and 111/10,000 for physicians.
25. Charles R. King, "The New York Maternal Mortality Study: A Conflict of Professionalization," BHM 65 (1991): 476-502; Devitt, "The Statistical Case," part 2, 169-86; Joyce Antler and Daniel M. Fox, "The Movement Toward a Safe Maternity: Physician Accountability in New York City, 1915-1940," BHM 50 (1976): 569-95; Levy, "Maternal Morality."
26. Charles R. King, "The New York Maternal Mortality Study: A Conflict of Professionalization," BHM 65 (1991): 476-502; Devitt, "The Statistical Case," part 2, 169-86; Joyce Antler and Daniel M. Fox, "The Movement Toward a Safe Maternity: Physician Accountability in New York City, 1915-1940," BHM 50 (1976): 569-95; Levy, "Maternal Morality."
27. Charles R. King, "The New York Maternal Mortality Study: A Conflict of Professionalization," BHM 65 (1991): 476-502; Devitt, "The Statistical Case," part 2, 169-86; Joyce Antler and Daniel M. Fox, "The Movement Toward a Safe Maternity: Physician Accountability in New York City, 1915-1940," BHM 50 (1976): 569-95; Levy, "Maternal Morality."
28. Charles R. King, "The New York Maternal Mortality Study: A Conflict of Professionalization," BHM 65 (1991): 476-502; Devitt, "The Statistical Case," part 2, 169-86; Joyce Antler and Daniel M. Fox, "The Movement Toward a Safe Maternity: Physician Accountability in New York City, 1915-1940," BHM 50 (1976): 569-95; Levy, "Maternal Morality."
29. For information on infant mortality in the first decade of the twentieth century see United States Bureau of the Census, Historical Statistics of the United States Colonial Times to 1957 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1960); Julia C. Lathrop, "Income and Infant Mortality," AJPH 9, no. 4 (1919): 270-74; and the papers and discussions in American Association for Study and Prevention of Infant Mortality: Transactions of the First Annual Meeting 1910 (Baltimore, Md.: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1910) (hereafter cited as AASPIM 1910), especially Catalogue of Exhibits "Extent of Infant Mortality" AASPIM 1910, Plate 10; Joseph Neff, "A City's Duty in the Prevention of Infant Mortality," AASPIM 1910, 153-61; Herman Schwartz, "Nursing Statistics Derived From the Study of the Infancy of 1,500 Children, and a Contribution to the Cause of Summer Infant Mortality" AASPIM 1910; Cressy L. Wilbur, "Report of the Committee in the Registration of Births," AASPIM 1910, 207-14.
30. For information on infant mortality in the first decade of the twentieth century see United States Bureau of the Census, Historical Statistics of the United States Colonial Times to 1957 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1960); Julia C. Lathrop, "Income and Infant Mortality," AJPH 9, no. 4 (1919): 270-74; and the papers and discussions in American Association for Study and Prevention of Infant Mortality: Transactions of the First Annual Meeting 1910 (Baltimore, Md.: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1910) (hereafter cited as AASPIM 1910), especially Catalogue of Exhibits "Extent of Infant Mortality" AASPIM 1910, Plate 10; Joseph Neff, "A City's Duty in the Prevention of Infant Mortality," AASPIM 1910, 153-61; Herman Schwartz, "Nursing Statistics Derived From the Study of the Infancy of 1,500 Children, and a Contribution to the Cause of Summer Infant Mortality" AASPIM 1910; Cressy L. Wilbur, "Report of the Committee in the Registration of Births," AASPIM 1910, 207-14.
31. For information on infant mortality in the first decade of the twentieth century see United States Bureau of the Census, Historical Statistics of the United States Colonial Times to 1957 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1960); Julia C. Lathrop, "Income and Infant Mortality," AJPH 9, no. 4 (1919): 270-74; and the papers and discussions in American Association for Study and Prevention of Infant Mortality: Transactions of the First Annual Meeting 1910 (Baltimore, Md.: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1910) (hereafter cited as AASPIM 1910), especially Catalogue of Exhibits "Extent of Infant Mortality" AASPIM 1910, Plate 10; Joseph Neff, "A City's Duty in the Prevention of Infant Mortality," AASPIM 1910, 153-61; Herman Schwartz, "Nursing Statistics Derived From the Study of the Infancy of 1,500 Children, and a Contribution to the Cause of Summer Infant Mortality" AASPIM 1910; Cressy L. Wilbur, "Report of the Committee in the Registration of Births," AASPIM 1910, 207-14.
32. For information on infant mortality in the first decade of the twentieth century see United States Bureau of the Census, Historical Statistics of the United States Colonial Times to 1957 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1960); Julia C. Lathrop, "Income and Infant Mortality," AJPH 9, no. 4 (1919): 270-74; and the papers and discussions in American Association for Study and Prevention of Infant Mortality: Transactions of the First Annual Meeting 1910 (Baltimore, Md.: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1910) (hereafter cited as AASPIM 1910), especially Catalogue of Exhibits "Extent of Infant Mortality" AASPIM 1910, Plate 10; Joseph Neff, "A City's Duty in the Prevention of Infant Mortality," AASPIM 1910, 153-61; Herman Schwartz, "Nursing Statistics Derived From the Study of the Infancy of 1,500 Children, and a Contribution to the Cause of Summer Infant Mortality" AASPIM 1910; Cressy L. Wilbur, "Report of the Committee in the Registration of Births," AASPIM 1910, 207-14.
33. For information on infant mortality in the first decade of the twentieth century see United States Bureau of the Census, Historical Statistics of the United States Colonial Times to 1957 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1960); Julia C. Lathrop, "Income and Infant Mortality," AJPH 9, no. 4 (1919): 270-74; and the papers and discussions in American Association for Study and Prevention of Infant Mortality: Transactions of the First Annual Meeting 1910 (Baltimore, Md.: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1910) (hereafter cited as AASPIM 1910), especially Catalogue of Exhibits "Extent of Infant Mortality" AASPIM 1910, Plate 10; Joseph Neff, "A City's Duty in the Prevention of Infant Mortality," AASPIM 1910, 153-61; Herman Schwartz, "Nursing Statistics Derived From the Study of the Infancy of 1,500 Children, and a Contribution to the Cause of Summer Infant Mortality" AASPIM 1910; Cressy L. Wilbur, "Report of the Committee in the Registration of Births," AASPIM 1910, 207-14.
34. For information on infant mortality in the first decade of the twentieth century see United States Bureau of the Census, Historical Statistics of the United States Colonial Times to 1957 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1960); Julia C. Lathrop, "Income and Infant Mortality," AJPH 9, no. 4 (1919): 270-74; and the papers and discussions in American Association for Study and Prevention of Infant Mortality: Transactions of the First Annual Meeting 1910 (Baltimore, Md.: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1910) (hereafter cited as AASPIM 1910), especially Catalogue of Exhibits "Extent of Infant Mortality" AASPIM 1910, Plate 10; Joseph Neff, "A City's Duty in the Prevention of Infant Mortality," AASPIM 1910, 153-61; Herman Schwartz, "Nursing Statistics Derived From the Study of the Infancy of 1,500 Children, and a Contribution to the Cause of Summer Infant Mortality" AASPIM 1910; Cressy L. Wilbur, "Report of the Committee in the Registration of Births," AASPIM 1910, 207-14.
35. For information on infant mortality in the first decade of the twentieth century see United States Bureau of the Census, Historical Statistics of the United States Colonial Times to 1957 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1960); Julia C. Lathrop, "Income and Infant Mortality," AJPH 9, no. 4 (1919): 270-74; and the papers and discussions in American Association for Study and Prevention of Infant Mortality: Transactions of the First Annual Meeting 1910 (Baltimore, Md.: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1910) (hereafter cited as AASPIM 1910), especially Catalogue of Exhibits "Extent of Infant Mortality" AASPIM 1910, Plate 10; Joseph Neff, "A City's Duty in the Prevention of Infant Mortality," AASPIM 1910, 153-61; Herman Schwartz, "Nursing Statistics Derived From the Study of the Infancy of 1,500 Children, and a Contribution to the Cause of Summer Infant Mortality" AASPIM 1910; Cressy L. Wilbur, "Report of the Committee in the Registration of Births," AASPIM 1910, 207-14.
36. See Carole A. Estabrooks, "Lavinia Lloyd Dock: The Henry Street Years," Nursing History Review 3 (1995): 143-72 (hereafter cited as NHR); Katherine Kish Sklar, Florence Kelly and the Nations Work: The Rise of Women's Political Culture, 1830-1900 (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1995); Molly Ladd-Taylor, "Hull House Goes to Washington: Women and the Children's Bureau," in Gender, Class, Race and Reform in the Progressive Era, ed. Noralee Frankel & Nancy S. Dye, (Lexington, Ky.: The University Press of Kentucky, 1991), 110-26; Karen Buhler-Wilkerson, False Dawn: The Rise and Decline of Public Health Nursing, 1900-1930 (New York: Garland, 1989) for a discussion of the extensive network and support systems of the reformers and the work of Florence Kelly. Also see Jane Addams, My Friend Julia Lathrop (New York: Macmillan, 1935); Jane Addams, The Second Twenty Years at Hull House, 1909 to September 1929, With a Record of a Growing World Consciousness (New York: Macmillan, 1930); Lillian Wald, The House on Henry Street (New York: H. Holt, 1915); Jane Addams, Twenty Years at Hull House, With Autobiographical Notes (New York: Macmillan, 1910) for the perspective of two social reformers.
37. See Carole A. Estabrooks, "Lavinia Lloyd Dock: The Henry Street Years," Nursing History Review 3 (1995): 143-72 (hereafter cited as NHR); Katherine Kish Sklar, Florence Kelly and the Nations Work: The Rise of Women's Political Culture, 1830-1900 (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1995); Molly Ladd-Taylor, "Hull House Goes to Washington: Women and the Children's Bureau," in Gender, Class, Race and Reform in the Progressive Era, ed. Noralee Frankel & Nancy S. Dye, (Lexington, Ky.: The University Press of Kentucky, 1991), 110-26; Karen Buhler-Wilkerson, False Dawn: The Rise and Decline of Public Health Nursing, 1900-1930 (New York: Garland, 1989) for a discussion of the extensive network and support systems of the reformers and the work of Florence Kelly. Also see Jane Addams, My Friend Julia Lathrop (New York: Macmillan, 1935); Jane Addams, The Second Twenty Years at Hull House, 1909 to September 1929, With a Record of a Growing World Consciousness (New York: Macmillan, 1930); Lillian Wald, The House on Henry Street (New York: H. Holt, 1915); Jane Addams, Twenty Years at Hull House, With Autobiographical Notes (New York: Macmillan, 1910) for the perspective of two social reformers.
38. See Carole A. Estabrooks, "Lavinia Lloyd Dock: The Henry Street Years," Nursing History Review 3 (1995): 143-72 (hereafter cited as NHR); Katherine Kish Sklar, Florence Kelly and the Nations Work: The Rise of Women's Political Culture, 1830-1900 (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1995); Molly Ladd-Taylor, "Hull House Goes to Washington: Women and the Children's Bureau," in Gender, Class, Race and Reform in the Progressive Era, ed. Noralee Frankel & Nancy S. Dye, (Lexington, Ky.: The University Press of Kentucky, 1991), 110-26; Karen Buhler-Wilkerson, False Dawn: The Rise and Decline of Public Health Nursing, 1900-1930 (New York: Garland, 1989) for a discussion of the extensive network and support systems of the reformers and the work of Florence Kelly. Also see Jane Addams, My Friend Julia Lathrop (New York: Macmillan, 1935); Jane Addams, The Second Twenty Years at Hull House, 1909 to September 1929, With a Record of a Growing World Consciousness (New York: Macmillan, 1930); Lillian Wald, The House on Henry Street (New York: H. Holt, 1915); Jane Addams, Twenty Years at Hull House, With Autobiographical Notes (New York: Macmillan, 1910) for the perspective of two social reformers.
39. See Carole A. Estabrooks, "Lavinia Lloyd Dock: The Henry Street Years," Nursing History Review 3 (1995): 143-72 (hereafter cited as NHR); Katherine Kish Sklar, Florence Kelly and the Nations Work: The Rise of Women's Political Culture, 1830-1900 (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1995); Molly Ladd-Taylor, "Hull House Goes to Washington: Women and the Children's Bureau," in Gender, Class, Race and Reform in the Progressive Era, ed. Noralee Frankel & Nancy S. Dye, (Lexington, Ky.: The University Press of Kentucky, 1991), 110-26; Karen Buhler-Wilkerson, False Dawn: The Rise and Decline of Public Health Nursing, 1900-1930 (New York: Garland, 1989) for a discussion of the extensive network and support systems of the reformers and the work of Florence Kelly. Also see Jane Addams, My Friend Julia Lathrop (New York: Macmillan, 1935); Jane Addams, The Second Twenty Years at Hull House, 1909 to September 1929, With a Record of a Growing World Consciousness (New York: Macmillan, 1930); Lillian Wald, The House on Henry Street (New York: H. Holt, 1915); Jane Addams, Twenty Years at Hull House, With Autobiographical Notes (New York: Macmillan, 1910) for the perspective of two social reformers.
40. See Carole A. Estabrooks, "Lavinia Lloyd Dock: The Henry Street Years," Nursing History Review 3 (1995): 143-72 (hereafter cited as NHR); Katherine Kish Sklar, Florence Kelly and the Nations Work: The Rise of Women's Political Culture, 1830-1900 (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1995); Molly Ladd-Taylor, "Hull House Goes to Washington: Women and the Children's Bureau," in Gender, Class, Race and Reform in the Progressive Era, ed. Noralee Frankel & Nancy S. Dye, (Lexington, Ky.: The University Press of Kentucky, 1991), 110-26; Karen Buhler-Wilkerson, False Dawn: The Rise and Decline of Public Health Nursing, 1900-1930 (New York: Garland, 1989) for a discussion of the extensive network and support systems of the reformers and the work of Florence Kelly. Also see Jane Addams, My Friend Julia Lathrop (New York: Macmillan, 1935); Jane Addams, The Second Twenty Years at Hull House, 1909 to September 1929, With a Record of a Growing World Consciousness (New York: Macmillan, 1930); Lillian Wald, The House on Henry Street (New York: H. Holt, 1915); Jane Addams, Twenty Years at Hull House, With Autobiographical Notes (New York: Macmillan, 1910) for the perspective of two social reformers.
41. See Carole A. Estabrooks, "Lavinia Lloyd Dock: The Henry Street Years," Nursing History Review 3 (1995): 143-72 (hereafter cited as NHR); Katherine Kish Sklar, Florence Kelly and the Nations Work: The Rise of Women's Political Culture, 1830-1900 (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1995); Molly Ladd-Taylor, "Hull House Goes to Washington: Women and the Children's Bureau," in Gender, Class, Race and Reform in the Progressive Era, ed. Noralee Frankel & Nancy S. Dye, (Lexington, Ky.: The University Press of Kentucky, 1991), 110-26; Karen Buhler-Wilkerson, False Dawn: The Rise and Decline of Public Health Nursing, 1900-1930 (New York: Garland, 1989) for a discussion of the extensive network and support systems of the reformers and the work of Florence Kelly. Also see Jane Addams, My Friend Julia Lathrop (New York: Macmillan, 1935); Jane Addams, The Second Twenty Years at Hull House, 1909 to September 1929, With a Record of a Growing World Consciousness (New York: Macmillan, 1930); Lillian Wald, The House on Henry Street (New York: H. Holt, 1915); Jane Addams, Twenty Years at Hull House, With Autobiographical Notes (New York: Macmillan, 1910) for the perspective of two social reformers.
42. See Carole A. Estabrooks, "Lavinia Lloyd Dock: The Henry Street Years," Nursing History Review 3 (1995): 143-72 (hereafter cited as NHR); Katherine Kish Sklar, Florence Kelly and the Nations Work: The Rise of Women's Political Culture, 1830-1900 (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1995); Molly Ladd-Taylor, "Hull House Goes to Washington: Women and the Children's Bureau," in Gender, Class, Race and Reform in the Progressive Era, ed. Noralee Frankel & Nancy S. Dye, (Lexington, Ky.: The University Press of Kentucky, 1991), 110-26; Karen Buhler-Wilkerson, False Dawn: The Rise and Decline of Public Health Nursing, 1900-1930 (New York: Garland, 1989) for a discussion of the extensive network and support systems of the reformers and the work of Florence Kelly. Also see Jane Addams, My Friend Julia Lathrop (New York: Macmillan, 1935); Jane Addams, The Second Twenty Years at Hull House, 1909 to September 1929, With a Record of a Growing World Consciousness (New York: Macmillan, 1930); Lillian Wald, The House on Henry Street (New York: H. Holt, 1915); Jane Addams, Twenty Years at Hull House, With Autobiographical Notes (New York: Macmillan, 1910) for the perspective of two social reformers.
43. See Carole A. Estabrooks, "Lavinia Lloyd Dock: The Henry Street Years," Nursing History Review 3 (1995): 143-72 (hereafter cited as NHR); Katherine Kish Sklar, Florence Kelly and the Nations Work: The Rise of Women's Political Culture, 1830-1900 (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1995); Molly Ladd-Taylor, "Hull House Goes to Washington: Women and the Children's Bureau," in Gender, Class, Race and Reform in the Progressive Era, ed. Noralee Frankel & Nancy S. Dye, (Lexington, Ky.: The University Press of Kentucky, 1991), 110-26; Karen Buhler-Wilkerson, False Dawn: The Rise and Decline of Public Health Nursing, 1900-1930 (New York: Garland, 1989) for a discussion of the extensive network and support systems of the reformers and the work of Florence Kelly. Also see Jane Addams, My Friend Julia Lathrop (New York: Macmillan, 1935); Jane Addams, The Second Twenty Years at Hull House, 1909 to September 1929, With a Record of a Growing World Consciousness (New York: Macmillan, 1930); Lillian Wald, The House on Henry Street (New York: H. Holt, 1915); Jane Addams, Twenty Years at Hull House, With Autobiographical Notes (New York: Macmillan, 1910) for the perspective of two social reformers.
