Dyson effect: carbon 'offset' forestry and the privatization of the atmosphere

International Journal of Environment and Pollution

Volumn 15, Issue 1, 2001, Pages 51-78

  Lohmann, Larry ^a  

^a The Corner House   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

CARBON DIOXIDE; EARTH ATMOSPHERE; ENCLOSURES; GAS EMISSIONS; GLOBAL WARMING; GREENHOUSE EFFECT; PRIVATIZATION;

CARBON SINKS; COLONIALISM; DYSON EFFECT;

ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING;

EID: 0035155933     PISSN: 09574352     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1504/IJEP.2001.000591     Document Type: Article

References (162)

1. Dyson, F.J. (1977) 'Can we control carbon dioxide in the atmosphere?', Energy, Vol. 2, pp. 287-291.
2. Booth, W. (1988) 'Johnny Appleseed and the greenhouse: replanting forests to mitigate global warming', Science, Vol. 242, p. 197.
3. Sullivan, J.R. (1990) 'The tree decade: replenishing our forests and cities could buy the earth desperately needed time', Health, p. 60. See also Walsh, B.W. (1989) 'World Forests', American Forests, Vol. 95, No. 11/12, p. 28 and Sedjo. R. and Solomon, A.M. (1989) 'Climate and Forests', in Rosenberg, N.J. et al. (Editors) Greenhouse Warming: Abatement and Adaptation, Resources for the Future, Washington. Chris Upton of SGS Silviconsult claims that, in Brazil alone, there exist 20 million hectares of deforested and now abandoned low-grade land suitable for carbon forestry ('Trading off trees for pollution', Timber & Wood Products, 6 February 1999, p. 32). Richard Houghton and colleagues believe there to be 3.2 billion hectares of tropical areas suitable for management practices designed to accumulate carbon ('Current land cover in the tropics and its potential for sequestering carbon', Global Biogeochemical Cycles, Vol. 7, No. 2, 1993, pp. 305-320). Another research team gives a figure of between 620 million and two billion hectares as being theoretically available in tropical forests to store additional carbon through forestry practices (Dixon, R. et al. (Editors) Assessment of Promising Forest Management Practices and Technologies for Enhancing the Conservation and Sequestration of Atmospheric Carbon and their Costs at Site Level, Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, 1991). According to Alan Grainger, 758 million hectares of degraded tropical watersheds, drylands, forest fallows and logged rainforests could be restored to forest, although he is wise enough to remember that 'those who use the land may be unwilling to convert it to forest.' ('Modelling the impact of alternative afforestation strategies to reduce carbon dioxide emissions', in Proceedings of the Conference on Tropical Forestry Response Options to Global Climate Change, 1990). Mark Trexler estimates that 126 million hectares of the tropics are available for reforestation, over half of that through plantations, and another 217 million for assisted regeneration, although he cautions that land is less likely to be a limiting factor than labour, management, and 'administrative restrictions' (Trexler, M. and Haugen, C. (1995) Keeping it Green: Tropical Forestry Opportunities for Mitigating Climate Change, World Resources Institute, Washington).
4. Sullivan, J.R. (1990) 'The tree decade: replenishing our forests and cities could buy the earth desperately needed time', Health, p. 60. See also Walsh, B.W. (1989) 'World Forests', American Forests, Vol. 95, No. 11/12, p. 28 and Sedjo. R. and Solomon, A.M. (1989) 'Climate and Forests', in Rosenberg, N.J. et al. (Editors) Greenhouse Warming: Abatement and Adaptation, Resources for the Future, Washington. Chris Upton of SGS Silviconsult claims that, in Brazil alone, there exist 20 million hectares of deforested and now abandoned low-grade land suitable for carbon forestry ('Trading off trees for pollution', Timber & Wood Products, 6 February 1999, p. 32). Richard Houghton and colleagues believe there to be 3.2 billion hectares of tropical areas suitable for management practices designed to accumulate carbon ('Current land cover in the tropics and its potential for sequestering carbon', Global Biogeochemical Cycles, Vol. 7, No. 2, 1993, pp. 305-320). Another research team gives a figure of between 620 million and two billion hectares as being theoretically available in tropical forests to store additional carbon through forestry practices (Dixon, R. et al. (Editors) Assessment of Promising Forest Management Practices and Technologies for Enhancing the Conservation and Sequestration of Atmospheric Carbon and their Costs at Site Level, Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, 1991). According to Alan Grainger, 758 million hectares of degraded tropical watersheds, drylands, forest fallows and logged rainforests could be restored to forest, although he is wise enough to remember that 'those who use the land may be unwilling to convert it to forest.' ('Modelling the impact of alternative afforestation strategies to reduce carbon dioxide emissions', in Proceedings of the Conference on Tropical Forestry Response Options to Global Climate Change, 1990). Mark Trexler estimates that 126 million hectares of the tropics are available for reforestation, over half of that through plantations, and another 217 million for assisted regeneration, although he cautions that land is less likely to be a limiting factor than labour, management, and 'administrative restrictions' (Trexler, M. and Haugen, C. (1995) Keeping it Green: Tropical Forestry Opportunities for Mitigating Climate Change, World Resources Institute, Washington).
5. Sullivan, J.R. (1990) 'The tree decade: replenishing our forests and cities could buy the earth desperately needed time', Health, p. 60. See also Walsh, B.W. (1989) 'World Forests', American Forests, Vol. 95, No. 11/12, p. 28 and Sedjo. R. and Solomon, A.M. (1989) 'Climate and Forests', in Rosenberg, N.J. et al. (Editors) Greenhouse Warming: Abatement and Adaptation, Resources for the Future, Washington. Chris Upton of SGS Silviconsult claims that, in Brazil alone, there exist 20 million hectares of deforested and now abandoned low-grade land suitable for carbon forestry ('Trading off trees for pollution', Timber & Wood Products, 6 February 1999, p. 32). Richard Houghton and colleagues believe there to be 3.2 billion hectares of tropical areas suitable for management practices designed to accumulate carbon ('Current land cover in the tropics and its potential for sequestering carbon', Global Biogeochemical Cycles, Vol. 7, No. 2, 1993, pp. 305-320). Another research team gives a figure of between 620 million and two billion hectares as being theoretically available in tropical forests to store additional carbon through forestry practices (Dixon, R. et al. (Editors) Assessment of Promising Forest Management Practices and Technologies for Enhancing the Conservation and Sequestration of Atmospheric Carbon and their Costs at Site Level, Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, 1991). According to Alan Grainger, 758 million hectares of degraded tropical watersheds, drylands, forest fallows and logged rainforests could be restored to forest, although he is wise enough to remember that 'those who use the land may be unwilling to convert it to forest.' ('Modelling the impact of alternative afforestation strategies to reduce carbon dioxide emissions', in Proceedings of the Conference on Tropical Forestry Response Options to Global Climate Change, 1990). Mark Trexler estimates that 126 million hectares of the tropics are available for reforestation, over half of that through plantations, and another 217 million for assisted regeneration, although he cautions that land is less likely to be a limiting factor than labour, management, and 'administrative restrictions' (Trexler, M. and Haugen, C. (1995) Keeping it Green: Tropical Forestry Opportunities for Mitigating Climate Change, World Resources Institute, Washington).
6. Sullivan, J.R. (1990) 'The tree decade: replenishing our forests and cities could buy the earth desperately needed time', Health, p. 60. See also Walsh, B.W. (1989) 'World Forests', American Forests, Vol. 95, No. 11/12, p. 28 and Sedjo. R. and Solomon, A.M. (1989) 'Climate and Forests', in Rosenberg, N.J. et al. (Editors) Greenhouse Warming: Abatement and Adaptation, Resources for the Future, Washington. Chris Upton of SGS Silviconsult claims that, in Brazil alone, there exist 20 million hectares of deforested and now abandoned low-grade land suitable for carbon forestry ('Trading off trees for pollution', Timber & Wood Products, 6 February 1999, p. 32). Richard Houghton and colleagues believe there to be 3.2 billion hectares of tropical areas suitable for management practices designed to accumulate carbon ('Current land cover in the tropics and its potential for sequestering carbon', Global Biogeochemical Cycles, Vol. 7, No. 2, 1993, pp. 305-320). Another research team gives a figure of between 620 million and two billion hectares as being theoretically available in tropical forests to store additional carbon through forestry practices (Dixon, R. et al. (Editors) Assessment of Promising Forest Management Practices and Technologies for Enhancing the Conservation and Sequestration of Atmospheric Carbon and their Costs at Site Level, Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, 1991). According to Alan Grainger, 758 million hectares of degraded tropical watersheds, drylands, forest fallows and logged rainforests could be restored to forest, although he is wise enough to remember that 'those who use the land may be unwilling to convert it to forest.' ('Modelling the impact of alternative afforestation strategies to reduce carbon dioxide emissions', in Proceedings of the Conference on Tropical Forestry Response Options to Global Climate Change, 1990). Mark Trexler estimates that 126 million hectares of the tropics are available for reforestation, over half of that through plantations, and another 217 million for assisted regeneration, although he cautions that land is less likely to be a limiting factor than labour, management, and 'administrative restrictions' (Trexler, M. and Haugen, C. (1995) Keeping it Green: Tropical Forestry Opportunities for Mitigating Climate Change, World Resources Institute, Washington).