44. See the reports in American Association for the Study and Prevention of Infant Mortality: Transactions of the Second Annual Meeting 1911 (Baltimore, Md.: The Franklin Printing Company, 1912), especially the reports from the sections on Eugenics, Midwifery, and Nursing and Social Work. See J. W. Williams, "The Midwife Problem and Medical Education in the United States,": AASPIM 1911, 165-94; American Association for the Study and Prevention of Infant Mortality: Transactions of the Third Annual Meeting 1912 (Baltimore, Md.: The Franklin Printing Company, 1913) (hereafter cited as AASPIM 1912) , and report from the "Section on Nursing and Social Work," AASPIM 1911, 285 for Putnam's resolution. See Joseph B. De Lee, "Progress Toward Ideal Obstetrics," American Association for the Study and Prevention of Infant Mortality: Transactions of the Sixth Annual Meeting 1915 (Baltimore, Md.: The Franklin Printing Company, 1916), 114-23 (hereafter cited as AASPIM 1915); reprinted by Litoff, The American Midwife Debate, 102-9.
45. See the reports in American Association for the Study and Prevention of Infant Mortality: Transactions of the Second Annual Meeting 1911 (Baltimore, Md.: The Franklin Printing Company, 1912), especially the reports from the sections on Eugenics, Midwifery, and Nursing and Social Work. See J. W. Williams, "The Midwife Problem and Medical Education in the United States,": AASPIM 1911, 165-94; American Association for the Study and Prevention of Infant Mortality: Transactions of the Third Annual Meeting 1912 (Baltimore, Md.: The Franklin Printing Company, 1913) (hereafter cited as AASPIM 1912) , and report from the "Section on Nursing and Social Work," AASPIM 1911, 285 for Putnam's resolution. See Joseph B. De Lee, "Progress Toward Ideal Obstetrics," American Association for the Study and Prevention of Infant Mortality: Transactions of the Sixth Annual Meeting 1915 (Baltimore, Md.: The Franklin Printing Company, 1916), 114-23 (hereafter cited as AASPIM 1915); reprinted by Litoff, The American Midwife Debate, 102-9.
46. See the reports in American Association for the Study and Prevention of Infant Mortality: Transactions of the Second Annual Meeting 1911 (Baltimore, Md.: The Franklin Printing Company, 1912), especially the reports from the sections on Eugenics, Midwifery, and Nursing and Social Work. See J. W. Williams, "The Midwife Problem and Medical Education in the United States,": AASPIM 1911, 165-94; American Association for the Study and Prevention of Infant Mortality: Transactions of the Third Annual Meeting 1912 (Baltimore, Md.: The Franklin Printing Company, 1913) (hereafter cited as AASPIM 1912) , and report from the "Section on Nursing and Social Work," AASPIM 1911, 285 for Putnam's resolution. See Joseph B. De Lee, "Progress Toward Ideal Obstetrics," American Association for the Study and Prevention of Infant Mortality: Transactions of the Sixth Annual Meeting 1915 (Baltimore, Md.: The Franklin Printing Company, 1916), 114-23 (hereafter cited as AASPIM 1915); reprinted by Litoff, The American Midwife Debate, 102-9.
47. See the reports in American Association for the Study and Prevention of Infant Mortality: Transactions of the Second Annual Meeting 1911 (Baltimore, Md.: The Franklin Printing Company, 1912), especially the reports from the sections on Eugenics, Midwifery, and Nursing and Social Work. See J. W. Williams, "The Midwife Problem and Medical Education in the United States,": AASPIM 1911, 165-94; American Association for the Study and Prevention of Infant Mortality: Transactions of the Third Annual Meeting 1912 (Baltimore, Md.: The Franklin Printing Company, 1913) (hereafter cited as AASPIM 1912) , and report from the "Section on Nursing and Social Work," AASPIM 1911, 285 for Putnam's resolution. See Joseph B. De Lee, "Progress Toward Ideal Obstetrics," American Association for the Study and Prevention of Infant Mortality: Transactions of the Sixth Annual Meeting 1915 (Baltimore, Md.: The Franklin Printing Company, 1916), 114-23 (hereafter cited as AASPIM 1915); reprinted by Litoff, The American Midwife Debate, 102-9.
48. See the reports in American Association for the Study and Prevention of Infant Mortality: Transactions of the Second Annual Meeting 1911 (Baltimore, Md.: The Franklin Printing Company, 1912), especially the reports from the sections on Eugenics, Midwifery, and Nursing and Social Work. See J. W. Williams, "The Midwife Problem and Medical Education in the United States,": AASPIM 1911, 165-94; American Association for the Study and Prevention of Infant Mortality: Transactions of the Third Annual Meeting 1912 (Baltimore, Md.: The Franklin Printing Company, 1913) (hereafter cited as AASPIM 1912) , and report from the "Section on Nursing and Social Work," AASPIM 1911, 285 for Putnam's resolution. See Joseph B. De Lee, "Progress Toward Ideal Obstetrics," American Association for the Study and Prevention of Infant Mortality: Transactions of the Sixth Annual Meeting 1915 (Baltimore, Md.: The Franklin Printing Company, 1916), 114-23 (hereafter cited as AASPIM 1915); reprinted by Litoff, The American Midwife Debate, 102-9.
49. See the reports in American Association for the Study and Prevention of Infant Mortality: Transactions of the Second Annual Meeting 1911 (Baltimore, Md.: The Franklin Printing Company, 1912), especially the reports from the sections on Eugenics, Midwifery, and Nursing and Social Work. See J. W. Williams, "The Midwife Problem and Medical Education in the United States,": AASPIM 1911, 165-94; American Association for the Study and Prevention of Infant Mortality: Transactions of the Third Annual Meeting 1912 (Baltimore, Md.: The Franklin Printing Company, 1913) (hereafter cited as AASPIM 1912) , and report from the "Section on Nursing and Social Work," AASPIM 1911, 285 for Putnam's resolution. See Joseph B. De Lee, "Progress Toward Ideal Obstetrics," American Association for the Study and Prevention of Infant Mortality: Transactions of the Sixth Annual Meeting 1915 (Baltimore, Md.: The Franklin Printing Company, 1916), 114-23 (hereafter cited as AASPIM 1915); reprinted by Litoff, The American Midwife Debate, 102-9.
50. See Judith Walzer Leavitt, Brought to Bed: Childbearing in America 1750 to 1950 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1986); Richard W. Wertz and Dorothy C. Wertz, Lying-In: A History of Childbirth in America (New York: The Free Press, 1972); and Linda Vanderwerff Walsh, "'A Special Vocation' - Philadelphia Midwives, 1910-1940" (Ph.D. diss., University of Pennsylvania, 1992) for discussions of this transition.
51. See Judith Walzer Leavitt, Brought to Bed: Childbearing in America 1750 to 1950 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1986); Richard W. Wertz and Dorothy C. Wertz, Lying-In: A History of Childbirth in America (New York: The Free Press, 1972); and Linda Vanderwerff Walsh, "'A Special Vocation' - Philadelphia Midwives, 1910-1940" (Ph.D. diss., University of Pennsylvania, 1992) for discussions of this transition.
52. See Judith Walzer Leavitt, Brought to Bed: Childbearing in America 1750 to 1950 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1986); Richard W. Wertz and Dorothy C. Wertz, Lying-In: A History of Childbirth in America (New York: The Free Press, 1972); and Linda Vanderwerff Walsh, "'A Special Vocation' - Philadelphia Midwives, 1910-1940" (Ph.D. diss., University of Pennsylvania, 1992) for discussions of this transition.
53. For discussion of meddlesome midwifery, see Lee K. Frankel, "The Present Status of Maternal and Infant Hygiene in the United States," AJPH 17, no. 12 (1927): 1209-20; R. W. Holmes, "The Fads and Fancies of Obstetrics: A Comment of the Pseudo Scientific Trend in Modern Obstetrics," American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology 2, no. 3 (1921): 255-237 (hereafter cited as AJOBG).
54. For discussion of meddlesome midwifery, see Lee K. Frankel, "The Present Status of Maternal and Infant Hygiene in the United States," AJPH 17, no. 12 (1927): 1209-20; R. W. Holmes, "The Fads and Fancies of Obstetrics: A Comment of the Pseudo Scientific Trend in Modern Obstetrics," American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology 2, no. 3 (1921): 255-237 (hereafter cited as AJOBG).
55. Paul Starr, The Social Transformation of American Medicine (New York: Basic Books, 1982); J. W. Williams, "The Midwife Problem and Medical Education in the United States," AASPIM 1912, 166, 165-94.
56. Paul Starr, The Social Transformation of American Medicine (New York: Basic Books, 1982); J. W. Williams, "The Midwife Problem and Medical Education in the United States," AASPIM 1912, 166, 165-94.
57. See L. C. Chesley, Hypertension in Pregnancy (New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1978); J. C. W. Lever, "Causes of Puerperal Convulsions with Remarks," Guys Hospital Reports, Second Series, 1 (1843): 495-517; and H. W. Cook and J. B. Brigs, "Clinical Observations on Blood Pressure," Johns Hopkins Hospital Reports 3 (1903): 489-91 for a discussion about the understanding of and recommended care for eclampsia from the Greeks to the mid-twentieth century.
58. See L. C. Chesley, Hypertension in Pregnancy (New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1978); J. C. W. Lever, "Causes of Puerperal Convulsions with Remarks," Guys Hospital Reports, Second Series, 1 (1843): 495-517; and H. W. Cook and J. B. Brigs, "Clinical Observations on Blood Pressure," Johns Hopkins Hospital Reports 3 (1903): 489-91 for a discussion about the understanding of and recommended care for eclampsia from the Greeks to the mid-twentieth century.
59. See L. C. Chesley, Hypertension in Pregnancy (New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1978); J. C. W. Lever, "Causes of Puerperal Convulsions with Remarks," Guys Hospital Reports, Second Series, 1 (1843): 495-517; and H. W. Cook and J. B. Brigs, "Clinical Observations on Blood Pressure," Johns Hopkins Hospital Reports 3 (1903): 489-91 for a discussion about the understanding of and recommended care for eclampsia from the Greeks to the mid-twentieth century.
60. E. B. Sinclair and B. G. Johnson, Practical Midwifery: Comprising an Account of 13,748 Consecutive Deliveries Which Occurredin the Dublin Lying-in Hospital Duringa Period of Seven Years Commencing November 1847 (London: Churchill, 1903).
61. From the Last Will and Testament of Jonas Preston, quoted in an address by Eli K. Price at the laying of the cornerstone of Preston Retreat in 1837, case C, shelf 1, vault: Preston Retreat Miscellaneous Papers box 1 of 2, Historical Archives at Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pa.; Second Annual Report of the Visiting Nurse Society of Philadelphia (Philadelphia: Press of George H. Buchanan, 1888): 12-13, MC 5 box 1, book 1, Center for the Study of Nursing History Archives, University of Pennsylvania School of Nursing, Philadelphia, Pa.
62. See annual reports of the Visiting Nurse Society of Philadelphia for the years 1888-1899 MC 5, box 1, book 1, Center for the Study of Nursing History Archives, University of Pennsylvania School of Nursing, Philadelphia, Pa.
63. For a discussion of the role of Mrs. Lowell Putnam and J. W. Williams' acceptance of prenatal care by physicians, see Lawrence D. Longo and Christina M. Thomsen, "Prenatal Care and Its Evolution in Americas," in Childbirth: The Beginning of Motherhood, Proceedings of the Second Motherhood Sympositim of the Women's Studies Research Center (Madison, Wisc.: Women's Studies Research Center, 1981), 29-70. Also see J. W. Williams, Obstetrics: A Textbook for the Use of Students and Practitioners, 1st-5th ed. (New York: D. Appleton, 1903, 1908, 1912, 1917, 1923); J. W. Williams, "The Significance of Syphilis in Prenatal Care and in the Causation of Fetal Death," Bulletin Johns Hopkins Hospital 31 (1920): 141-45, cited in Longo and Thomsen, "Prenatal Care"; the presidential address of J. W. Williams to the American Association for Study and Prevention of Infant Mortality, "The Limitations and Possibilities of Prenatal care Based Upon the Study of 705 Foetal [sic] Deaths Occurring in 10,000 Consecutive Admissions to the Obstetrical Department of the Johns Hopkins Hospital," in American Association for the Study and Prevention of Infant Mortality: Transactions of the Fifth Annual Meeting 1914 (Baltimore, Md.: The Franklin Printing Company, 1916), 32-48 (hereafter cited as AASPIM 1914).
64. For a discussion of the role of Mrs. Lowell Putnam and J. W. Williams' acceptance of prenatal care by physicians, see Lawrence D. Longo and Christina M. Thomsen, "Prenatal Care and Its Evolution in Americas," in Childbirth: The Beginning of Motherhood, Proceedings of the Second Motherhood Sympositim of the Women's Studies Research Center (Madison, Wisc.: Women's Studies Research Center, 1981), 29-70. Also see J. W. Williams, Obstetrics: A Textbook for the Use of Students and Practitioners, 1st-5th ed. (New York: D. Appleton, 1903, 1908, 1912, 1917, 1923); J. W. Williams, "The Significance of Syphilis in Prenatal Care and in the Causation of Fetal Death," Bulletin Johns Hopkins Hospital 31 (1920): 141-45, cited in Longo and Thomsen, "Prenatal Care"; the presidential address of J. W. Williams to the American Association for Study and Prevention of Infant Mortality, "The Limitations and Possibilities of Prenatal care Based Upon the Study of 705 Foetal [sic] Deaths Occurring in 10,000 Consecutive Admissions to the Obstetrical Department of the Johns Hopkins Hospital," in American Association for the Study and Prevention of Infant Mortality: Transactions of the Fifth Annual Meeting 1914 (Baltimore, Md.: The Franklin Printing Company, 1916), 32-48 (hereafter cited as AASPIM 1914).
65. For a discussion of the role of Mrs. Lowell Putnam and J. W. Williams' acceptance of prenatal care by physicians, see Lawrence D. Longo and Christina M. Thomsen, "Prenatal Care and Its Evolution in Americas," in Childbirth: The Beginning of Motherhood, Proceedings of the Second Motherhood Sympositim of the Women's Studies Research Center (Madison, Wisc.: Women's Studies Research Center, 1981), 29-70. Also see J. W. Williams, Obstetrics: A Textbook for the Use of Students and Practitioners, 1st-5th ed. (New York: D. Appleton, 1903, 1908, 1912, 1917, 1923); J. W. Williams, "The Significance of Syphilis in Prenatal Care and in the Causation of Fetal Death," Bulletin Johns Hopkins Hospital 31 (1920): 141-45, cited in Longo and Thomsen, "Prenatal Care"; the presidential address of J. W. Williams to the American Association for Study and Prevention of Infant Mortality, "The Limitations and Possibilities of Prenatal care Based Upon the Study of 705 Foetal [sic] Deaths Occurring in 10,000 Consecutive Admissions to the Obstetrical Department of the Johns Hopkins Hospital," in American Association for the Study and Prevention of Infant Mortality: Transactions of the Fifth Annual Meeting 1914 (Baltimore, Md.: The Franklin Printing Company, 1916), 32-48 (hereafter cited as AASPIM 1914).
66. For a discussion of the role of Mrs. Lowell Putnam and J. W. Williams' acceptance of prenatal care by physicians, see Lawrence D. Longo and Christina M. Thomsen, "Prenatal Care and Its Evolution in Americas," in Childbirth: The Beginning of Motherhood, Proceedings of the Second Motherhood Sympositim of the Women's Studies Research Center (Madison, Wisc.: Women's Studies Research Center, 1981), 29-70. Also see J. W. Williams, Obstetrics: A Textbook for the Use of Students and Practitioners, 1st-5th ed. (New York: D. Appleton, 1903, 1908, 1912, 1917, 1923); J. W. Williams, "The Significance of Syphilis in Prenatal Care and in the Causation of Fetal Death," Bulletin Johns Hopkins Hospital 31 (1920): 141-45, cited in Longo and Thomsen, "Prenatal Care"; the presidential address of J. W. Williams to the American Association for Study and Prevention of Infant Mortality, "The Limitations and Possibilities of Prenatal care Based Upon the Study of 705 Foetal [sic] Deaths Occurring in 10,000 Consecutive Admissions to the Obstetrical Department of the Johns Hopkins Hospital," in American Association for the Study and Prevention of Infant Mortality: Transactions of the Fifth Annual Meeting 1914 (Baltimore, Md.: The Franklin Printing Company, 1916), 32-48 (hereafter cited as AASPIM 1914).
67. For a discussion of the role of Mrs. Lowell Putnam and J. W. Williams' acceptance of prenatal care by physicians, see Lawrence D. Longo and Christina M. Thomsen, "Prenatal Care and Its Evolution in Americas," in Childbirth: The Beginning of Motherhood, Proceedings of the Second Motherhood Sympositim of the Women's Studies Research Center (Madison, Wisc.: Women's Studies Research Center, 1981), 29-70. Also see J. W. Williams, Obstetrics: A Textbook for the Use of Students and Practitioners, 1st-5th ed. (New York: D. Appleton, 1903, 1908, 1912, 1917, 1923); J. W. Williams, "The Significance of Syphilis in Prenatal Care and in the Causation of Fetal Death," Bulletin Johns Hopkins Hospital 31 (1920): 141-45, cited in Longo and Thomsen, "Prenatal Care"; the presidential address of J. W. Williams to the American Association for Study and Prevention of Infant Mortality, "The Limitations and Possibilities of Prenatal care Based Upon the Study of 705 Foetal [sic] Deaths Occurring in 10,000 Consecutive Admissions to the Obstetrical Department of the Johns Hopkins Hospital," in American Association for the Study and Prevention of Infant Mortality: Transactions of the Fifth Annual Meeting 1914 (Baltimore, Md.: The Franklin Printing Company, 1916), 32-48 (hereafter cited as AASPIM 1914).