7. Sullivan, J.R. (1990) 'The tree decade: replenishing our forests and cities could buy the earth desperately needed time', Health, p. 60. See also Walsh, B.W. (1989) 'World Forests', American Forests, Vol. 95, No. 11/12, p. 28 and Sedjo. R. and Solomon, A.M. (1989) 'Climate and Forests', in Rosenberg, N.J. et al. (Editors) Greenhouse Warming: Abatement and Adaptation, Resources for the Future, Washington. Chris Upton of SGS Silviconsult claims that, in Brazil alone, there exist 20 million hectares of deforested and now abandoned low-grade land suitable for carbon forestry ('Trading off trees for pollution', Timber & Wood Products, 6 February 1999, p. 32). Richard Houghton and colleagues believe there to be 3.2 billion hectares of tropical areas suitable for management practices designed to accumulate carbon ('Current land cover in the tropics and its potential for sequestering carbon', Global Biogeochemical Cycles, Vol. 7, No. 2, 1993, pp. 305-320). Another research team gives a figure of between 620 million and two billion hectares as being theoretically available in tropical forests to store additional carbon through forestry practices (Dixon, R. et al. (Editors) Assessment of Promising Forest Management Practices and Technologies for Enhancing the Conservation and Sequestration of Atmospheric Carbon and their Costs at Site Level, Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, 1991). According to Alan Grainger, 758 million hectares of degraded tropical watersheds, drylands, forest fallows and logged rainforests could be restored to forest, although he is wise enough to remember that 'those who use the land may be unwilling to convert it to forest.' ('Modelling the impact of alternative afforestation strategies to reduce carbon dioxide emissions', in Proceedings of the Conference on Tropical Forestry Response Options to Global Climate Change, 1990). Mark Trexler estimates that 126 million hectares of the tropics are available for reforestation, over half of that through plantations, and another 217 million for assisted regeneration, although he cautions that land is less likely to be a limiting factor than labour, management, and 'administrative restrictions' (Trexler, M. and Haugen, C. (1995) Keeping it Green: Tropical Forestry Opportunities for Mitigating Climate Change, World Resources Institute, Washington).
8. Sullivan, J.R. (1990) 'The tree decade: replenishing our forests and cities could buy the earth desperately needed time', Health, p. 60. See also Walsh, B.W. (1989) 'World Forests', American Forests, Vol. 95, No. 11/12, p. 28 and Sedjo. R. and Solomon, A.M. (1989) 'Climate and Forests', in Rosenberg, N.J. et al. (Editors) Greenhouse Warming: Abatement and Adaptation, Resources for the Future, Washington. Chris Upton of SGS Silviconsult claims that, in Brazil alone, there exist 20 million hectares of deforested and now abandoned low-grade land suitable for carbon forestry ('Trading off trees for pollution', Timber & Wood Products, 6 February 1999, p. 32). Richard Houghton and colleagues believe there to be 3.2 billion hectares of tropical areas suitable for management practices designed to accumulate carbon ('Current land cover in the tropics and its potential for sequestering carbon', Global Biogeochemical Cycles, Vol. 7, No. 2, 1993, pp. 305-320). Another research team gives a figure of between 620 million and two billion hectares as being theoretically available in tropical forests to store additional carbon through forestry practices (Dixon, R. et al. (Editors) Assessment of Promising Forest Management Practices and Technologies for Enhancing the Conservation and Sequestration of Atmospheric Carbon and their Costs at Site Level, Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, 1991). According to Alan Grainger, 758 million hectares of degraded tropical watersheds, drylands, forest fallows and logged rainforests could be restored to forest, although he is wise enough to remember that 'those who use the land may be unwilling to convert it to forest.' ('Modelling the impact of alternative afforestation strategies to reduce carbon dioxide emissions', in Proceedings of the Conference on Tropical Forestry Response Options to Global Climate Change, 1990). Mark Trexler estimates that 126 million hectares of the tropics are available for reforestation, over half of that through plantations, and another 217 million for assisted regeneration, although he cautions that land is less likely to be a limiting factor than labour, management, and 'administrative restrictions' (Trexler, M. and Haugen, C. (1995) Keeping it Green: Tropical Forestry Opportunities for Mitigating Climate Change, World Resources Institute, Washington).