68. Joyce E. Thompson, Linda V. Walsh, and Irwin R. Merkatz, "The History of Prenatal Care Cultural, Social, and Medical Contexts," in New Perspectives on Prenatal Care, ed. Irwin R. Merkatz, et al. (New York: Elsevier, 1990), 9-30; Longo and Thomsen, "Prenatal Care"; Children's Bureau, Prenatal Care (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Governmment Printing Office, 1930); Children's Bureau, Standards of Prenatal Care: An Outline for the Use of Physicians (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1925); Mrs. Max West, "The Development of Prenatal Care in the United States," AASPIM 1914, 69-108.
69. Joyce E. Thompson, Linda V. Walsh, and Irwin R. Merkatz, "The History of Prenatal Care Cultural, Social, and Medical Contexts," in New Perspectives on Prenatal Care, ed. Irwin R. Merkatz, et al. (New York: Elsevier, 1990), 9-30; Longo and Thomsen, "Prenatal Care"; Children's Bureau, Prenatal Care (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Governmment Printing Office, 1930); Children's Bureau, Standards of Prenatal Care: An Outline for the Use of Physicians (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1925); Mrs. Max West, "The Development of Prenatal Care in the United States," AASPIM 1914, 69-108.
70. Joyce E. Thompson, Linda V. Walsh, and Irwin R. Merkatz, "The History of Prenatal Care Cultural, Social, and Medical Contexts," in New Perspectives on Prenatal Care, ed. Irwin R. Merkatz, et al. (New York: Elsevier, 1990), 9-30; Longo and Thomsen, "Prenatal Care"; Children's Bureau, Prenatal Care (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Governmment Printing Office, 1930); Children's Bureau, Standards of Prenatal Care: An Outline for the Use of Physicians (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1925); Mrs. Max West, "The Development of Prenatal Care in the United States," AASPIM 1914, 69-108.
71. Joyce E. Thompson, Linda V. Walsh, and Irwin R. Merkatz, "The History of Prenatal Care Cultural, Social, and Medical Contexts," in New Perspectives on Prenatal Care, ed. Irwin R. Merkatz, et al. (New York: Elsevier, 1990), 9-30; Longo and Thomsen, "Prenatal Care"; Children's Bureau, Prenatal Care (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Governmment Printing Office, 1930); Children's Bureau, Standards of Prenatal Care: An Outline for the Use of Physicians (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1925); Mrs. Max West, "The Development of Prenatal Care in the United States," AASPIM 1914, 69-108.
72. Joyce E. Thompson, Linda V. Walsh, and Irwin R. Merkatz, "The History of Prenatal Care Cultural, Social, and Medical Contexts," in New Perspectives on Prenatal Care, ed. Irwin R. Merkatz, et al. (New York: Elsevier, 1990), 9-30; Longo and Thomsen, "Prenatal Care"; Children's Bureau, Prenatal Care (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Governmment Printing Office, 1930); Children's Bureau, Standards of Prenatal Care: An Outline for the Use of Physicians (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1925); Mrs. Max West, "The Development of Prenatal Care in the United States," AASPIM 1914, 69-108.
73. See Karen Buhler-Wilkerson, "'Home Nursing for the People': The Philadelphia Story - 1866-1990," (unpublished article, photocopy provided by the author, May 1990); Thompson et al., "History of Prenatal Care"; NOPHN, "A New Maternity Record," Public Health Nurse 21, no. 7, (1929): 390-91 (hereafter cites as PHN); Hazel Corbin, "Additional Suggestions for Prenatal Nursing," PHN 15, no. 15 (1923): 412-17; Bertha E. Irons, "Pre-Natal Nursing," PHN 12, no. 6 (1920): 594-601; Clara Taylor, "A Study of a Year's Prenatal Work in Connection With the Washington University Dispensary," PHN 4, no. 10 (1917): 335-46; Mary Beard, "Prenatal Nursing," PHN 3, no. 7 (1915): 13-24.
74. See Karen Buhler-Wilkerson, "'Home Nursing for the People': The Philadelphia Story - 1866-1990," (unpublished article, photocopy provided by the author, May 1990); Thompson et al., "History of Prenatal Care"; NOPHN, "A New Maternity Record," Public Health Nurse 21, no. 7, (1929): 390-91 (hereafter cites as PHN); Hazel Corbin, "Additional Suggestions for Prenatal Nursing," PHN 15, no. 15 (1923): 412-17; Bertha E. Irons, "Pre-Natal Nursing," PHN 12, no. 6 (1920): 594-601; Clara Taylor, "A Study of a Year's Prenatal Work in Connection With the Washington University Dispensary," PHN 4, no. 10 (1917): 335-46; Mary Beard, "Prenatal Nursing," PHN 3, no. 7 (1915): 13-24.
75. See Karen Buhler-Wilkerson, "'Home Nursing for the People': The Philadelphia Story - 1866-1990," (unpublished article, photocopy provided by the author, May 1990); Thompson et al., "History of Prenatal Care"; NOPHN, "A New Maternity Record," Public Health Nurse 21, no. 7, (1929): 390-91 (hereafter cites as PHN); Hazel Corbin, "Additional Suggestions for Prenatal Nursing," PHN 15, no. 15 (1923): 412-17; Bertha E. Irons, "Pre-Natal Nursing," PHN 12, no. 6 (1920): 594-601; Clara Taylor, "A Study of a Year's Prenatal Work in Connection With the Washington University Dispensary," PHN 4, no. 10 (1917): 335-46; Mary Beard, "Prenatal Nursing," PHN 3, no. 7 (1915): 13-24.
76. See Karen Buhler-Wilkerson, "'Home Nursing for the People': The Philadelphia Story - 1866-1990," (unpublished article, photocopy provided by the author, May 1990); Thompson et al., "History of Prenatal Care"; NOPHN, "A New Maternity Record," Public Health Nurse 21, no. 7, (1929): 390-91 (hereafter cites as PHN); Hazel Corbin, "Additional Suggestions for Prenatal Nursing," PHN 15, no. 15 (1923): 412-17; Bertha E. Irons, "Pre-Natal Nursing," PHN 12, no. 6 (1920): 594-601; Clara Taylor, "A Study of a Year's Prenatal Work in Connection With the Washington University Dispensary," PHN 4, no. 10 (1917): 335-46; Mary Beard, "Prenatal Nursing," PHN 3, no. 7 (1915): 13-24.
77. See Karen Buhler-Wilkerson, "'Home Nursing for the People': The Philadelphia Story - 1866-1990," (unpublished article, photocopy provided by the author, May 1990); Thompson et al., "History of Prenatal Care"; NOPHN, "A New Maternity Record," Public Health Nurse 21, no. 7, (1929): 390-91 (hereafter cites as PHN); Hazel Corbin, "Additional Suggestions for Prenatal Nursing," PHN 15, no. 15 (1923): 412-17; Bertha E. Irons, "Pre-Natal Nursing," PHN 12, no. 6 (1920): 594-601; Clara Taylor, "A Study of a Year's Prenatal Work in Connection With the Washington University Dispensary," PHN 4, no. 10 (1917): 335-46; Mary Beard, "Prenatal Nursing," PHN 3, no. 7 (1915): 13-24.
78. See Karen Buhler-Wilkerson, "'Home Nursing for the People': The Philadelphia Story - 1866-1990," (unpublished article, photocopy provided by the author, May 1990); Thompson et al., "History of Prenatal Care"; NOPHN, "A New Maternity Record," Public Health Nurse 21, no. 7, (1929): 390-91 (hereafter cites as PHN); Hazel Corbin, "Additional Suggestions for Prenatal Nursing," PHN 15, no. 15 (1923): 412-17; Bertha E. Irons, "Pre-Natal Nursing," PHN 12, no. 6 (1920): 594-601; Clara Taylor, "A Study of a Year's Prenatal Work in Connection With the Washington University Dispensary," PHN 4, no. 10 (1917): 335-46; Mary Beard, "Prenatal Nursing," PHN 3, no. 7 (1915): 13-24.
79. See Karen Buhler-Wilkerson, "'Home Nursing for the People': The Philadelphia Story - 1866-1990," (unpublished article, photocopy provided by the author, May 1990); Thompson et al., "History of Prenatal Care"; NOPHN, "A New Maternity Record," Public Health Nurse 21, no. 7, (1929): 390-91 (hereafter cites as PHN); Hazel Corbin, "Additional Suggestions for Prenatal Nursing," PHN 15, no. 15 (1923): 412-17; Bertha E. Irons, "Pre-Natal Nursing," PHN 12, no. 6 (1920): 594-601; Clara Taylor, "A Study of a Year's Prenatal Work in Connection With the Washington University Dispensary," PHN 4, no. 10 (1917): 335-46; Mary Beard, "Prenatal Nursing," PHN 3, no. 7 (1915): 13-24.
80. See NOPHN, "A New Maternity Record," 390-91; Helen Albano Windham, "Approach of the Nurse to the Doctor in Relation to Prenatal Work," PHN 21, no. 12 (1929): 625-29; Helen Chesly Peck, "Suggestions for Prenatal Nursing," PHN 15, no. 7 (1923): 334-39; "Editorial 1," PHNQ 7, no. 3 (1915): 7-8; Ralph W. Lobenstine, "Practical Means of Reducing Maternal Mortality," AJPH 7, no. 1 (1922): 39-44; Beard, "Prenatal Nursing."
81. See NOPHN, "A New Maternity Record," 390-91; Helen Albano Windham, "Approach of the Nurse to the Doctor in Relation to Prenatal Work," PHN 21, no. 12 (1929): 625-29; Helen Chesly Peck, "Suggestions for Prenatal Nursing," PHN 15, no. 7 (1923): 334-39; "Editorial 1," PHNQ 7, no. 3 (1915): 7-8; Ralph W. Lobenstine, "Practical Means of Reducing Maternal Mortality," AJPH 7, no. 1 (1922): 39-44; Beard, "Prenatal Nursing."
82. See NOPHN, "A New Maternity Record," 390-91; Helen Albano Windham, "Approach of the Nurse to the Doctor in Relation to Prenatal Work," PHN 21, no. 12 (1929): 625-29; Helen Chesly Peck, "Suggestions for Prenatal Nursing," PHN 15, no. 7 (1923): 334-39; "Editorial 1," PHNQ 7, no. 3 (1915): 7-8; Ralph W. Lobenstine, "Practical Means of Reducing Maternal Mortality," AJPH 7, no. 1 (1922): 39-44; Beard, "Prenatal Nursing."
83. See NOPHN, "A New Maternity Record," 390-91; Helen Albano Windham, "Approach of the Nurse to the Doctor in Relation to Prenatal Work," PHN 21, no. 12 (1929): 625-29; Helen Chesly Peck, "Suggestions for Prenatal Nursing," PHN 15, no. 7 (1923): 334-39; "Editorial 1," PHNQ 7, no. 3 (1915): 7-8; Ralph W. Lobenstine, "Practical Means of Reducing Maternal Mortality," AJPH 7, no. 1 (1922): 39-44; Beard, "Prenatal Nursing."
84. See NOPHN, "A New Maternity Record," 390-91; Helen Albano Windham, "Approach of the Nurse to the Doctor in Relation to Prenatal Work," PHN 21, no. 12 (1929): 625-29; Helen Chesly Peck, "Suggestions for Prenatal Nursing," PHN 15, no. 7 (1923): 334-39; "Editorial 1," PHNQ 7, no. 3 (1915): 7-8; Ralph W. Lobenstine, "Practical Means of Reducing Maternal Mortality," AJPH 7, no. 1 (1922): 39-44; Beard, "Prenatal Nursing."
85. See NOPHN, "A New Maternity Record," 390-91; Helen Albano Windham, "Approach of the Nurse to the Doctor in Relation to Prenatal Work," PHN 21, no. 12 (1929): 625-29; Helen Chesly Peck, "Suggestions for Prenatal Nursing," PHN 15, no. 7 (1923): 334-39; "Editorial 1," PHNQ 7, no. 3 (1915): 7-8; Ralph W. Lobenstine, "Practical Means of Reducing Maternal Mortality," AJPH 7, no. 1 (1922): 39-44; Beard, "Prenatal Nursing."
86. Articles in The American Journal of Nursing (hereafter cited as AJN) and The Trained Nurse and Hospital Review (hereafter cited as TNHR) referred to "obstetrical nursing" when discussing education or the work of the private duty nurse. Annie E. Hutchinson, "Obstetrical Nursing in Private Practice," TNHR 40, no. 5 (1908): 301-7; Elizabeth Fishback, "Obstetrical Nursing as a Specialty," AJN 14, no. 10 (1914): 806-11; Bessie C. Connelly, "Obstetrical Work in the District," PHNQ 8, no. 3 (1916): 90-93; Anna Koch, "Maternity Nursing as Part of a Public Health Nursing Program," PHN 15, no. 9 (1918): 497-500; Anne Stevens, "The Public Health Nurse and the Extension of Maternity Nursing," PHN 12, no. 6 (1920): 497-501; Stevens, "Notes on Maternity Nursing in New Orleans," PHN 12, no. 6 (1920): 119-22; Elizabeth Ross, "Can a Satisfactory Maternity Service be Carried on As Part of a General Public Health Program?," PHN 15, no. 9 (1923): 471-75; Mary V. Pagaud, "The Maternity Service of the New Orleans Child Welfare Association," PHN 15, no. 11 (1923): 565-69; Dorothy Deming, "The Delivery Program of the Henry Street Visiting Nurse Service," PHN 15, no. 12 (1923): 617-18; Miriam A. Ames, "The Maternity Service of the Community Health Association, Boston," PHN 16, no. 2 (1924): 75-79; Carrie M. Hall, "Training the Obstetrical Nurse," AJN 28, no. 5 (1927): 373-79; Marguerite A. Wales, "Round Table on Delivery Service," PHN 20, no. 12 (1928): 626-29; "Piloting a Delivery Service," PHN 20, no. 2 (1928): 91-92; Cathlena A. Cooper, "Organizing a Delivery Service," PHN 21, no. 12 (1929): 631-33; Helen E. Bond, "Maternity Program of the Health Center and the City Health Department, Savannah, Georgia," PHN 21, no. 12 (1929): 642-44.
87. Articles in The American Journal of Nursing (hereafter cited as AJN) and The Trained Nurse and Hospital Review (hereafter cited as TNHR) referred to "obstetrical nursing" when discussing education or the work of the private duty nurse. Annie E. Hutchinson, "Obstetrical Nursing in Private Practice," TNHR 40, no. 5 (1908): 301-7; Elizabeth Fishback, "Obstetrical Nursing as a Specialty," AJN 14, no. 10 (1914): 806-11; Bessie C. Connelly, "Obstetrical Work in the District," PHNQ 8, no. 3 (1916): 90-93; Anna Koch, "Maternity Nursing as Part of a Public Health Nursing Program," PHN 15, no. 9 (1918): 497-500; Anne Stevens, "The Public Health Nurse and the Extension of Maternity Nursing," PHN 12, no. 6 (1920): 497-501; Stevens, "Notes on Maternity Nursing in New Orleans," PHN 12, no. 6 (1920): 119-22; Elizabeth Ross, "Can a Satisfactory Maternity Service be Carried on As Part of a General Public Health Program?," PHN 15, no. 9 (1923): 471-75; Mary V. Pagaud, "The Maternity Service of the New Orleans Child Welfare Association," PHN 15, no. 11 (1923): 565-69; Dorothy Deming, "The Delivery Program of the Henry Street Visiting Nurse Service," PHN 15, no. 12 (1923): 617-18; Miriam A. Ames, "The Maternity Service of the Community Health Association, Boston," PHN 16, no. 2 (1924): 75-79; Carrie M. Hall, "Training the Obstetrical Nurse," AJN 28, no. 5 (1927): 373-79; Marguerite A. Wales, "Round Table on Delivery Service," PHN 20, no. 12 (1928): 626-29; "Piloting a Delivery Service," PHN 20, no. 2 (1928): 91-92; Cathlena A. Cooper, "Organizing a Delivery Service," PHN 21, no. 12 (1929): 631-33; Helen E. Bond, "Maternity Program of the Health Center and the City Health Department, Savannah, Georgia," PHN 21, no. 12 (1929): 642-44.
88. Articles in The American Journal of Nursing (hereafter cited as AJN) and The Trained Nurse and Hospital Review (hereafter cited as TNHR) referred to "obstetrical nursing" when discussing education or the work of the private duty nurse. Annie E. Hutchinson, "Obstetrical Nursing in Private Practice," TNHR 40, no. 5 (1908): 301-7; Elizabeth Fishback, "Obstetrical Nursing as a Specialty," AJN 14, no. 10 (1914): 806-11; Bessie C. Connelly, "Obstetrical Work in the District," PHNQ 8, no. 3 (1916): 90-93; Anna Koch, "Maternity Nursing as Part of a Public Health Nursing Program," PHN 15, no. 9 (1918): 497-500; Anne Stevens, "The Public Health Nurse and the Extension of Maternity Nursing," PHN 12, no. 6 (1920): 497-501; Stevens, "Notes on Maternity Nursing in New Orleans," PHN 12, no. 6 (1920): 119-22; Elizabeth Ross, "Can a Satisfactory Maternity Service be Carried on As Part of a General Public Health Program?," PHN 15, no. 9 (1923): 471-75; Mary V. Pagaud, "The Maternity Service of the New Orleans Child Welfare Association," PHN 15, no. 11 (1923): 565-69; Dorothy Deming, "The Delivery Program of the Henry Street Visiting Nurse Service," PHN 15, no. 12 (1923): 617-18; Miriam A. Ames, "The Maternity Service of the Community Health Association, Boston," PHN 16, no. 2 (1924): 75-79; Carrie M. Hall, "Training the Obstetrical Nurse," AJN 28, no. 5 (1927): 373-79; Marguerite A. Wales, "Round Table on Delivery Service," PHN 20, no. 12 (1928): 626-29; "Piloting a Delivery Service," PHN 20, no. 2 (1928): 91-92; Cathlena A. Cooper, "Organizing a Delivery Service," PHN 21, no. 12 (1929): 631-33; Helen E. Bond, "Maternity Program of the Health Center and the City Health Department, Savannah, Georgia," PHN 21, no. 12 (1929): 642-44.
89. Articles in The American Journal of Nursing (hereafter cited as AJN) and The Trained Nurse and Hospital Review (hereafter cited as TNHR) referred to "obstetrical nursing" when discussing education or the work of the private duty nurse. Annie E. Hutchinson, "Obstetrical Nursing in Private Practice," TNHR 40, no. 5 (1908): 301-7; Elizabeth Fishback, "Obstetrical Nursing as a Specialty," AJN 14, no. 10 (1914): 806-11; Bessie C. Connelly, "Obstetrical Work in the District," PHNQ 8, no. 3 (1916): 90-93; Anna Koch, "Maternity Nursing as Part of a Public Health Nursing Program," PHN 15, no. 9 (1918): 497-500; Anne Stevens, "The Public Health Nurse and the Extension of Maternity Nursing," PHN 12, no. 6 (1920): 497-501; Stevens, "Notes on Maternity Nursing in New Orleans," PHN 12, no. 6 (1920): 119-22; Elizabeth Ross, "Can a Satisfactory Maternity Service be Carried on As Part of a General Public Health Program?," PHN 15, no. 9 (1923): 471-75; Mary V. Pagaud, "The Maternity Service of the New Orleans Child Welfare Association," PHN 15, no. 11 (1923): 565-69; Dorothy Deming, "The Delivery Program of the Henry Street Visiting Nurse Service," PHN 15, no. 12 (1923): 617-18; Miriam A. Ames, "The Maternity Service of the Community Health Association, Boston," PHN 16, no. 2 (1924): 75-79; Carrie M. Hall, "Training the Obstetrical Nurse," AJN 28, no. 5 (1927): 373-79; Marguerite A. Wales, "Round Table on Delivery Service," PHN 20, no. 12 (1928): 626-29; "Piloting a Delivery Service," PHN 20, no. 2 (1928): 91-92; Cathlena A. Cooper, "Organizing a Delivery Service," PHN 21, no. 12 (1929): 631-33; Helen E. Bond, "Maternity Program of the Health Center and the City Health Department, Savannah, Georgia," PHN 21, no. 12 (1929): 642-44.
90. Articles in The American Journal of Nursing (hereafter cited as AJN) and The Trained Nurse and Hospital Review (hereafter cited as TNHR) referred to "obstetrical nursing" when discussing education or the work of the private duty nurse. Annie E. Hutchinson, "Obstetrical Nursing in Private Practice," TNHR 40, no. 5 (1908): 301-7; Elizabeth Fishback, "Obstetrical Nursing as a Specialty," AJN 14, no. 10 (1914): 806-11; Bessie C. Connelly, "Obstetrical Work in the District," PHNQ 8, no. 3 (1916): 90-93; Anna Koch, "Maternity Nursing as Part of a Public Health Nursing Program," PHN 15, no. 9 (1918): 497-500; Anne Stevens, "The Public Health Nurse and the Extension of Maternity Nursing," PHN 12, no. 6 (1920): 497-501; Stevens, "Notes on Maternity Nursing in New Orleans," PHN 12, no. 6 (1920): 119-22; Elizabeth Ross, "Can a Satisfactory Maternity Service be Carried on As Part of a General Public Health Program?," PHN 15, no. 9 (1923): 471-75; Mary V. Pagaud, "The Maternity Service of the New Orleans Child Welfare Association," PHN 15, no. 11 (1923): 565-69; Dorothy Deming, "The Delivery Program of the Henry Street Visiting Nurse Service," PHN 15, no. 12 (1923): 617-18; Miriam A. Ames, "The Maternity Service of the Community Health Association, Boston," PHN 16, no. 2 (1924): 75-79; Carrie M. Hall, "Training the Obstetrical Nurse," AJN 28, no. 5 (1927): 373-79; Marguerite A. Wales, "Round Table on Delivery Service," PHN 20, no. 12 (1928): 626-29; "Piloting a Delivery Service," PHN 20, no. 2 (1928): 91-92; Cathlena A. Cooper, "Organizing a Delivery Service," PHN 21, no. 12 (1929): 631-33; Helen E. Bond, "Maternity Program of the Health Center and the City Health Department, Savannah, Georgia," PHN 21, no. 12 (1929): 642-44.
91. Articles in The American Journal of Nursing (hereafter cited as AJN) and The Trained Nurse and Hospital Review (hereafter cited as TNHR) referred to "obstetrical nursing" when discussing education or the work of the private duty nurse. Annie E. Hutchinson, "Obstetrical Nursing in Private Practice," TNHR 40, no. 5 (1908): 301-7; Elizabeth Fishback, "Obstetrical Nursing as a Specialty," AJN 14, no. 10 (1914): 806-11; Bessie C. Connelly, "Obstetrical Work in the District," PHNQ 8, no. 3 (1916): 90-93; Anna Koch, "Maternity Nursing as Part of a Public Health Nursing Program," PHN 15, no. 9 (1918): 497-500; Anne Stevens, "The Public Health Nurse and the Extension of Maternity Nursing," PHN 12, no. 6 (1920): 497-501; Stevens, "Notes on Maternity Nursing in New Orleans," PHN 12, no. 6 (1920): 119-22; Elizabeth Ross, "Can a Satisfactory Maternity Service be Carried on As Part of a General Public Health Program?," PHN 15, no. 9 (1923): 471-75; Mary V. Pagaud, "The Maternity Service of the New Orleans Child Welfare Association," PHN 15, no. 11 (1923): 565-69; Dorothy Deming, "The Delivery Program of the Henry Street Visiting Nurse Service," PHN 15, no. 12 (1923): 617-18; Miriam A. Ames, "The Maternity Service of the Community Health Association, Boston," PHN 16, no. 2 (1924): 75-79; Carrie M. Hall, "Training the Obstetrical Nurse," AJN 28, no. 5 (1927): 373-79; Marguerite A. Wales, "Round Table on Delivery Service," PHN 20, no. 12 (1928): 626-29; "Piloting a Delivery Service," PHN 20, no. 2 (1928): 91-92; Cathlena A. Cooper, "Organizing a Delivery Service," PHN 21, no. 12 (1929): 631-33; Helen E. Bond, "Maternity Program of the Health Center and the City Health Department, Savannah, Georgia," PHN 21, no. 12 (1929): 642-44.
92. Articles in The American Journal of Nursing (hereafter cited as AJN) and The Trained Nurse and Hospital Review (hereafter cited as TNHR) referred to "obstetrical nursing" when discussing education or the work of the private duty nurse. Annie E. Hutchinson, "Obstetrical Nursing in Private Practice," TNHR 40, no. 5 (1908): 301-7; Elizabeth Fishback, "Obstetrical Nursing as a Specialty," AJN 14, no. 10 (1914): 806-11; Bessie C. Connelly, "Obstetrical Work in the District," PHNQ 8, no. 3 (1916): 90-93; Anna Koch, "Maternity Nursing as Part of a Public Health Nursing Program," PHN 15, no. 9 (1918): 497-500; Anne Stevens, "The Public Health Nurse and the Extension of Maternity Nursing," PHN 12, no. 6 (1920): 497-501; Stevens, "Notes on Maternity Nursing in New Orleans," PHN 12, no. 6 (1920): 119-22; Elizabeth Ross, "Can a Satisfactory Maternity Service be Carried on As Part of a General Public Health Program?," PHN 15, no. 9 (1923): 471-75; Mary V. Pagaud, "The Maternity Service of the New Orleans Child Welfare Association," PHN 15, no. 11 (1923): 565-69; Dorothy Deming, "The Delivery Program of the Henry Street Visiting Nurse Service," PHN 15, no. 12 (1923): 617-18; Miriam A. Ames, "The Maternity Service of the Community Health Association, Boston," PHN 16, no. 2 (1924): 75-79; Carrie M. Hall, "Training the Obstetrical Nurse," AJN 28, no. 5 (1927): 373-79; Marguerite A. Wales, "Round Table on Delivery Service," PHN 20, no. 12 (1928): 626-29; "Piloting a Delivery Service," PHN 20, no. 2 (1928): 91-92; Cathlena A. Cooper, "Organizing a Delivery Service," PHN 21, no. 12 (1929): 631-33; Helen E. Bond, "Maternity Program of the Health Center and the City Health Department, Savannah, Georgia," PHN 21, no. 12 (1929): 642-44.
93. Articles in The American Journal of Nursing (hereafter cited as AJN) and The Trained Nurse and Hospital Review (hereafter cited as TNHR) referred to "obstetrical nursing" when discussing education or the work of the private duty nurse. Annie E. Hutchinson, "Obstetrical Nursing in Private Practice," TNHR 40, no. 5 (1908): 301-7; Elizabeth Fishback, "Obstetrical Nursing as a Specialty," AJN 14, no. 10 (1914): 806-11; Bessie C. Connelly, "Obstetrical Work in the District," PHNQ 8, no. 3 (1916): 90-93; Anna Koch, "Maternity Nursing as Part of a Public Health Nursing Program," PHN 15, no. 9 (1918): 497-500; Anne Stevens, "The Public Health Nurse and the Extension of Maternity Nursing," PHN 12, no. 6 (1920): 497-501; Stevens, "Notes on Maternity Nursing in New Orleans," PHN 12, no. 6 (1920): 119-22; Elizabeth Ross, "Can a Satisfactory Maternity Service be Carried on As Part of a General Public Health Program?," PHN 15, no. 9 (1923): 471-75; Mary V. Pagaud, "The Maternity Service of the New Orleans Child Welfare Association," PHN 15, no. 11 (1923): 565-69; Dorothy Deming, "The Delivery Program of the Henry Street Visiting Nurse Service," PHN 15, no. 12 (1923): 617-18; Miriam A. Ames, "The Maternity Service of the Community Health Association, Boston," PHN 16, no. 2 (1924): 75-79; Carrie M. Hall, "Training the Obstetrical Nurse," AJN 28, no. 5 (1927): 373-79; Marguerite A. Wales, "Round Table on Delivery Service," PHN 20, no. 12 (1928): 626-29; "Piloting a Delivery Service," PHN 20, no. 2 (1928): 91-92; Cathlena A. Cooper, "Organizing a Delivery Service," PHN 21, no. 12 (1929): 631-33; Helen E. Bond, "Maternity Program of the Health Center and the City Health Department, Savannah, Georgia," PHN 21, no. 12 (1929): 642-44.
94. Articles in The American Journal of Nursing (hereafter cited as AJN) and The Trained Nurse and Hospital Review (hereafter cited as TNHR) referred to "obstetrical nursing" when discussing education or the work of the private duty nurse. Annie E. Hutchinson, "Obstetrical Nursing in Private Practice," TNHR 40, no. 5 (1908): 301-7; Elizabeth Fishback, "Obstetrical Nursing as a Specialty," AJN 14, no. 10 (1914): 806-11; Bessie C. Connelly, "Obstetrical Work in the District," PHNQ 8, no. 3 (1916): 90-93; Anna Koch, "Maternity Nursing as Part of a Public Health Nursing Program," PHN 15, no. 9 (1918): 497-500; Anne Stevens, "The Public Health Nurse and the Extension of Maternity Nursing," PHN 12, no. 6 (1920): 497-501; Stevens, "Notes on Maternity Nursing in New Orleans," PHN 12, no. 6 (1920): 119-22; Elizabeth Ross, "Can a Satisfactory Maternity Service be Carried on As Part of a General Public Health Program?," PHN 15, no. 9 (1923): 471-75; Mary V. Pagaud, "The Maternity Service of the New Orleans Child Welfare Association," PHN 15, no. 11 (1923): 565-69; Dorothy Deming, "The Delivery Program of the Henry Street Visiting Nurse Service," PHN 15, no. 12 (1923): 617-18; Miriam A. Ames, "The Maternity Service of the Community Health Association, Boston," PHN 16, no. 2 (1924): 75-79; Carrie M. Hall, "Training the Obstetrical Nurse," AJN 28, no. 5 (1927): 373-79; Marguerite A. Wales, "Round Table on Delivery Service," PHN 20, no. 12 (1928): 626-29; "Piloting a Delivery Service," PHN 20, no. 2 (1928): 91-92; Cathlena A. Cooper, "Organizing a Delivery Service," PHN 21, no. 12 (1929): 631-33; Helen E. Bond, "Maternity Program of the Health Center and the City Health Department, Savannah, Georgia," PHN 21, no. 12 (1929): 642-44.
95. Articles in The American Journal of Nursing (hereafter cited as AJN) and The Trained Nurse and Hospital Review (hereafter cited as TNHR) referred to "obstetrical nursing" when discussing education or the work of the private duty nurse. Annie E. Hutchinson, "Obstetrical Nursing in Private Practice," TNHR 40, no. 5 (1908): 301-7; Elizabeth Fishback, "Obstetrical Nursing as a Specialty," AJN 14, no. 10 (1914): 806-11; Bessie C. Connelly, "Obstetrical Work in the District," PHNQ 8, no. 3 (1916): 90-93; Anna Koch, "Maternity Nursing as Part of a Public Health Nursing Program," PHN 15, no. 9 (1918): 497-500; Anne Stevens, "The Public Health Nurse and the Extension of Maternity Nursing," PHN 12, no. 6 (1920): 497-501; Stevens, "Notes on Maternity Nursing in New Orleans," PHN 12, no. 6 (1920): 119-22; Elizabeth Ross, "Can a Satisfactory Maternity Service be Carried on As Part of a General Public Health Program?," PHN 15, no. 9 (1923): 471-75; Mary V. Pagaud, "The Maternity Service of the New Orleans Child Welfare Association," PHN 15, no. 11 (1923): 565-69; Dorothy Deming, "The Delivery Program of the Henry Street Visiting Nurse Service," PHN 15, no. 12 (1923): 617-18; Miriam A. Ames, "The Maternity Service of the Community Health Association, Boston," PHN 16, no. 2 (1924): 75-79; Carrie M. Hall, "Training the Obstetrical Nurse," AJN 28, no. 5 (1927): 373-79; Marguerite A. Wales, "Round Table on Delivery Service," PHN 20, no. 12 (1928): 626-29; "Piloting a Delivery Service," PHN 20, no. 2 (1928): 91-92; Cathlena A. Cooper, "Organizing a Delivery Service," PHN 21, no. 12 (1929): 631-33; Helen E. Bond, "Maternity Program of the Health Center and the City Health Department, Savannah, Georgia," PHN 21, no. 12 (1929): 642-44.
96. Articles in The American Journal of Nursing (hereafter cited as AJN) and The Trained Nurse and Hospital Review (hereafter cited as TNHR) referred to "obstetrical nursing" when discussing education or the work of the private duty nurse. Annie E. Hutchinson, "Obstetrical Nursing in Private Practice," TNHR 40, no. 5 (1908): 301-7; Elizabeth Fishback, "Obstetrical Nursing as a Specialty," AJN 14, no. 10 (1914): 806-11; Bessie C. Connelly, "Obstetrical Work in the District," PHNQ 8, no. 3 (1916): 90-93; Anna Koch, "Maternity Nursing as Part of a Public Health Nursing Program," PHN 15, no. 9 (1918): 497-500; Anne Stevens, "The Public Health Nurse and the Extension of Maternity Nursing," PHN 12, no. 6 (1920): 497-501; Stevens, "Notes on Maternity Nursing in New Orleans," PHN 12, no. 6 (1920): 119-22; Elizabeth Ross, "Can a Satisfactory Maternity Service be Carried on As Part of a General Public Health Program?," PHN 15, no. 9 (1923): 471-75; Mary V. Pagaud, "The Maternity Service of the New Orleans Child Welfare Association," PHN 15, no. 11 (1923): 565-69; Dorothy Deming, "The Delivery Program of the Henry Street Visiting Nurse Service," PHN 15, no. 12 (1923): 617-18; Miriam A. Ames, "The Maternity Service of the Community Health Association, Boston," PHN 16, no. 2 (1924): 75-79; Carrie M. Hall, "Training the Obstetrical Nurse," AJN 28, no. 5 (1927): 373-79; Marguerite A. Wales, "Round Table on Delivery Service," PHN 20, no. 12 (1928): 626-29; "Piloting a Delivery Service," PHN 20, no. 2 (1928): 91-92; Cathlena A. Cooper, "Organizing a Delivery Service," PHN 21, no. 12 (1929): 631-33; Helen E. Bond, "Maternity Program of the Health Center and the City Health Department, Savannah, Georgia," PHN 21, no. 12 (1929): 642-44.