9. Sullivan, J.R. (1990) 'The tree decade: replenishing our forests and cities could buy the earth desperately needed time', Health, p. 60. See also Walsh, B.W. (1989) 'World Forests', American Forests, Vol. 95, No. 11/12, p. 28 and Sedjo. R. and Solomon, A.M. (1989) 'Climate and Forests', in Rosenberg, N.J. et al. (Editors) Greenhouse Warming: Abatement and Adaptation, Resources for the Future, Washington. Chris Upton of SGS Silviconsult claims that, in Brazil alone, there exist 20 million hectares of deforested and now abandoned low-grade land suitable for carbon forestry ('Trading off trees for pollution', Timber & Wood Products, 6 February 1999, p. 32). Richard Houghton and colleagues believe there to be 3.2 billion hectares of tropical areas suitable for management practices designed to accumulate carbon ('Current land cover in the tropics and its potential for sequestering carbon', Global Biogeochemical Cycles, Vol. 7, No. 2, 1993, pp. 305-320). Another research team gives a figure of between 620 million and two billion hectares as being theoretically available in tropical forests to store additional carbon through forestry practices (Dixon, R. et al. (Editors) Assessment of Promising Forest Management Practices and Technologies for Enhancing the Conservation and Sequestration of Atmospheric Carbon and their Costs at Site Level, Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, 1991). According to Alan Grainger, 758 million hectares of degraded tropical watersheds, drylands, forest fallows and logged rainforests could be restored to forest, although he is wise enough to remember that 'those who use the land may be unwilling to convert it to forest.' ('Modelling the impact of alternative afforestation strategies to reduce carbon dioxide emissions', in Proceedings of the Conference on Tropical Forestry Response Options to Global Climate Change, 1990). Mark Trexler estimates that 126 million hectares of the tropics are available for reforestation, over half of that through plantations, and another 217 million for assisted regeneration, although he cautions that land is less likely to be a limiting factor than labour, management, and 'administrative restrictions' (Trexler, M. and Haugen, C. (1995) Keeping it Green: Tropical Forestry Opportunities for Mitigating Climate Change, World Resources Institute, Washington).
10. Sullivan, J.R. (1990) 'The tree decade: replenishing our forests and cities could buy the earth desperately needed time', Health, p. 60. See also Walsh, B.W. (1989) 'World Forests', American Forests, Vol. 95, No. 11/12, p. 28 and Sedjo. R. and Solomon, A.M. (1989) 'Climate and Forests', in Rosenberg, N.J. et al. (Editors) Greenhouse Warming: Abatement and Adaptation, Resources for the Future, Washington. Chris Upton of SGS Silviconsult claims that, in Brazil alone, there exist 20 million hectares of deforested and now abandoned low-grade land suitable for carbon forestry ('Trading off trees for pollution', Timber & Wood Products, 6 February 1999, p. 32). Richard Houghton and colleagues believe there to be 3.2 billion hectares of tropical areas suitable for management practices designed to accumulate carbon ('Current land cover in the tropics and its potential for sequestering carbon', Global Biogeochemical Cycles, Vol. 7, No. 2, 1993, pp. 305-320). Another research team gives a figure of between 620 million and two billion hectares as being theoretically available in tropical forests to store additional carbon through forestry practices (Dixon, R. et al. (Editors) Assessment of Promising Forest Management Practices and Technologies for Enhancing the Conservation and Sequestration of Atmospheric Carbon and their Costs at Site Level, Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, 1991). According to Alan Grainger, 758 million hectares of degraded tropical watersheds, drylands, forest fallows and logged rainforests could be restored to forest, although he is wise enough to remember that 'those who use the land may be unwilling to convert it to forest.' ('Modelling the impact of alternative afforestation strategies to reduce carbon dioxide emissions', in Proceedings of the Conference on Tropical Forestry Response Options to Global Climate Change, 1990). Mark Trexler estimates that 126 million hectares of the tropics are available for reforestation, over half of that through plantations, and another 217 million for assisted regeneration, although he cautions that land is less likely to be a limiting factor than labour, management, and 'administrative restrictions' (Trexler, M. and Haugen, C. (1995) Keeping it Green: Tropical Forestry Opportunities for Mitigating Climate Change, World Resources Institute, Washington).
11. Sullivan, J.R., op. cit. ref. 3; Myers, N., presentation at Issue Dialogue on 'Tree Plantations: Benefits and Drawbacks', Centre for Applied Studies in International Negotiations, 23-24 April 1991; Myers, N. and Goreau, T.J., 'Tropical forests and the greenhouse effect: a management response', Climate Change, Vol. 19, No. 1-2, pp. 215-25.
12. Sullivan, J.R., op. cit. ref. 3; Myers, N., presentation at Issue Dialogue on 'Tree Plantations: Benefits and Drawbacks', Centre for Applied Studies in International Negotiations, 23-24 April 1991; Myers, N. and Goreau, T.J., 'Tropical forests and the greenhouse effect: a management response', Climate Change, Vol. 19, No. 1-2, pp. 215-25.
13. Sullivan, J.R., op. cit. ref. 3; Myers, N., presentation at Issue Dialogue on 'Tree Plantations: Benefits and Drawbacks', Centre for Applied Studies in International Negotiations, 23-24 April 1991; Myers, N. and Goreau, T.J., 'Tropical forests and the greenhouse effect: a management response', Climate Change, Vol. 19, No. 1-2, pp. 215-25.
14. Sullivan, J.R., op. cit. ref. 3; Myers, N., presentation at Issue Dialogue on 'Tree Plantations: Benefits and Drawbacks', Centre for Applied Studies in International Negotiations, 23-24 April 1991; Myers, N. and Goreau, T.J., 'Tropical forests and the greenhouse effect: a management response', Climate Change, Vol. 19, No. 1-2, pp. 215-25.