97. Articles in The American Journal of Nursing (hereafter cited as AJN) and The Trained Nurse and Hospital Review (hereafter cited as TNHR) referred to "obstetrical nursing" when discussing education or the work of the private duty nurse. Annie E. Hutchinson, "Obstetrical Nursing in Private Practice," TNHR 40, no. 5 (1908): 301-7; Elizabeth Fishback, "Obstetrical Nursing as a Specialty," AJN 14, no. 10 (1914): 806-11; Bessie C. Connelly, "Obstetrical Work in the District," PHNQ 8, no. 3 (1916): 90-93; Anna Koch, "Maternity Nursing as Part of a Public Health Nursing Program," PHN 15, no. 9 (1918): 497-500; Anne Stevens, "The Public Health Nurse and the Extension of Maternity Nursing," PHN 12, no. 6 (1920): 497-501; Stevens, "Notes on Maternity Nursing in New Orleans," PHN 12, no. 6 (1920): 119-22; Elizabeth Ross, "Can a Satisfactory Maternity Service be Carried on As Part of a General Public Health Program?," PHN 15, no. 9 (1923): 471-75; Mary V. Pagaud, "The Maternity Service of the New Orleans Child Welfare Association," PHN 15, no. 11 (1923): 565-69; Dorothy Deming, "The Delivery Program of the Henry Street Visiting Nurse Service," PHN 15, no. 12 (1923): 617-18; Miriam A. Ames, "The Maternity Service of the Community Health Association, Boston," PHN 16, no. 2 (1924): 75-79; Carrie M. Hall, "Training the Obstetrical Nurse," AJN 28, no. 5 (1927): 373-79; Marguerite A. Wales, "Round Table on Delivery Service," PHN 20, no. 12 (1928): 626-29; "Piloting a Delivery Service," PHN 20, no. 2 (1928): 91-92; Cathlena A. Cooper, "Organizing a Delivery Service," PHN 21, no. 12 (1929): 631-33; Helen E. Bond, "Maternity Program of the Health Center and the City Health Department, Savannah, Georgia," PHN 21, no. 12 (1929): 642-44.
98. Articles in The American Journal of Nursing (hereafter cited as AJN) and The Trained Nurse and Hospital Review (hereafter cited as TNHR) referred to "obstetrical nursing" when discussing education or the work of the private duty nurse. Annie E. Hutchinson, "Obstetrical Nursing in Private Practice," TNHR 40, no. 5 (1908): 301-7; Elizabeth Fishback, "Obstetrical Nursing as a Specialty," AJN 14, no. 10 (1914): 806-11; Bessie C. Connelly, "Obstetrical Work in the District," PHNQ 8, no. 3 (1916): 90-93; Anna Koch, "Maternity Nursing as Part of a Public Health Nursing Program," PHN 15, no. 9 (1918): 497-500; Anne Stevens, "The Public Health Nurse and the Extension of Maternity Nursing," PHN 12, no. 6 (1920): 497-501; Stevens, "Notes on Maternity Nursing in New Orleans," PHN 12, no. 6 (1920): 119-22; Elizabeth Ross, "Can a Satisfactory Maternity Service be Carried on As Part of a General Public Health Program?," PHN 15, no. 9 (1923): 471-75; Mary V. Pagaud, "The Maternity Service of the New Orleans Child Welfare Association," PHN 15, no. 11 (1923): 565-69; Dorothy Deming, "The Delivery Program of the Henry Street Visiting Nurse Service," PHN 15, no. 12 (1923): 617-18; Miriam A. Ames, "The Maternity Service of the Community Health Association, Boston," PHN 16, no. 2 (1924): 75-79; Carrie M. Hall, "Training the Obstetrical Nurse," AJN 28, no. 5 (1927): 373-79; Marguerite A. Wales, "Round Table on Delivery Service," PHN 20, no. 12 (1928): 626-29; "Piloting a Delivery Service," PHN 20, no. 2 (1928): 91-92; Cathlena A. Cooper, "Organizing a Delivery Service," PHN 21, no. 12 (1929): 631-33; Helen E. Bond, "Maternity Program of the Health Center and the City Health Department, Savannah, Georgia," PHN 21, no. 12 (1929): 642-44.
99. Articles in The American Journal of Nursing (hereafter cited as AJN) and The Trained Nurse and Hospital Review (hereafter cited as TNHR) referred to "obstetrical nursing" when discussing education or the work of the private duty nurse. Annie E. Hutchinson, "Obstetrical Nursing in Private Practice," TNHR 40, no. 5 (1908): 301-7; Elizabeth Fishback, "Obstetrical Nursing as a Specialty," AJN 14, no. 10 (1914): 806-11; Bessie C. Connelly, "Obstetrical Work in the District," PHNQ 8, no. 3 (1916): 90-93; Anna Koch, "Maternity Nursing as Part of a Public Health Nursing Program," PHN 15, no. 9 (1918): 497-500; Anne Stevens, "The Public Health Nurse and the Extension of Maternity Nursing," PHN 12, no. 6 (1920): 497-501; Stevens, "Notes on Maternity Nursing in New Orleans," PHN 12, no. 6 (1920): 119-22; Elizabeth Ross, "Can a Satisfactory Maternity Service be Carried on As Part of a General Public Health Program?," PHN 15, no. 9 (1923): 471-75; Mary V. Pagaud, "The Maternity Service of the New Orleans Child Welfare Association," PHN 15, no. 11 (1923): 565-69; Dorothy Deming, "The Delivery Program of the Henry Street Visiting Nurse Service," PHN 15, no. 12 (1923): 617-18; Miriam A. Ames, "The Maternity Service of the Community Health Association, Boston," PHN 16, no. 2 (1924): 75-79; Carrie M. Hall, "Training the Obstetrical Nurse," AJN 28, no. 5 (1927): 373-79; Marguerite A. Wales, "Round Table on Delivery Service," PHN 20, no. 12 (1928): 626-29; "Piloting a Delivery Service," PHN 20, no. 2 (1928): 91-92; Cathlena A. Cooper, "Organizing a Delivery Service," PHN 21, no. 12 (1929): 631-33; Helen E. Bond, "Maternity Program of the Health Center and the City Health Department, Savannah, Georgia," PHN 21, no. 12 (1929): 642-44.
100. Articles in The American Journal of Nursing (hereafter cited as AJN) and The Trained Nurse and Hospital Review (hereafter cited as TNHR) referred to "obstetrical nursing" when discussing education or the work of the private duty nurse. Annie E. Hutchinson, "Obstetrical Nursing in Private Practice," TNHR 40, no. 5 (1908): 301-7; Elizabeth Fishback, "Obstetrical Nursing as a Specialty," AJN 14, no. 10 (1914): 806-11; Bessie C. Connelly, "Obstetrical Work in the District," PHNQ 8, no. 3 (1916): 90-93; Anna Koch, "Maternity Nursing as Part of a Public Health Nursing Program," PHN 15, no. 9 (1918): 497-500; Anne Stevens, "The Public Health Nurse and the Extension of Maternity Nursing," PHN 12, no. 6 (1920): 497-501; Stevens, "Notes on Maternity Nursing in New Orleans," PHN 12, no. 6 (1920): 119-22; Elizabeth Ross, "Can a Satisfactory Maternity Service be Carried on As Part of a General Public Health Program?," PHN 15, no. 9 (1923): 471-75; Mary V. Pagaud, "The Maternity Service of the New Orleans Child Welfare Association," PHN 15, no. 11 (1923): 565-69; Dorothy Deming, "The Delivery Program of the Henry Street Visiting Nurse Service," PHN 15, no. 12 (1923): 617-18; Miriam A. Ames, "The Maternity Service of the Community Health Association, Boston," PHN 16, no. 2 (1924): 75-79; Carrie M. Hall, "Training the Obstetrical Nurse," AJN 28, no. 5 (1927): 373-79; Marguerite A. Wales, "Round Table on Delivery Service," PHN 20, no. 12 (1928): 626-29; "Piloting a Delivery Service," PHN 20, no. 2 (1928): 91-92; Cathlena A. Cooper, "Organizing a Delivery Service," PHN 21, no. 12 (1929): 631-33; Helen E. Bond, "Maternity Program of the Health Center and the City Health Department, Savannah, Georgia," PHN 21, no. 12 (1929): 642-44.
101. Articles in The American Journal of Nursing (hereafter cited as AJN) and The Trained Nurse and Hospital Review (hereafter cited as TNHR) referred to "obstetrical nursing" when discussing education or the work of the private duty nurse. Annie E. Hutchinson, "Obstetrical Nursing in Private Practice," TNHR 40, no. 5 (1908): 301-7; Elizabeth Fishback, "Obstetrical Nursing as a Specialty," AJN 14, no. 10 (1914): 806-11; Bessie C. Connelly, "Obstetrical Work in the District," PHNQ 8, no. 3 (1916): 90-93; Anna Koch, "Maternity Nursing as Part of a Public Health Nursing Program," PHN 15, no. 9 (1918): 497-500; Anne Stevens, "The Public Health Nurse and the Extension of Maternity Nursing," PHN 12, no. 6 (1920): 497-501; Stevens, "Notes on Maternity Nursing in New Orleans," PHN 12, no. 6 (1920): 119-22; Elizabeth Ross, "Can a Satisfactory Maternity Service be Carried on As Part of a General Public Health Program?," PHN 15, no. 9 (1923): 471-75; Mary V. Pagaud, "The Maternity Service of the New Orleans Child Welfare Association," PHN 15, no. 11 (1923): 565-69; Dorothy Deming, "The Delivery Program of the Henry Street Visiting Nurse Service," PHN 15, no. 12 (1923): 617-18; Miriam A. Ames, "The Maternity Service of the Community Health Association, Boston," PHN 16, no. 2 (1924): 75-79; Carrie M. Hall, "Training the Obstetrical Nurse," AJN 28, no. 5 (1927): 373-79; Marguerite A. Wales, "Round Table on Delivery Service," PHN 20, no. 12 (1928): 626-29; "Piloting a Delivery Service," PHN 20, no. 2 (1928): 91-92; Cathlena A. Cooper, "Organizing a Delivery Service," PHN 21, no. 12 (1929): 631-33; Helen E. Bond, "Maternity Program of the Health Center and the City Health Department, Savannah, Georgia," PHN 21, no. 12 (1929): 642-44.
102. Articles in The American Journal of Nursing (hereafter cited as AJN) and The Trained Nurse and Hospital Review (hereafter cited as TNHR) referred to "obstetrical nursing" when discussing education or the work of the private duty nurse. Annie E. Hutchinson, "Obstetrical Nursing in Private Practice," TNHR 40, no. 5 (1908): 301-7; Elizabeth Fishback, "Obstetrical Nursing as a Specialty," AJN 14, no. 10 (1914): 806-11; Bessie C. Connelly, "Obstetrical Work in the District," PHNQ 8, no. 3 (1916): 90-93; Anna Koch, "Maternity Nursing as Part of a Public Health Nursing Program," PHN 15, no. 9 (1918): 497-500; Anne Stevens, "The Public Health Nurse and the Extension of Maternity Nursing," PHN 12, no. 6 (1920): 497-501; Stevens, "Notes on Maternity Nursing in New Orleans," PHN 12, no. 6 (1920): 119-22; Elizabeth Ross, "Can a Satisfactory Maternity Service be Carried on As Part of a General Public Health Program?," PHN 15, no. 9 (1923): 471-75; Mary V. Pagaud, "The Maternity Service of the New Orleans Child Welfare Association," PHN 15, no. 11 (1923): 565-69; Dorothy Deming, "The Delivery Program of the Henry Street Visiting Nurse Service," PHN 15, no. 12 (1923): 617-18; Miriam A. Ames, "The Maternity Service of the Community Health Association, Boston," PHN 16, no. 2 (1924): 75-79; Carrie M. Hall, "Training the Obstetrical Nurse," AJN 28, no. 5 (1927): 373-79; Marguerite A. Wales, "Round Table on Delivery Service," PHN 20, no. 12 (1928): 626-29; "Piloting a Delivery Service," PHN 20, no. 2 (1928): 91-92; Cathlena A. Cooper, "Organizing a Delivery Service," PHN 21, no. 12 (1929): 631-33; Helen E. Bond, "Maternity Program of the Health Center and the City Health Department, Savannah, Georgia," PHN 21, no. 12 (1929): 642-44.
103. Reported by Lee K. Frankel of Metropolitan Life Insurance Company in a 1927 address before the Child Hygiene Section of the American Public Health Association, "The Present Status of Maternal and Infant Hygiene in the United States," AJPH 17, no. 12 (1927): 1209-20.
104. See Reports on the Convention of the National Association of Public Health Nursing, PHNQ 8, no. 3 (1916): 23-24; PHNQ 9, no. 3 (1917): 216-17. For a discussion of the extent of prenatal work, see Olga S. Halsey, "Health Insurance and Public health Nursing," PHNQ 8, no. 3 (1916): 59-66.
105. See Reports on the Convention of the National Association of Public Health Nursing, PHNQ 8, no. 3 (1916): 23-24; PHNQ 9, no. 3 (1917): 216-17. For a discussion of the extent of prenatal work, see Olga S. Halsey, "Health Insurance and Public health Nursing," PHNQ 8, no. 3 (1916): 59-66.
106. See Reports on the Convention of the National Association of Public Health Nursing, PHNQ 8, no. 3 (1916): 23-24; PHNQ 9, no. 3 (1917): 216-17. For a discussion of the extent of prenatal work, see Olga S. Halsey, "Health Insurance and Public health Nursing," PHNQ 8, no. 3 (1916): 59-66.
107. Longo and Thomsen, "Prenatal Care."
108. Minutes NOPHN Executive Committee meeting, 9-10 May 1923; Minutes NOPHN Board of Directors Meeting, 17-18 January 1922; and minutes NOPHN Board of Directors Meeting, (University of Pennsylvania Center for Nursing History Archives, Philadelphia, Pa., 1922-1923), microfilm, roll 11. 4-5 April 1922 (University of Pennsylvania Center for Nursing History Archives, Philadelphia, Pa.); See also NOPHN and U.S. Department of Labor Children's Bureau, The Nursing Profession and the Maternity and Infancy Act Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1923), microfilm, roll 11.
109. Annie Laurie, Report to Annie Goodrich, 27 December 1920, Henry Street Settlement, Department of Nursing, Visiting Nurse Service of New York Collection, New York.
110. See minutes NOPHN Board of Directors Meeting, 19-20 January 1928 for the report on the Joint Committee on Midwifery October 1927 meeting (NOPHN Archives, Philadelphia, Pa., 1927), microfilm, roll 11. University of Pennsylvania Center for Nursing History Archives. No mention of the outcome of this investigation is found in the archives.
111. Carolyn Conant van Blarcom, The Midwife in England (Philadelphia, Pa.: The Press of William F. Fell, 1913). For a fuller discussion of the uneducated African American midwife and problems trying to educate and supervise her, see Carolyn Conant van Blarcom, "Rat Pie Among the Black Midwives of the South," Harfers Magazine 160 (February 1930): 323-32. For biographical information on van Blarcom, see Vern L. Bullough, "Carolyn Conant van Blarcom," in American Nursing: A Biographical Dictionary, ed. Vern L. Bullough, Olga Maranjian Church, and Alice P. Stein (New York: Garland, 1988), 327-28; Joellen Watson Hawkins, "Carolyn Conant van Blarcom," in Dictionary of American Nursing Biography, ed., Martin Kaufman (New York: Greenwood, 1988), 386-89; and Meta Rutter Pennock, ed., Makers of Nursing History Portraits and Pen Sketches of Fifty-Nine Prominent Women (New York: Lakeside, 1928), 86-87.
112. Carolyn Conant van Blarcom, The Midwife in England (Philadelphia, Pa.: The Press of William F. Fell, 1913). For a fuller discussion of the uneducated African American midwife and problems trying to educate and supervise her, see Carolyn Conant van Blarcom, "Rat Pie Among the Black Midwives of the South," Harfers Magazine 160 (February 1930): 323-32. For biographical information on van Blarcom, see Vern L. Bullough, "Carolyn Conant van Blarcom," in American Nursing: A Biographical Dictionary, ed. Vern L. Bullough, Olga Maranjian Church, and Alice P. Stein (New York: Garland, 1988), 327-28; Joellen Watson Hawkins, "Carolyn Conant van Blarcom," in Dictionary of American Nursing Biography, ed., Martin Kaufman (New York: Greenwood, 1988), 386-89; and Meta Rutter Pennock, ed., Makers of Nursing History Portraits and Pen Sketches of Fifty-Nine Prominent Women (New York: Lakeside, 1928), 86-87.
113. Carolyn Conant van Blarcom, The Midwife in England (Philadelphia, Pa.: The Press of William F. Fell, 1913). For a fuller discussion of the uneducated African American midwife and problems trying to educate and supervise her, see Carolyn Conant van Blarcom, "Rat Pie Among the Black Midwives of the South," Harfers Magazine 160 (February 1930): 323-32. For biographical information on van Blarcom, see Vern L. Bullough, "Carolyn Conant van Blarcom," in American Nursing: A Biographical Dictionary, ed. Vern L. Bullough, Olga Maranjian Church, and Alice P. Stein (New York: Garland, 1988), 327-28; Joellen Watson Hawkins, "Carolyn Conant van Blarcom," in Dictionary of American Nursing Biography, ed., Martin Kaufman (New York: Greenwood, 1988), 386-89; and Meta Rutter Pennock, ed., Makers of Nursing History Portraits and Pen Sketches of Fifty-Nine Prominent Women (New York: Lakeside, 1928), 86-87.
114. Carolyn Conant van Blarcom, The Midwife in England (Philadelphia, Pa.: The Press of William F. Fell, 1913). For a fuller discussion of the uneducated African American midwife and problems trying to educate and supervise her, see Carolyn Conant van Blarcom, "Rat Pie Among the Black Midwives of the South," Harfers Magazine 160 (February 1930): 323-32. For biographical information on van Blarcom, see Vern L. Bullough, "Carolyn Conant van Blarcom," in American Nursing: A Biographical Dictionary, ed. Vern L. Bullough, Olga Maranjian Church, and Alice P. Stein (New York: Garland, 1988), 327-28; Joellen Watson Hawkins, "Carolyn Conant van Blarcom," in Dictionary of American Nursing Biography, ed., Martin Kaufman (New York: Greenwood, 1988), 386-89; and Meta Rutter Pennock, ed., Makers of Nursing History Portraits and Pen Sketches of Fifty-Nine Prominent Women (New York: Lakeside, 1928), 86-87.
115. Carolyn Conant van Blarcom, The Midwife in England (Philadelphia, Pa.: The Press of William F. Fell, 1913). For a fuller discussion of the uneducated African American midwife and problems trying to educate and supervise her, see Carolyn Conant van Blarcom, "Rat Pie Among the Black Midwives of the South," Harfers Magazine 160 (February 1930): 323-32. For biographical information on van Blarcom, see Vern L. Bullough, "Carolyn Conant van Blarcom," in American Nursing: A Biographical Dictionary, ed. Vern L. Bullough, Olga Maranjian Church, and Alice P. Stein (New York: Garland, 1988), 327-28; Joellen Watson Hawkins, "Carolyn Conant van Blarcom," in Dictionary of American Nursing Biography, ed., Martin Kaufman (New York: Greenwood, 1988), 386-89; and Meta Rutter Pennock, ed., Makers of Nursing History Portraits and Pen Sketches of Fifty-Nine Prominent Women (New York: Lakeside, 1928), 86-87.
116. See the report of the "Section on Nursing and Social Work," AASPIM 1911, 282-85; and Carolyn Conant van Blarcom, "Visiting Obstetrical Nursing," AASPIM 1912 341-49 . Florence Nightingale spoke of training nurses, educated women, as midwives in her treatise On Lying-in Institutions (London: Longmans, Green, and Co., 1871); reprinted by Charles Rosenberg, ed., Florence Nightingale on Hospital Reform (New York: Garland, 1989).
117. See the report of the "Section on Nursing and Social Work," AASPIM 1911, 282-85; and Carolyn Conant van Blarcom, "Visiting Obstetrical Nursing," AASPIM 1912 341-49 . Florence Nightingale spoke of training nurses, educated women, as midwives in her treatise On Lying-in Institutions (London: Longmans, Green, and Co., 1871); reprinted by Charles Rosenberg, ed., Florence Nightingale on Hospital Reform (New York: Garland, 1989).
118. See the report of the "Section on Nursing and Social Work," AASPIM 1911, 282-85; and Carolyn Conant van Blarcom, "Visiting Obstetrical Nursing," AASPIM 1912 341-49 . Florence Nightingale spoke of training nurses, educated women, as midwives in her treatise On Lying-in Institutions (London: Longmans, Green, and Co., 1871); reprinted by Charles Rosenberg, ed., Florence Nightingale on Hospital Reform (New York: Garland, 1989).
119. See the report of the "Section on Nursing and Social Work," AASPIM 1911, 282-85; and Carolyn Conant van Blarcom, "Visiting Obstetrical Nursing," AASPIM 1912 341-49 . Florence Nightingale spoke of training nurses, educated women, as midwives in her treatise On Lying-in Institutions (London: Longmans, Green, and Co., 1871); reprinted by Charles Rosenberg, ed., Florence Nightingale on Hospital Reform (New York: Garland, 1989).
120. Clara D. Noyes, "Training of Midwives in Relation to the Prevention of Infant Mortality," American Journal of Obstetrics and Diseases of Women and Children 66 (1912):1051-56;
121. and Clara D. Noyes, "The Midwifery Problem," AJN 12, no. 5 (1912): 466-71 .
122. Carolyn Conant van Blarcom, "Midwives in America," AJPH 4, no. 3 (1914): 197-207;
123. and Fred J. Taussig, "The Nurse Midwife," PHNQ 6 (1914):33-39;
124. reprinted by Litoff, The American Midwife Debate, 227-231.
125. See Sister M. Theophane Shoemaker, History of Nurse-Midwifery in the United States (1947; reprint, New York: Garland, 1984). Charles E. Zeigler, "The Elimination of the Midwife," Journal of the American Medical Association 9, no. 1 (1913): 32-38 (hereafter cited is JAMA); Noyes, "Training of Midwives"; and Noyes, "The Midwifery Problem."
126. See Sister M. Theophane Shoemaker, History of Nurse-Midwifery in the United States (1947; reprint, New York: Garland, 1984). Charles E. Zeigler, "The Elimination of the Midwife," Journal of the American Medical Association 9, no. 1 (1913): 32-38 (hereafter cited is JAMA); Noyes, "Training of Midwives"; and Noyes, "The Midwifery Problem."
127. See Sister M. Theophane Shoemaker, History of Nurse-Midwifery in the United States (1947; reprint, New York: Garland, 1984). Charles E. Zeigler, "The Elimination of the Midwife," Journal of the American Medical Association 9, no. 1 (1913): 32-38 (hereafter cited is JAMA); Noyes, "Training of Midwives"; and Noyes, "The Midwifery Problem."
128. See Sister M. Theophane Shoemaker, History of Nurse-Midwifery in the United States (1947; reprint, New York: Garland, 1984). Charles E. Zeigler, "The Elimination of the Midwife," Journal of the American Medical Association 9, no. 1 (1913): 32-38 (hereafter cited is JAMA); Noyes, "Training of Midwives"; and Noyes, "The Midwifery Problem."
129. Ralph W. Lobenstine, "Practical Means of Reducing Maternal Mortality," AJPH 12, no. 1 (1922): 39-44; Shoemaker, History of Nurse-Midwifery. For a representation of medicine's desire not to educate midwives, see comments of Dr. Carolyn Hedger, AASPIM 1911, 284-85; Dr. Mary Sherwood AASPIM 1911, 163-64; J. W. Williams, M. D. AASPIM 1911, 165-94, in which he argues that although the physician, because of improper education, does women more harm than the uneducated midwife to considering educating the midwife is "contrary to reason"; and comments of Dr. J. B. De Lee, AASPIM 1911, 195-96 who argues that women are incapable of being educated to become competent midwives.
130. Ralph W. Lobenstine, "Practical Means of Reducing Maternal Mortality," AJPH 12, no. 1 (1922): 39-44; Shoemaker, History of Nurse-Midwifery. For a representation of medicine's desire not to educate midwives, see comments of Dr. Carolyn Hedger, AASPIM 1911, 284-85; Dr. Mary Sherwood AASPIM 1911, 163-64; J. W. Williams, M. D. AASPIM 1911, 165-94, in which he argues that although the physician, because of improper education, does women more harm than the uneducated midwife to considering educating the midwife is "contrary to reason"; and comments of Dr. J. B. De Lee, AASPIM 1911, 195-96 who argues that women are incapable of being educated to become competent midwives.
131. Ralph W. Lobenstine, "Practical Means of Reducing Maternal Mortality," AJPH 12, no. 1 (1922): 39-44; Shoemaker, History of Nurse-Midwifery. For a representation of medicine's desire not to educate midwives, see comments of Dr. Carolyn Hedger, AASPIM 1911, 284-85; Dr. Mary Sherwood AASPIM 1911, 163-64; J. W. Williams, M. D. AASPIM 1911, 165-94, in which he argues that although the physician, because of improper education, does women more harm than the uneducated midwife to considering educating the midwife is "contrary to reason"; and comments of Dr. J. B. De Lee, AASPIM 1911, 195-96 who argues that women are incapable of being educated to become competent midwives.
132. Ralph W. Lobenstine, "Practical Means of Reducing Maternal Mortality," AJPH 12, no. 1 (1922): 39-44; Shoemaker, History of Nurse-Midwifery. For a representation of medicine's desire not to educate midwives, see comments of Dr. Carolyn Hedger, AASPIM 1911, 284-85; Dr. Mary Sherwood AASPIM 1911, 163-64; J. W. Williams, M. D. AASPIM 1911, 165-94, in which he argues that although the physician, because of improper education, does women more harm than the uneducated midwife to considering educating the midwife is "contrary to reason"; and comments of Dr. J. B. De Lee, AASPIM 1911, 195-96 who argues that women are incapable of being educated to become competent midwives.
133. Ralph W. Lobenstine, "Practical Means of Reducing Maternal Mortality," AJPH 12, no. 1 (1922): 39-44; Shoemaker, History of Nurse-Midwifery. For a representation of medicine's desire not to educate midwives, see comments of Dr. Carolyn Hedger, AASPIM 1911, 284-85; Dr. Mary Sherwood AASPIM 1911, 163-64; J. W. Williams, M. D. AASPIM 1911, 165-94, in which he argues that although the physician, because of improper education, does women more harm than the uneducated midwife to considering educating the midwife is "contrary to reason"; and comments of Dr. J. B. De Lee, AASPIM 1911, 195-96 who argues that women are incapable of being educated to become competent midwives.
134. Ralph W. Lobenstine, "Practical Means of Reducing Maternal
135. See RG 1.1 series 100C, box 37, folders 306-07, Midwifery 1921-32; RG 1.1, series 401C, box 33-34, specifically: Rockefeller Foundation minutes 7 October 1924, p. 2416; letters between R. R. Embree and Mary Beard, 9 October 1924, 13 January 1925, 29 January 1925, box 33, folder 420; Beard report Study of Maternal Health in England, box 33, folder 426; letters between Rosalind Paget and Beard, 24 February 1926, 17 March 1926, 10 May 1928, box 33, folder 421; Series 601L China Public Health Education, series 1.1, box 45, folders 371-74 Midwifery Training School 1926-46. Rockefeller Foundation Archives, Pocantico Hills, North Tarrytown, N.Y. Also see the diaries of Beard, 22 January 1931; conversation concerning the reopening of the Maternity Center Association school for nurse-midwives, 22 January 1931, concerning interviews with physicians around the country and their response to her question about educating nurses as midwives, 26 April 1926, 27 February 1926, 28 April 1926, 4 June 1926, 31 March 1927; regarding the Rockefeller Foundation's restriction on Beard's participation in national committees for nurse-midwifery, 8 April 1927; entries referring to Verda Hickcox, who served as a nurse-midwife in Siam for several years, 16-19 July 1928. After returning to America, Hickox taught nursing and was an early officer in the American College of Nurse-Midwifery; concerning a change in policy as Beard is given the green light to serve on a national committee studying the education of nurses in midwifery, but this occurs after the president of the American Medical Association and a physician colleague join the committee, 22 November 1927; concerning Edwin R. Embree 28 January 1925; relimiting Beard's study of English midwifery, 8 April 1927, and concerning Richard M. Pearce, 12 April 1927, restricting and defining Beard's role. For information on Beard, see Buhler-Wilkerson, "Mary Beard 1876-1946," 319-21. In 1926-27 the NOPHN/NLNE joint committee on midwifery appeared to be interested in opening a school for nurse-midwifery, promoting Haven Emerson M.D. to initiate an NOPHN policy that the committee seek representation from the AMA. This occurred at the 8 October 1927 committee meeting and by the 28 January 1928 committee meeting the name was changed the Committee on Maternal Care. See Minutes NOPHN Board of Directors Meeting, 28 January 1927 (University of Pennsylvania Center for Nursing History Archives, Philadelphia, Pa., 1927), see also Minutes Joint NOPHN/NLNE Board Meeting, 21 January 1927 (University of Pennsylvania Center for Nursing History Archives, Philadelphia, Pa.), microfilm, roll 21; Executive Committee minutes NOPHN 7-8 October 1927 (University of Pennsylvania Center for Nursing History Archives, Philadelphia, Pa.), microfilm, roll 21; Rockefeller Foundation Diary, 20 January 1928. See E. Richard Brown, Rockefeller Medicine Men, Medicine and Capitalism in America (Berkeley, Calif.: University of California Press, 1979) for a full discussion of the Rockefeller Foundation's support of medicine and public health abroad to enhance its economic empire.
136. See RG 1.1 series 100C, box 37, folders 306-07, Midwifery 1921-32; RG 1.1, series 401C, box 33-34, specifically: Rockefeller Foundation minutes 7 October 1924, p. 2416; letters between R. R. Embree and Mary Beard, 9 October 1924, 13 January 1925, 29 January 1925, box 33, folder 420; Beard report Study of Maternal Health in England, box 33, folder 426; letters between Rosalind Paget and Beard, 24 February 1926, 17 March 1926, 10 May 1928, box 33, folder 421; Series 601L China Public Health Education, series 1.1, box 45, folders 371-74 Midwifery Training School 1926-46. Rockefeller Foundation Archives, Pocantico Hills, North Tarrytown, N.Y. Also see the diaries of Beard, 22 January 1931; conversation concerning the reopening of the Maternity Center Association school for nurse-midwives, 22 January 1931, concerning interviews with physicians around the country and their response to her question about educating nurses as midwives, 26 April 1926, 27 February 1926, 28 April 1926, 4 June 1926, 31 March 1927; regarding the Rockefeller Foundation's restriction on Beard's participation in national committees for nurse-midwifery, 8 April 1927; entries referring to Verda Hickcox, who served as a nurse-midwife in Siam for several years, 16-19 July 1928. After returning to America, Hickox taught nursing and was an early officer in the American College of Nurse-Midwifery; concerning a change in policy as Beard is given the green light to serve on a national committee studying the education of nurses in midwifery, but this occurs after the president of the American Medical Association and a physician colleague join the committee, 22 November 1927; concerning Edwin R. Embree 28 January 1925; relimiting Beard's study of English midwifery, 8 April 1927, and concerning Richard M. Pearce, 12 April 1927, restricting and defining Beard's role. For information on Beard, see Buhler-Wilkerson, "Mary Beard 1876-1946," 319-21. In 1926-27 the NOPHN/NLNE joint committee on midwifery appeared to be interested in opening a school for nurse-midwifery, promoting Haven Emerson M.D. to initiate an NOPHN policy that the committee seek representation from the AMA. This occurred at the 8 October 1927 committee meeting and by the 28 January 1928 committee meeting the name was changed the Committee on Maternal Care. See Minutes NOPHN Board of Directors Meeting, 28 January 1927 (University of Pennsylvania Center for Nursing History Archives, Philadelphia, Pa., 1927), see also Minutes Joint NOPHN/NLNE Board Meeting, 21 January 1927 (University of Pennsylvania Center for Nursing History Archives, Philadelphia, Pa.), microfilm, roll 21; Executive Committee minutes NOPHN 7-8 October 1927 (University of Pennsylvania Center for Nursing History Archives, Philadelphia, Pa.), microfilm, roll 21; Rockefeller Foundation Diary, 20 January 1928. See E. Richard Brown, Rockefeller Medicine Men, Medicine and Capitalism in America (Berkeley, Calif.: University of California Press, 1979) for a full discussion of the Rockefeller Foundation's support of medicine and public health abroad to enhance its economic empire.
137. See RG 1.1 series 100C, box 37, folders 306-07, Midwifery 1921-32; RG 1.1, series 401C, box 33-34, specifically: Rockefeller Foundation minutes 7 October 1924, p. 2416; letters between R. R. Embree and Mary Beard, 9 October 1924, 13 January 1925, 29 January 1925, box 33, folder 420; Beard report Study of Maternal Health in England, box 33, folder 426; letters between Rosalind Paget and Beard, 24 February 1926, 17 March 1926, 10 May 1928, box 33, folder 421; Series 601L China Public Health Education, series 1.1, box 45, folders 371-74 Midwifery Training School 1926-46. Rockefeller Foundation Archives, Pocantico Hills, North Tarrytown, N.Y. Also see the diaries of Beard, 22 January 1931; conversation concerning the reopening of the Maternity Center Association school for nurse-midwives, 22 January 1931, concerning interviews with physicians around the country and their response to her question about educating nurses as midwives, 26 April 1926, 27 February 1926, 28 April 1926, 4 June 1926, 31 March 1927; regarding the Rockefeller Foundation's restriction on Beard's participation in national committees for nurse-midwifery, 8 April 1927; entries referring to Verda Hickcox, who served as a nurse-midwife in Siam for several years, 16-19 July 1928. After returning to America, Hickox taught nursing and was an early officer in the American College of Nurse-Midwifery; concerning a change in policy as Beard is given the green light to serve on a national committee studying the education of nurses in midwifery, but this occurs after the president of the American Medical Association and a physician colleague join the committee, 22 November 1927; concerning Edwin R. Embree 28 January 1925; relimiting Beard's study of English midwifery, 8 April 1927, and concerning Richard M. Pearce, 12 April 1927, restricting and defining Beard's role. For information on Beard, see Buhler-Wilkerson, "Mary Beard 1876-1946," 319-21. In 1926-27 the NOPHN/NLNE joint committee on midwifery appeared to be interested in opening a school for nurse-midwifery, promoting Haven Emerson M.D. to initiate an NOPHN policy that the committee seek representation from the AMA. This occurred at the 8 October 1927 committee meeting and by the 28 January 1928 committee meeting the name was changed the Committee on Maternal Care. See Minutes NOPHN Board of Directors Meeting, 28 January 1927 (University of Pennsylvania Center for Nursing History Archives, Philadelphia, Pa., 1927), see also Minutes Joint NOPHN/NLNE Board Meeting, 21 January 1927 (University of Pennsylvania Center for Nursing History Archives, Philadelphia, Pa.), microfilm, roll 21; Executive Committee minutes NOPHN 7-8 October 1927 (University of Pennsylvania Center for Nursing History Archives, Philadelphia, Pa.), microfilm, roll 21; Rockefeller Foundation Diary, 20 January 1928. See E. Richard Brown, Rockefeller Medicine Men, Medicine and Capitalism in America (Berkeley, Calif.: University of California Press, 1979) for a full discussion of the Rockefeller Foundation's support of medicine and public health abroad to enhance its economic empire.