15. Michaelowa, A. (1998) 'AIJ cannot function without incentives', in Riemer, P., Smith, A. and Thambimuthu, K. (Editors) Greenhouse Gas Mitigation: Technologies for Activities Implemented Jointly, Amsterdam, pp. 403-408; World Resources Institute, 'Mitigating climate change through forestry', http://www.wri.org, accessed 27 March 1999; Sullivan, J.R., op. cit. ref. 3; Walsh, B.W., op. cit. ref. 3.
16. Michaelowa, A. (1998) 'AIJ cannot function without incentives', in Riemer, P., Smith, A. and Thambimuthu, K. (Editors) Greenhouse Gas Mitigation: Technologies for Activities Implemented Jointly, Amsterdam, pp. 403-408; World Resources Institute, 'Mitigating climate change through forestry', http://www.wri.org, accessed 27 March 1999; Sullivan, J.R., op. cit. ref. 3; Walsh, B.W., op. cit. ref. 3.
17. Michaelowa, A. (1998) 'AIJ cannot function without incentives', in Riemer, P., Smith, A. and Thambimuthu, K. (Editors) Greenhouse Gas Mitigation: Technologies for Activities Implemented Jointly, Amsterdam, pp. 403-408; World Resources Institute, 'Mitigating climate change through forestry', http://www.wri.org, accessed 27 March 1999; Sullivan, J.R., op. cit. ref. 3; Walsh, B.W., op. cit. ref. 3.
18. Michaelowa, A. (1998) 'AIJ cannot function without incentives', in Riemer, P., Smith, A. and Thambimuthu, K. (Editors) Greenhouse Gas Mitigation: Technologies for Activities Implemented Jointly, Amsterdam, pp. 403-408; World Resources Institute, 'Mitigating climate change through forestry', http://www.wri.org, accessed 27 March 1999; Sullivan, J.R., op. cit. ref. 3; Walsh, B.W., op. cit. ref. 3.
19. 'Trading off trees for pollution', Timber & Wood Products, 6 February 1999, p. 32.
20. 'Japan to launch project on rain forest plantation', Japan Economic Newswire, Kyodo News Service, 29 February 1992.
21. Pearce, F., 'All gas and guesswork', New Scientist, 30 July 1994, p. 14.
22. 2 emissions, halving its net emissions (Australian Financial Review, 15 February 1995).
23. United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, Conference of the Parties, Third Session, Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework on Climate Change, FCCC/CP/1997/L.7/Add.1, Article 12.2, p. 13, Kyoto, Japan, 11 December 1997.
24. One group of scientists has calculated that fully implementing the Kyoto Protocol would reduce the expected warming of 1.4°C by 2050 by only 0.05°C (Houlder, V., 'Beginning of the end', Financial Times, 15 April 1999).
25. The US Senate, fearful of the 'costs' to energy corporations of abating global warming, feigns to hold the position that, because growth in emissions is faster in the South than in the North, even the minor emissions cuts mandated by the Kyoto Protocol are unacceptable because they exempt, for the time being, large developing nations such as China and India. See (e.g.) Gelbspan, R., 'Putting the globe at risk', The Nation, 30 November 1998, p. 20.
26. The common law of first possession, which is reflected in the attitudes of the US and other industrialized countries is, as Carol Rose notes, biased in favour of those who mark and transform nature through cultivation, manufacture, and development in a commercial system, presupposing that human beings are 'outsiders to nature' ('Possession as the origin of property', in Property and Persuasion: Essays on the History, Theory and Rhetoric of Ownership, Westview, Boulder, 1994, p. 20). The result of the first-possession approach, unsurprisingly, is that each country has an incentive to set a baseline that is as large as possible, because, as officials at the United Nations Conference on Trade and Environment concede, the baseline can be viewed as a country's entitlement (Centre for Science and Environment, 'Politics in the Post-Kyoto World', CES Briefing Paper 2, New Delhi, n.d., p.4). Thus, just before the Kyoto negotiations, both the US and Japan tried to change the date for basing each country's cuts from 1990 to 1995, and the South has an incentive to increase emissions as fast as possible now in order to be able to reduce less later. Similarly, when a Regional Clean Air Incentives Market was set up in Los Angeles, companies that had formerly underestimated their emissions in order to reduce permit fees 'suddenly reported elevated rates of air pollution', because the higher the pollution levels claimed, the greater their pollution allowance (Belliveau, M., 'Trading places: lethal lessons from Los Angeles', Trans-national Resource & Action Center, October 1998, http://www.corpwatch.org/trac/feature/climate/pollution/box.html, accessed 28 April 1999)