138. Leaders in NOPHN wore many hats. Mary Beard sat on the Executive Committee 1912-20 and 1926-30, serving as president 1916-19 and vice president 1915-16; on the editorial board of the PHNQ 1918-23; on the publications committee 1924-25; and on the NOPHN/NLNE Committee to Study Needs of Midwifery As a Course for Nurses in 1927. Elizabeth Fox became president of NOPHN in 1924, served with Beard and Ella Phillips Crandall on the editorial board and on the publications committee 1918-25, and also sat with Crandall on the Committee to Study the Relationship of the Nurse to the Maternity and Infancy Act. Florence Paterson sat on both the publications committee (1935-36) and the NOPHN/NLNE Committee to Study the Needs of Midwifery As a Course for Nurses (1927). One can infer therefore that those connected with the magazine were familiar with central professional issues.
139. Nancy Dye, "Mary Breckinridge, the Frontier Nursing Service and the Introduction of Nurse-Midwifery in the United States," BHM 57, no. 4 (1983): 485-507. Pennock, Makers of Nursing History, 86; and "News Notes," PHNQ 17, no. 4 (1925): 224.
140. Nancy Dye, "Mary Breckinridge, the Frontier Nursing Service and the Introduction of Nurse-Midwifery in the United States," BHM 57, no. 4 (1983): 485-507. Pennock, Makers of Nursing History, 86; and "News Notes," PHNQ 17, no. 4 (1925): 224.
141. Nancy Dye, "Mary Breckinridge, the Frontier Nursing Service and the Introduction of Nurse-Midwifery in the United States," BHM 57, no. 4 (1983): 485-507. Pennock, Makers of Nursing History, 86; and "News Notes," PHNQ 17, no. 4 (1925): 224.
142. Anonymous, "Concerning the Nurse-Midwife," PHN 18, no. 10 (1926): 525-26; Alice Logan, "The Nurse-Midwife in Leslie County, Kentucky," PHN 18, no. 10 (1926): 542-46; Anonymous, "Virginia Will Introduce the Nurse-Midwife," PHN 19, no. 6 (1927): 269; "News Notes," PHN 20, no. 11 (1928): 612; S. Sievertsen Buvig, "Midwives in Holland," PHN 19, no. 10 (1927): 512-14; Mary Beard, "Midwifery in England," PHN 19, no. 1 (1927): 15-20; Mary Beard, "Midwifery in England," PHN 18, no. 12 (1926): 634-40; Johanne Rodtness, "Midwives in Denmark," PHN 18, no. 6 (1926): 324-28; S. Josephine Baker, "Schools for Midwives," AASPIM 1911, 232-42; Arthur Brewster Emmons II and James Lincoln Huntington, "Has the Trained and Supervised Midwife Made Good?," AASPIM 1911; 199-213; and Williams, "The Midwife Problem," 165-94.
143. Anonymous, "Concerning the Nurse-Midwife," PHN 18, no. 10 (1926): 525-26; Alice Logan, "The Nurse-Midwife in Leslie County, Kentucky," PHN 18, no. 10 (1926): 542-46; Anonymous, "Virginia Will Introduce the Nurse-Midwife," PHN 19, no. 6 (1927): 269; "News Notes," PHN 20, no. 11 (1928): 612; S. Sievertsen Buvig, "Midwives in Holland," PHN 19, no. 10 (1927): 512-14; Mary Beard, "Midwifery in England," PHN 19, no. 1 (1927): 15-20; Mary Beard, "Midwifery in England," PHN 18, no. 12 (1926): 634-40; Johanne Rodtness, "Midwives in Denmark," PHN 18, no. 6 (1926): 324-28; S. Josephine Baker, "Schools for Midwives," AASPIM 1911, 232-42; Arthur Brewster Emmons II and James Lincoln Huntington, "Has the Trained and Supervised Midwife Made Good?," AASPIM 1911; 199-213; and Williams, "The Midwife Problem," 165-94.
144. Anonymous, "Concerning the Nurse-Midwife," PHN 18, no. 10 (1926): 525-26; Alice Logan, "The Nurse-Midwife in Leslie County, Kentucky," PHN 18, no. 10 (1926): 542-46; Anonymous, "Virginia Will Introduce the Nurse-Midwife," PHN 19, no. 6 (1927): 269; "News Notes," PHN 20, no. 11 (1928): 612; S. Sievertsen Buvig, "Midwives in Holland," PHN 19, no. 10 (1927): 512-14; Mary Beard, "Midwifery in England," PHN 19, no. 1 (1927): 15-20; Mary Beard, "Midwifery in England," PHN 18, no. 12 (1926): 634-40; Johanne Rodtness, "Midwives in Denmark," PHN 18, no. 6 (1926): 324-28; S. Josephine Baker, "Schools for Midwives," AASPIM 1911, 232-42; Arthur Brewster Emmons II and James Lincoln Huntington, "Has the Trained and Supervised Midwife Made Good?," AASPIM 1911; 199-213; and Williams, "The Midwife Problem," 165-94.
145. Anonymous, "Concerning the Nurse-Midwife," PHN 18, no. 10 (1926): 525-26; Alice Logan, "The Nurse-Midwife in Leslie County, Kentucky," PHN 18, no. 10 (1926): 542-46; Anonymous, "Virginia Will Introduce the Nurse-Midwife," PHN 19, no. 6 (1927): 269; "News Notes," PHN 20, no. 11 (1928): 612; S. Sievertsen Buvig, "Midwives in Holland," PHN 19, no. 10 (1927): 512-14; Mary Beard, "Midwifery in England," PHN 19, no. 1 (1927): 15-20; Mary Beard, "Midwifery in England," PHN 18, no. 12 (1926): 634-40; Johanne Rodtness, "Midwives in Denmark," PHN 18, no. 6 (1926): 324-28; S. Josephine Baker, "Schools for Midwives," AASPIM 1911, 232-42; Arthur Brewster Emmons II and James Lincoln Huntington, "Has the Trained and Supervised Midwife Made Good?," AASPIM 1911; 199-213; and Williams, "The Midwife Problem," 165-94.
146. Anonymous, "Concerning the Nurse-Midwife," PHN 18, no. 10 (1926): 525-26; Alice Logan, "The Nurse-Midwife in Leslie County, Kentucky," PHN 18, no. 10 (1926): 542-46; Anonymous, "Virginia Will Introduce the Nurse-Midwife," PHN 19, no. 6 (1927): 269; "News Notes," PHN 20, no. 11 (1928): 612; S. Sievertsen Buvig, "Midwives in Holland," PHN 19, no. 10 (1927): 512-14; Mary Beard, "Midwifery in England," PHN 19, no. 1 (1927): 15-20; Mary Beard, "Midwifery in England," PHN 18, no. 12 (1926): 634-40; Johanne Rodtness, "Midwives in Denmark," PHN 18, no. 6 (1926): 324-28; S. Josephine Baker, "Schools for Midwives," AASPIM 1911, 232-42; Arthur Brewster Emmons II and James Lincoln Huntington, "Has the Trained and Supervised Midwife Made Good?," AASPIM 1911; 199-213; and Williams, "The Midwife Problem," 165-94.
147. Anonymous, "Concerning the Nurse-Midwife," PHN 18, no. 10 (1926): 525-26; Alice Logan, "The Nurse-Midwife in Leslie County, Kentucky," PHN 18, no. 10 (1926): 542-46; Anonymous, "Virginia Will Introduce the Nurse-Midwife," PHN 19, no. 6 (1927): 269; "News Notes," PHN 20, no. 11 (1928): 612; S. Sievertsen Buvig, "Midwives in Holland," PHN 19, no. 10 (1927): 512-14; Mary Beard, "Midwifery in England," PHN 19, no. 1 (1927): 15-20; Mary Beard, "Midwifery in England," PHN 18, no. 12 (1926): 634-40; Johanne Rodtness, "Midwives in Denmark," PHN 18, no. 6 (1926): 324-28; S. Josephine Baker, "Schools for Midwives," AASPIM 1911, 232-42; Arthur Brewster Emmons II and James Lincoln Huntington, "Has the Trained and Supervised Midwife Made Good?," AASPIM 1911; 199-213; and Williams, "The Midwife Problem," 165-94.
148. Anonymous, "Concerning the Nurse-Midwife," PHN 18, no. 10 (1926): 525-26; Alice Logan, "The Nurse-Midwife in Leslie County, Kentucky," PHN 18, no. 10 (1926): 542-46; Anonymous, "Virginia Will Introduce the Nurse-Midwife," PHN 19, no. 6 (1927): 269; "News Notes," PHN 20, no. 11 (1928): 612; S. Sievertsen Buvig, "Midwives in Holland," PHN 19, no. 10 (1927): 512-14; Mary Beard, "Midwifery in England," PHN 19, no. 1 (1927): 15-20; Mary Beard, "Midwifery in England," PHN 18, no. 12 (1926): 634-40; Johanne Rodtness, "Midwives in Denmark," PHN 18, no. 6 (1926): 324-28; S. Josephine Baker, "Schools for Midwives," AASPIM 1911, 232-42; Arthur Brewster Emmons II and James Lincoln Huntington, "Has the Trained and Supervised Midwife Made Good?," AASPIM 1911; 199-213; and Williams, "The Midwife Problem," 165-94.
149. Anonymous, "Concerning the Nurse-Midwife," PHN 18, no. 10 (1926): 525-26; Alice Logan, "The Nurse-Midwife in Leslie County, Kentucky," PHN 18, no. 10 (1926): 542-46; Anonymous, "Virginia Will Introduce the Nurse-Midwife," PHN 19, no. 6 (1927): 269; "News Notes," PHN 20, no. 11 (1928): 612; S. Sievertsen Buvig, "Midwives in Holland," PHN 19, no. 10 (1927): 512-14; Mary Beard, "Midwifery in England," PHN 19, no. 1 (1927): 15-20; Mary Beard, "Midwifery in England," PHN 18, no. 12 (1926): 634-40; Johanne Rodtness, "Midwives in Denmark," PHN 18, no. 6 (1926): 324-28; S. Josephine Baker, "Schools for Midwives," AASPIM 1911, 232-42; Arthur Brewster Emmons II and James Lincoln Huntington, "Has the Trained and Supervised Midwife Made Good?," AASPIM 1911; 199-213; and Williams, "The Midwife Problem," 165-94.
150. Anonymous, "Concerning the Nurse-Midwife," PHN 18, no. 10 (1926): 525-26; Alice Logan, "The Nurse-Midwife in Leslie County, Kentucky," PHN 18, no. 10 (1926): 542-46; Anonymous, "Virginia Will Introduce the Nurse-Midwife," PHN 19, no. 6 (1927): 269; "News Notes," PHN 20, no. 11 (1928): 612; S. Sievertsen Buvig, "Midwives in Holland," PHN 19, no. 10 (1927): 512-14; Mary Beard, "Midwifery in England," PHN 19, no. 1 (1927): 15-20; Mary Beard, "Midwifery in England," PHN 18, no. 12 (1926): 634-40; Johanne Rodtness, "Midwives in Denmark," PHN 18, no. 6 (1926): 324-28; S. Josephine Baker, "Schools for Midwives," AASPIM 1911, 232-42; Arthur Brewster Emmons II and James Lincoln Huntington, "Has the Trained and Supervised Midwife Made Good?," AASPIM 1911; 199-213; and Williams, "The Midwife Problem," 165-94.
151. Anonymous, "Concerning the Nurse-Midwife," PHN 18, no. 10 (1926): 525-26; Alice Logan, "The Nurse-Midwife in Leslie County, Kentucky," PHN 18, no. 10 (1926): 542-46; Anonymous, "Virginia Will Introduce the Nurse-Midwife," PHN 19, no. 6 (1927): 269; "News Notes," PHN 20, no. 11 (1928): 612; S. Sievertsen Buvig, "Midwives in Holland," PHN 19, no. 10 (1927): 512-14; Mary Beard, "Midwifery in England," PHN 19, no. 1 (1927): 15-20; Mary Beard, "Midwifery in England," PHN 18, no. 12 (1926): 634-40; Johanne Rodtness, "Midwives in Denmark," PHN 18, no. 6 (1926): 324-28; S. Josephine Baker, "Schools for Midwives," AASPIM 1911, 232-42; Arthur Brewster Emmons II and James Lincoln Huntington, "Has the Trained and Supervised Midwife Made Good?," AASPIM 1911; 199-213; and Williams, "The Midwife Problem," 165-94.
152. Anonymous, "Concerning the Nurse-Midwife," PHN 18, no. 10 (1926): 525-26; Alice Logan, "The Nurse-Midwife in Leslie County, Kentucky," PHN 18, no. 10 (1926): 542-46; Anonymous, "Virginia Will Introduce the Nurse-Midwife," PHN 19, no. 6 (1927): 269; "News Notes," PHN 20, no. 11 (1928): 612; S. Sievertsen Buvig, "Midwives in Holland," PHN 19, no. 10 (1927): 512-14; Mary Beard, "Midwifery in England," PHN 19, no. 1 (1927): 15-20; Mary Beard, "Midwifery in England," PHN 18, no. 12 (1926): 634-40; Johanne Rodtness, "Midwives in Denmark," PHN 18, no. 6 (1926): 324-28; S. Josephine Baker, "Schools for Midwives," AASPIM 1911, 232-42; Arthur Brewster Emmons II and James Lincoln Huntington, "Has the Trained and Supervised Midwife Made Good?," AASPIM 1911; 199-213; and Williams, "The Midwife Problem," 165-94.
153. Paul Starr, The Social Transformation; E. R. Hardin, "The Midwife Problem," Southern Medical Journal 18, no. 5 (1925): 347-49; Charles Edward Ziegler, "How Can We Best Solve the Midwifery Problem," AJPH 12, no. 5 (1922): 405-13; De Lee, "Progress Toward" Baker, "Schools for Midwives"; and Huntington, "Has the Trained Midwife" and Williams, "The Midwife Problem."
154. Paul Starr, The Social Transformation; E. R. Hardin, "The Midwife Problem," Southern Medical Journal 18, no. 5 (1925): 347-49; Charles Edward Ziegler, "How Can We Best Solve the Midwifery Problem," AJPH 12, no. 5 (1922): 405-13; De Lee, "Progress Toward" Baker, "Schools for Midwives"; and Huntington, "Has the Trained Midwife" and Williams, "The Midwife Problem."
155. Paul Starr, The Social Transformation; E. R. Hardin, "The Midwife Problem," Southern Medical Journal 18, no. 5 (1925): 347-49; Charles Edward Ziegler, "How Can We Best Solve the Midwifery Problem," AJPH 12, no. 5 (1922): 405-13; De Lee, "Progress Toward" Baker, "Schools for Midwives"; and Huntington, "Has the Trained Midwife" and Williams, "The Midwife Problem."
156. Paul Starr, The Social Transformation; E. R. Hardin, "The Midwife Problem," Southern Medical Journal 18, no. 5 (1925): 347-49; Charles Edward Ziegler, "How Can We Best Solve the Midwifery Problem," AJPH 12, no. 5 (1922): 405-13; De Lee, "Progress Toward" Baker, "Schools for Midwives"; and Huntington, "Has the Trained Midwife" and Williams, "The Midwife Problem."
157. Paul Starr, The Social Transformation; E. R. Hardin, "The Midwife Problem," Southern Medical Journal 18, no. 5 (1925): 347-49; Charles Edward Ziegler, "How Can We Best Solve the Midwifery Problem," AJPH 12, no. 5 (1922): 405-13; De Lee, "Progress Toward" Baker, "Schools for Midwives"; and Huntington, "Has the Trained Midwife" and Williams, "The Midwife Problem."
158. Paul Starr, The Social Transformation; E. R. Hardin, "The Midwife Problem," Southern Medical Journal 18, no. 5 (1925): 347-49; Charles Edward Ziegler, "How Can We Best Solve the Midwifery Problem," AJPH 12, no. 5 (1922): 405-13; De Lee, "Progress Toward" Baker, "Schools for Midwives"; and Huntington, "Has the Trained Midwife" and Williams, "The Midwife Problem."
159. Paul Starr, The Social Transformation; E. R. Hardin, "The Midwife Problem," Southern Medical Journal 18, no. 5 (1925): 347-49; Charles Edward Ziegler, "How Can We Best Solve the Midwifery Problem," AJPH 12, no. 5 (1922): 405-13; De Lee, "Progress Toward" Baker, "Schools for Midwives"; and Huntington, "Has the Trained Midwife" and Williams, "The Midwife Problem."
160. Williams, "The Midwife Problem," 183.
161. Beard, "Midwifery in England"; Buvig, "Midwives in Holland"; Rodtness, "Midwives in Denmark"; Emily W. Bennett, "Midwife Work in Virginia," PHN 17, no. 10 (1925): 523; Emmons and Huntington, "Has the Trained Midwife"; Ruth A. Dodd, "Midwife Supervision in South Carolina," PHN 12, no. 10 (1920): 863-68. The emphasis on cleanliness found in the published papers is supported by the "Midwife Song," which is sung to the tune of "Mary had a little Lamb" and includes verses such as "Why does the midwife wear a clean dress? . . . wear a clean cap? . . . clean her nails? . . . scrub her hands?," etc., and "Song of the Midwives," which is sung to the tune of "When the Saints Go Marching In," which has a stanza that goes "We wear a clean dress, clean cap, clean gown, We have clean homes, clean yards, clean town . . . ." The songs were collected from African American midwives in Jackson, Mississippi, by Alan Lomax in 1937 and in Hattisburg, Mississippi, by James Fergerson in 1948. See "Song's Recorder Here Curator Hails 'Pen' Music Midwife Song Taken" published in a Jackson, Mississippi, newspaper 9 March 1937 and found in the Mississippi State Board of Health Collection in the State Archives and James H. Fergerson, "Mississippi Midwives," Journal of the History of Medicine 5 (1950): 85-95.
162. Beard, "Midwifery in England"; Buvig, "Midwives in Holland"; Rodtness, "Midwives in Denmark"; Emily W. Bennett, "Midwife Work in Virginia," PHN 17, no. 10 (1925): 523; Emmons and Huntington, "Has the Trained Midwife"; Ruth A. Dodd, "Midwife Supervision in South Carolina," PHN 12, no. 10 (1920): 863-68. The emphasis on cleanliness found in the published papers is supported by the "Midwife Song," which is sung to the tune of "Mary had a little Lamb" and includes verses such as "Why does the midwife wear a clean dress? . . . wear a clean cap? . . . clean her nails? . . . scrub her hands?," etc., and "Song of the Midwives," which is sung to the tune of "When the Saints Go Marching In," which has a stanza that goes "We wear a clean dress, clean cap, clean gown, We have clean homes, clean yards, clean town . . . ." The songs were collected from African American midwives in Jackson, Mississippi, by Alan Lomax in 1937 and in Hattisburg, Mississippi, by James Fergerson in 1948. See "Song's Recorder Here Curator Hails 'Pen' Music Midwife Song Taken" published in a Jackson, Mississippi, newspaper 9 March 1937 and found in the Mississippi State Board of Health Collection in the State Archives and James H. Fergerson, "Mississippi Midwives," Journal of the History of Medicine 5 (1950): 85-95.
163. Beard, "Midwifery in England"; Buvig, "Midwives in Holland"; Rodtness, "Midwives in Denmark"; Emily W. Bennett, "Midwife Work in Virginia," PHN 17, no. 10 (1925): 523; Emmons and Huntington, "Has the Trained Midwife"; Ruth A. Dodd, "Midwife Supervision in South Carolina," PHN 12, no. 10 (1920): 863-68. The emphasis on cleanliness found in the published papers is supported by the "Midwife Song," which is sung to the tune of "Mary had a little Lamb" and includes verses such as "Why does the midwife wear a clean dress? . . . wear a clean cap? . . . clean her nails? . . . scrub her hands?," etc., and "Song of the Midwives," which is sung to the tune of "When the Saints Go Marching In," which has a stanza that goes "We wear a clean dress, clean cap, clean gown, We have clean homes, clean yards, clean town . . . ." The songs were collected from African American midwives in Jackson, Mississippi, by Alan Lomax in 1937 and in Hattisburg, Mississippi, by James Fergerson in 1948. See "Song's Recorder Here Curator Hails 'Pen' Music Midwife Song Taken" published in a Jackson, Mississippi, newspaper 9 March 1937 and found in the Mississippi State Board of Health Collection in the State Archives and James H. Fergerson, "Mississippi Midwives," Journal of the History of Medicine 5 (1950): 85-95.
164. Beard, "Midwifery in England"; Buvig, "Midwives in Holland"; Rodtness, "Midwives in Denmark"; Emily W. Bennett, "Midwife Work in Virginia," PHN 17, no. 10 (1925): 523; Emmons and Huntington, "Has the Trained Midwife"; Ruth A. Dodd, "Midwife Supervision in South Carolina," PHN 12, no. 10 (1920): 863-68. The emphasis on cleanliness found in the published papers is supported by the "Midwife Song," which is sung to the tune of "Mary had a little Lamb" and includes verses such as "Why does the midwife wear a clean dress? . . . wear a clean cap? . . . clean her nails? . . . scrub her hands?," etc., and "Song of the Midwives," which is sung to the tune of "When the Saints Go Marching In," which has a stanza that goes "We wear a clean dress, clean cap, clean gown, We have clean homes, clean yards, clean town . . . ." The songs were collected from African American midwives in Jackson, Mississippi, by Alan Lomax in 1937 and in Hattisburg, Mississippi, by James Fergerson in 1948. See "Song's Recorder Here Curator Hails 'Pen' Music Midwife Song Taken" published in a Jackson, Mississippi, newspaper 9 March 1937 and found in the Mississippi State Board of Health Collection in the State Archives and James H. Fergerson, "Mississippi Midwives," Journal of the History of Medicine 5 (1950): 85-95.
165. Beard, "Midwifery in England"; Buvig, "Midwives in Holland"; Rodtness, "Midwives in Denmark"; Emily W. Bennett, "Midwife Work in Virginia," PHN 17, no. 10 (1925): 523; Emmons and Huntington, "Has the Trained Midwife"; Ruth A. Dodd, "Midwife Supervision in South Carolina," PHN 12, no. 10 (1920): 863-68. The emphasis on cleanliness found in the published papers is supported by the "Midwife Song," which is sung to the tune of "Mary had a little Lamb" and includes verses such as "Why does the midwife wear a clean dress? . . . wear a clean cap? . . . clean her nails? . . . scrub her hands?," etc., and "Song of the Midwives," which is sung to the tune of "When the Saints Go Marching In," which has a stanza that goes "We wear a clean dress, clean cap, clean gown, We have clean homes, clean yards, clean town . . . ." The songs were collected from African American midwives in Jackson, Mississippi, by Alan Lomax in 1937 and in Hattisburg, Mississippi, by James Fergerson in 1948. See "Song's Recorder Here Curator Hails 'Pen' Music Midwife Song Taken" published in a Jackson, Mississippi, newspaper 9 March 1937 and found in the Mississippi State Board of Health Collection in the State Archives and James H. Fergerson, "Mississippi Midwives," Journal of the History of Medicine 5 (1950): 85-95.
166. Beard, "Midwifery in England"; Buvig, "Midwives in Holland"; Rodtness, "Midwives in Denmark"; Emily W. Bennett, "Midwife Work in Virginia," PHN 17, no. 10 (1925): 523; Emmons and Huntington, "Has the Trained Midwife"; Ruth A. Dodd, "Midwife Supervision in South Carolina," PHN 12, no. 10 (1920): 863-68. The emphasis on cleanliness found in the published papers is supported by the "Midwife Song," which is sung to the tune of "Mary had a little Lamb" and includes verses such as "Why does the midwife wear a clean dress? . . . wear a clean cap? . . . clean her nails? . . . scrub her hands?," etc., and "Song of the Midwives," which is sung to the tune of "When the Saints Go Marching In," which has a stanza that goes "We wear a clean dress, clean cap, clean gown, We have clean homes, clean yards, clean town . . . ." The songs were collected from African American midwives in Jackson, Mississippi, by Alan Lomax in 1937 and in Hattisburg, Mississippi, by James Fergerson in 1948. See "Song's Recorder Here Curator Hails 'Pen' Music Midwife Song Taken" published in a Jackson, Mississippi, newspaper 9 March 1937 and found in the Mississippi State Board of Health Collection in the State Archives and James H. Fergerson, "Mississippi Midwives," Journal of the History of Medicine 5 (1950): 85-95.
167. Beard, "Midwifery in England"; Buvig, "Midwives in Holland"; Rodtness, "Midwives in Denmark"; Emily W. Bennett, "Midwife Work in Virginia," PHN 17, no. 10 (1925): 523; Emmons and Huntington, "Has the Trained Midwife"; Ruth A. Dodd, "Midwife Supervision in South Carolina," PHN 12, no. 10 (1920): 863-68. The emphasis on cleanliness found in the published papers is supported by the "Midwife Song," which is sung to the tune of "Mary had a little Lamb" and includes verses such as "Why does the midwife wear a clean dress? . . . wear a clean cap? . . . clean her nails? . . . scrub her hands?," etc., and "Song of the Midwives," which is sung to the tune of "When the Saints Go Marching In," which has a stanza that goes "We wear a clean dress, clean cap, clean gown, We have clean homes, clean yards, clean town . . . ." The songs were collected from African American midwives in Jackson, Mississippi, by Alan Lomax in 1937 and in Hattisburg, Mississippi, by James Fergerson in 1948. See "Song's Recorder Here Curator Hails 'Pen' Music Midwife Song Taken" published in a Jackson, Mississippi, newspaper 9 March 1937 and found in the Mississippi State Board of Health Collection in the State Archives and James H. Fergerson, "Mississippi Midwives," Journal of the History of Medicine 5 (1950): 85-95.
168. Beard, "Midwifery in England"; Buvig, "Midwives in Holland"; Rodtness, "Midwives in Denmark"; Emily W. Bennett, "Midwife Work in Virginia," PHN 17, no. 10 (1925): 523; Emmons and Huntington, "Has the Trained Midwife"; Ruth A. Dodd, "Midwife Supervision in South Carolina," PHN 12, no. 10 (1920): 863-68. The emphasis on cleanliness found in the published papers is supported by the "Midwife Song," which is sung to the tune of "Mary had a little Lamb" and includes verses such as "Why does the midwife wear a clean dress? . . . wear a clean cap? . . . clean her nails? . . . scrub her hands?," etc., and "Song of the Midwives," which is sung to the tune of "When the Saints Go Marching In," which has a stanza that goes "We wear a clean dress, clean cap, clean gown, We have clean homes, clean yards, clean town . . . ." The songs were collected from African American midwives in Jackson, Mississippi, by Alan Lomax in 1937 and in Hattisburg, Mississippi, by James Fergerson in 1948. See "Song's Recorder Here Curator Hails 'Pen' Music Midwife Song Taken" published in a Jackson, Mississippi, newspaper 9 March 1937 and found in the Mississippi State Board of Health Collection in the State Archives and James H. Fergerson, "Mississippi Midwives," Journal of the History of Medicine 5 (1950): 85-95.
169. The Committee on Midwives and F. Elizabeth Crowell, "The Midwives of Chicago," JAMA 50, no. 17 (1908): 1346-50; and F. Elizabeth Crowell, "Midwives of New York," Charities and Commons 17 (1907): 667-77.
170. The Committee on Midwives and F. Elizabeth Crowell, "The Midwives of Chicago," JAMA 50, no. 17 (1908): 1346-50; and F. Elizabeth Crowell, "Midwives of New York," Charities and Commons 17 (1907): 667-77.
171. Bennett, "Midwife Work in Virginia"; Katherine Hagquist, "The Midwife in Texas," PHN 17, no. 12 (1925): 612-13; Helen Kligler, "A Maternity Center and Midwife Education in Palestine," PHN 17, no. 11 (1925): 569-71; and Jessie L. Marriner, "Midwifery in Alabama," PHN 18, no. 3 (1926): 128-31. The first law mandating Wasserman testing for syphilis premaritally was passed in 1935 and the first law for testing prenatally, was passed in 1938. In Texas the midwife license was granted for one year and renewal was dependent upon a negative Wasserman test. See Allan Brandt, No Magic Bullet: A Social History of Venereal Disease in the United States Since 1880 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1987); the letter from Malone Duggan, M.D., State Health Officer in Texas in the 1925, "Report on the Midwife Service in Texas"; reprinted by Litoff, The American Midwife Debate, 67-81.
172. Bennett, "Midwife Work in Virginia"; Katherine Hagquist, "The Midwife in Texas," PHN 17, no. 12 (1925): 612-13; Helen Kligler, "A Maternity Center and Midwife Education in Palestine," PHN 17, no. 11 (1925): 569-71; and Jessie L. Marriner, "Midwifery in Alabama," PHN 18, no. 3 (1926): 128-31. The first law mandating Wasserman testing for syphilis premaritally was passed in 1935 and the first law for testing prenatally, was passed in 1938. In Texas the midwife license was granted for one year and renewal was dependent upon a negative Wasserman test. See Allan Brandt, No Magic Bullet: A Social History of Venereal Disease in the United States Since 1880 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1987); the letter from Malone Duggan, M.D., State Health Officer in Texas in the 1925, "Report on the Midwife Service in Texas"; reprinted by Litoff, The American Midwife Debate, 67-81.
173. Bennett, "Midwife Work in Virginia"; Katherine Hagquist, "The Midwife in Texas," PHN 17, no. 12 (1925): 612-13; Helen Kligler, "A Maternity Center and Midwife Education in Palestine," PHN 17, no. 11 (1925): 569-71; and Jessie L. Marriner, "Midwifery in Alabama," PHN 18, no. 3 (1926): 128-31. The first law mandating Wasserman testing for syphilis premaritally was passed in 1935 and the first law for testing prenatally, was passed in 1938. In Texas the midwife license was granted for one year and renewal was dependent upon a negative Wasserman test. See Allan Brandt, No Magic Bullet: A Social History of Venereal Disease in the United States Since 1880 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1987); the letter from Malone Duggan, M.D., State Health Officer in Texas in the 1925, "Report on the Midwife Service in Texas"; reprinted by Litoff, The American Midwife Debate, 67-81.
174. Bennett, "Midwife Work in Virginia"; Katherine Hagquist, "The Midwife in Texas," PHN 17, no. 12 (1925): 612-13; Helen Kligler, "A Maternity Center and Midwife Education in Palestine," PHN 17, no. 11 (1925): 569-71; and Jessie L. Marriner, "Midwifery in Alabama," PHN 18, no. 3 (1926): 128-31. The first law mandating Wasserman testing for syphilis premaritally was passed in 1935 and the first law for testing prenatally, was passed in 1938. In Texas the midwife license was granted for one year and renewal was dependent upon a negative Wasserman test. See Allan Brandt, No Magic Bullet: A Social History of Venereal Disease in the United States Since 1880 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1987); the letter from Malone Duggan, M.D., State Health Officer in Texas in the 1925, "Report on the Midwife Service in Texas"; reprinted by Litoff, The American Midwife Debate, 67-81.
175. Bennett, "Midwife Work in Virginia"; Katherine Hagquist, "The Midwife in Texas," PHN 17, no. 12 (1925): 612-13; Helen Kligler, "A Maternity Center and Midwife Education in Palestine," PHN 17, no. 11 (1925): 569-71; and Jessie L. Marriner, "Midwifery in Alabama," PHN 18, no. 3 (1926): 128-31. The first law mandating Wasserman testing for syphilis premaritally was passed in 1935 and the first law for testing prenatally, was passed in 1938. In Texas the midwife license was granted for one year and renewal was dependent upon a negative Wasserman test. See Allan Brandt, No Magic Bullet: A Social History of Venereal Disease in the United States Since 1880 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1987); the letter from Malone Duggan, M.D., State Health Officer in Texas in the 1925, "Report on the Midwife Service in Texas"; reprinted by Litoff, The American Midwife Debate, 67-81.
176. Bennett, "Midwife Work in Virginia"; Katherine Hagquist, "The Midwife in Texas," PHN 17, no. 12 (1925): 612-13; Helen Kligler, "A Maternity Center and Midwife Education in Palestine," PHN 17, no. 11 (1925): 569-71; and Jessie L. Marriner, "Midwifery in Alabama," PHN 18, no. 3 (1926): 128-31. The first law mandating Wasserman testing for syphilis premaritally was passed in 1935 and the first law for testing prenatally, was passed in 1938. In Texas the midwife license was granted for one year and renewal was dependent upon a negative Wasserman test. See Allan Brandt, No Magic Bullet: A Social History of Venereal Disease in the United States Since 1880 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1987); the letter from Malone Duggan, M.D., State Health Officer in Texas in the 1925, "Report on the Midwife Service in Texas"; reprinted by Litoff, The American Midwife Debate, 67-81.
177. Bennett, "Midwife Work in Virginia"; Katherine Hagquist, "The Midwife in Texas," PHN 17, no. 12 (1925): 612-13; Helen Kligler, "A Maternity Center and Midwife Education in Palestine," PHN 17, no. 11 (1925): 569-71; and Jessie L. Marriner, "Midwifery in Alabama," PHN 18, no. 3 (1926): 128-31. The first law mandating Wasserman testing for syphilis premaritally was passed in 1935 and the first law for testing prenatally, was passed in 1938. In Texas the midwife license was granted for one year and renewal was dependent upon a negative Wasserman test. See Allan Brandt, No Magic Bullet: A Social History of Venereal Disease in the United States Since 1880 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1987); the letter from Malone Duggan, M.D., State Health Officer in Texas in the 1925, "Report on the Midwife Service in Texas"; reprinted by Litoff, The American Midwife Debate, 67-81.
178. Laura Blackburn, "Midwife Teaches Nurse," PHN 17, no. 10 (1941): 460-62. I want to thank a student, Johanna Bickford Couvillon, for identifying this article, which includes the following: "I have learned . . . that those qualities of the spirit which the midwife possesses give the patient security and confidence. The midwife's very assurance in herself establishes the patient's confidence in her," 460.
179. MSC330 box 1, Folder: reorganization Questionnaire. American College of Nurse-Midwife Archives, National Library of Medicine, National institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland.
180. See Marian F. MacDorman and Gopal K. Singh, "Midwifery care, social and medical risk factors, and birth outcomes in the USA," Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health 52 (1998): 310-17; and Howard Blanchette, "Comparison of Obstetric Outcome of a Primary-Care Access Clinic Staffed by Certified Nurse-Midwives and a Private Practice Group of Obstetricians in the Same Community," AJOBG 172, no.6 (1995): 1864-1871.
181. See Marian F. MacDorman and Gopal K. Singh, "Midwifery care, social and medical risk factors, and birth outcomes in the USA," Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health 52 (1998): 310-17; and Howard Blanchette, "Comparison of Obstetric Outcome of a Primary-Care Access Clinic Staffed by Certified Nurse-Midwives and a Private Practice Group of Obstetricians in the Same Community," AJOBG 172, no.6 (1995): 1864-1871.