27. The common law of first possession, which is reflected in the attitudes of the US and other industrialized countries is, as Carol Rose notes, biased in favour of those who mark and transform nature through cultivation, manufacture, and development in a commercial system, presupposing that human beings are 'outsiders to nature' ('Possession as the origin of property', in Property and Persuasion: Essays on the History, Theory and Rhetoric of Ownership, Westview, Boulder, 1994, p. 20). The result of the first-possession approach, unsurprisingly, is that each country has an incentive to set a baseline that is as large as possible, because, as officials at the United Nations Conference on Trade and Environment concede, the baseline can be viewed as a country's entitlement (Centre for Science and Environment, 'Politics in the Post-Kyoto World', CES Briefing Paper 2, New Delhi, n.d., p.4). Thus, just before the Kyoto negotiations, both the US and Japan tried to change the date for basing each country's cuts from 1990 to 1995, and the South has an incentive to increase emissions as fast as possible now in order to be able to reduce less later. Similarly, when a Regional Clean Air Incentives Market was set up in Los Angeles, companies that had formerly underestimated their emissions in order to reduce permit fees 'suddenly reported elevated rates of air pollution', because the higher the pollution levels claimed, the greater their pollution allowance (Belliveau, M., 'Trading places: lethal lessons from Los Angeles', Trans-national Resource & Action Center, October 1998, http://www.corpwatch.org/trac/feature/climate/pollution/box.html, accessed 28 April 1999)
28. The common law of first possession, which is reflected in the attitudes of the US and other industrialized countries is, as Carol Rose notes, biased in favour of those who mark and transform nature through cultivation, manufacture, and development in a commercial system, presupposing that human beings are 'outsiders to nature' ('Possession as the origin of property', in Property and Persuasion: Essays on the History, Theory and Rhetoric of Ownership, Westview, Boulder, 1994, p. 20). The result of the first-possession approach, unsurprisingly, is that each country has an incentive to set a baseline that is as large as possible, because, as officials at the United Nations Conference on Trade and Environment concede, the baseline can be viewed as a country's entitlement (Centre for Science and Environment, 'Politics in the Post-Kyoto World', CES Briefing Paper 2, New Delhi, n.d., p.4). Thus, just before the Kyoto negotiations, both the US and Japan tried to change the date for basing each country's cuts from 1990 to 1995, and the South has an incentive to increase emissions as fast as possible now in order to be able to reduce less later. Similarly, when a Regional Clean Air Incentives Market was set up in Los Angeles, companies that had formerly underestimated their emissions in order to reduce permit fees 'suddenly reported elevated rates of air pollution', because the higher the pollution levels claimed, the greater their pollution allowance (Belliveau, M., 'Trading places: lethal lessons from Los Angeles', Trans-national Resource & Action Center, October 1998, http://www.corpwatch.org/trac/feature/climate/pollution/box.html, accessed 28 April 1999)
29. McCully, P. (1991) 'Discord in the greenhouse: how WRI is attempting to shift the blame for global warming', The Ecologist, Vol. 21, No. 4, pp. 157-65.
30. Grubb, M. (1997) 'Buying a better climate', Prospect, p. 60.
31. Carey, J. (1998) 'Look who's thawing on global warming', Business Week, 9 November 1998; Hebert, H.J., 'Fight over move to give credits to polluters who clean up emissions', Associated Press, 24 March 1999; Time, 9 November 1998.
32. Carey, J. (1998) 'Look who's thawing on global warming', Business Week, 9 November 1998; Hebert, H.J., 'Fight over move to give credits to polluters who clean up emissions', Associated Press, 24 March 1999; Time, 9 November 1998.
33. Carey, J. (1998) 'Look who's thawing on global warming', Business Week, 9 November 1998; Hebert, H.J., 'Fight over move to give credits to polluters who clean up emissions', Associated Press, 24 March 1999; Time, 9 November 1998.
34. 2 emissions would cost rather than save money rests on ignorance of the 'vast empirical literature on how much it actually costs to save energy, as documented by thousands of utilities and industries' (Gersh, J., 'Capitalism goes green,' Amicus Journal, Spring 1999, p. 37; Rocky Mountain Institute Newsletter, various issues).
35. 2 emissions would cost rather than save money rests on ignorance of the 'vast empirical literature on how much it actually costs to save energy, as documented by thousands of utilities and industries' (Gersh, J., 'Capitalism goes green,' Amicus Journal, Spring 1999, p. 37; Rocky Mountain Institute Newsletter, various issues).
36. 2 emissions at home would cost US$125 per tonne of carbon, whereas buying 'emissions credits' on a world market would cost as little as $14-23 per tonne. Some of the cheapest credits available would come from forestry projects. For example, the US has estimated the cost per tonne of sequestered carbon of approved forestry projects in Costa Rica as ranging from $3 to $16, compared with a cost of $338 to $895 per tonne for energy sector projects in the country. Carbon forestry takes advantage not only of North-South cost differentials, but also, often, of urban-rural differentials.
37. 2 emissions at home would cost US$125 per tonne of carbon, whereas buying 'emissions credits' on a world market would cost as little as $14-23 per tonne. Some of the cheapest credits available would come from forestry projects. For example, the US has estimated the cost per tonne of sequestered carbon of approved forestry projects in Costa Rica as ranging from $3 to $16, compared with a cost of $338 to $895 per tonne for energy sector projects in the country. Carbon forestry takes advantage not only of North-South cost differentials, but also, often, of urban-rural differentials.
38. Palast, G., 'Fill your lungs - it's only borrowed grime', Observer (London), 24 January 1999: 'The real drive beyond limitless use of the contamination credits originated with the corporate lobby Business Roundtable, which left a memo to that effect on a photocopy machine in November [at the Conference of the Parties meeting] in Buenos Aires.'
39. ENN, 18 March 1999.
40. Goldberg, D.M. and Wiser, G.M. (1998) 'Climate change and sustainable development: rethinking the JI pilot phase: a call for independent evaluation and a legal framework,' Widener Law Symposium Journal, Vol. 3, Fall, p. 421.
41. 'Profiting from pollution', San Jose Mercury News, 22 November 1998. See also Wysham, D., The World Bank and the G-7: Still Changing the Earth's Climate for Business, Institute for Policy Studies, Washington, 1998.
42. 'Profiting from pollution', San Jose Mercury News, 22 November 1998. See also Wysham, D., The World Bank and the G-7: Still Changing the Earth's Climate for Business, Institute for Policy Studies, Washington, 1998.
43. The CDM, which started life as a Brazilian-proposed Clean Development Fund that would have penalized industrialized countries if they did not comply with international agreements, was switched into its current form during the last 24 hours of the Kyoto negotiations. The CDM is attractive to Southern country delegations partly because it promises extra support for upgrading of energy technology, and to Northern delegations partly because it promises extra subsidies for their countries' exports, but in reality is likely to include a strong emphasis on plantations. In October 1998, some 26 African ministers meeting in Nairobi stressed that the CDM 'should not be used as a substitute for other 'mechanisms' such as official development assistance and the Global Environment Facility', and proposed a 'seed fund' specifically to assist African countries to be better prepared for the CDM' (United Nations Environment Programme News Release, Nairobi, 23 October 1998). Argentina has reportedly toyed with the idea that it could earn US$700 million a year for 'maintaining carbon dioxide-absorbing forests' established, with the help of $4 billion in foreign investment, on 10 million hectares of what is now mainly grassland ('Buenos Aires hosts follow-up to UN global-warming meeting at Kyoto', NotiSur: Latin American Political Affairs [University of New Mexico], 20 November 1998). Like Myers's Zaire-sized plantations, such schemes may be pie in the global warming sky. But they have consequences, even if they are unforeseen.
44. Carey, J., op. cit. ref. 16. Mike Read Associates claims that 'there are already over 100 [carbon sequestration and storage] projects around the world, with many more in preparation' (Read, M., Sink or Swim? How Can Forestry Be Used to Mitigate Climate Change?, report prepared for World Wide Fund for Nature, 1998, http://www.geocities.com/RainForest/Canopy/5632, accessed 9 April 1999).
45. Carey, J., op. cit. ref. 16. Mike Read Associates claims that 'there are already over 100 [carbon sequestration and storage] projects around the world, with many more in preparation' (Read, M., Sink or Swim? How Can Forestry Be Used to Mitigate Climate Change?, report prepared for World Wide Fund for Nature, 1998, http://www.geocities.com/RainForest/Canopy/5632, accessed 9 April 1999).
46. FACE Foundation website, http://www.facefoundation.nl, accessed 8 April 1999; Vidal, V. 'La Aplicacion de Politicas sobre Cambio Climatico el Sector Forestal de Ecuador', http://wrm.org.uy/castellano/plantations/material/Vidal1.htm, accessed 9 July 2000.
47. FACE Foundation website, http://www.facefoundation.nl, accessed 8 April 1999; Vidal, V. 'La Aplicacion de Politicas sobre Cambio Climatico el Sector Forestal de Ecuador', http://wrm.org.uy/castellano/plantations/material/Vidal1.htm, accessed 9 July 2000.
48. Harris, B., 'Costa Rica: "carbon sink" plan a licence to pollute, say critics', Sunday Age (Melbourne), 12 March 1995; Carey, J., op. cit. ref. 16.
49. Harris, B., 'Costa Rica: "carbon sink" plan a licence to pollute, say critics', Sunday Age (Melbourne), 12 March 1995; Carey, J., op. cit. ref. 16.
50. 'Trading off trees for pollution', Timber & Wood Products, 6 February 1999, p. 32.
51. Canada News Wire, 2 November 98. Much carbon forestry trading also occurs inside national boundaries. For instance, Delta Electricity and State Forests of New South Wales have established a joint venture pine plantation, with Delta providing the land in exchange for the future right to the carbon (Dodds, S., 'Benefits of forests finally sinking in', Canberra Times, 3 November 1998, p. A7). In New Zealand, the Minister for the Environment has ruled that the Electricity Corporation be granted an air-discharge consent for the 400-megawatt Stratford power station on condition that it plants a forest to absorb the plant's emissions (De Freitas, C., 'Washing funds down the carbon sink won't stop global warming', National Business Review, 2 June 1995). Planting trees in the UK to compensate for the pollution created by their business ventures are the J. Walter Thompson advertising agency, Fulham Football Club, Whole Earth foods, musicians Julian Lennon, Neneh Cherry and Keith Allen, and artist and restauranteur Damien Hirst (Timber & Wood Products, 6 February 1999, p. 32).
52. Canada News Wire, 2 November 98. Much carbon forestry trading also occurs inside national boundaries. For instance, Delta Electricity and State Forests of New South Wales have established a joint venture pine plantation, with Delta providing the land in exchange for the future right to the carbon (Dodds, S., 'Benefits of forests finally sinking in', Canberra Times, 3 November 1998, p. A7). In New Zealand, the Minister for the Environment has ruled that the Electricity Corporation be granted an air-discharge consent for the 400-megawatt Stratford power station on condition that it plants a forest to absorb the plant's emissions (De Freitas, C., 'Washing funds down the carbon sink won't stop global warming', National Business Review, 2 June 1995). Planting trees in the UK to compensate for the pollution created by their business ventures are the J. Walter Thompson advertising agency, Fulham Football Club, Whole Earth foods, musicians Julian Lennon, Neneh Cherry and Keith Allen, and artist and restauranteur Damien Hirst (Timber & Wood Products, 6 February 1999, p. 32).
53. Canada News Wire, 2 November 98. Much carbon forestry trading also occurs inside national boundaries. For instance, Delta Electricity and State Forests of New South Wales have established a joint venture pine plantation, with Delta providing the land in exchange for the future right to the carbon (Dodds, S., 'Benefits of forests finally sinking in', Canberra Times, 3 November 1998, p. A7). In New Zealand, the Minister for the Environment has ruled that the Electricity Corporation be granted an air-discharge consent for the 400-megawatt Stratford power station on condition that it plants a forest to absorb the plant's emissions (De Freitas, C., 'Washing funds down the carbon sink won't stop global warming', National Business Review, 2 June 1995). Planting trees in the UK to compensate for the pollution created by their business ventures are the J. Walter Thompson advertising agency, Fulham Football Club, Whole Earth foods, musicians Julian Lennon, Neneh Cherry and Keith Allen, and artist and restauranteur Damien Hirst (Timber & Wood Products, 6 February 1999, p. 32).
54. Deutsche Presse-Agentur, 27 July 1997; Independent (London), 3 October 1998; Climafor, 'International pilot project for carbon sequestration and community forestry in Chiapas, Mexico', 1997.
55. Deutsche Presse-Agentur, 27 July 1997; Independent (London), 3 October 1998; Climafor, 'International pilot project for carbon sequestration and community forestry in Chiapas, Mexico', 1997.
56. Deutsche Presse-Agentur, 27 July 1997; Independent (London), 3 October 1998; Climafor, 'International pilot project for carbon sequestration and community forestry in Chiapas, Mexico', 1997.
57. 2 mitigation'.
58. 2 mitigation'.
59. Ibid.
60. WRI, op. cit. ref. 30. Other projects that involve forest conservation are also under way in Costa Rica. For example, the country receives funds from Tenaska, a power company in Nebraska, which has contracted with the Bonneville Power Authority to 'offset' greenhouse gas emissions with conservation and carbon storage, to set aside a portion of a national park which, it is claimed, would otherwise be deforested (Tenenbaum, D., 'The greening of Costa Rica', Technology Review, Vol. 98, No. 7, October 1995, p. 42; Kosloff, L.H., 'Climate change and sustainable development: linking climate change mitigation with sustainable economic development: a status report', Widener Law Symposium Journal, Vol. 3, Fall 1998, pp. 379-80; Centre for Science and Environment, op. cit. ref. 13, p. 8).
61. WRI, op. cit. ref. 30. Other projects that involve forest conservation are also under way in Costa Rica. For example, the country receives funds from Tenaska, a power company in Nebraska, which has contracted with the Bonneville Power Authority to 'offset' greenhouse gas emissions with conservation and carbon storage, to set aside a portion of a national park which, it is claimed, would otherwise be deforested (Tenenbaum, D., 'The greening of Costa Rica', Technology Review, Vol. 98, No. 7, October 1995, p. 42; Kosloff, L.H., 'Climate change and sustainable development: linking climate change mitigation with sustainable economic development: a status report', Widener Law Symposium Journal, Vol. 3, Fall 1998, pp. 379-80; Centre for Science and Environment, op. cit. ref. 13, p. 8).
62. WRI, op. cit. ref. 30. Other projects that involve forest conservation are also under way in Costa Rica. For example, the country receives funds from Tenaska, a power company in Nebraska, which has contracted with the Bonneville Power Authority to 'offset' greenhouse gas emissions with conservation and carbon storage, to set aside a portion of a national park which, it is claimed, would otherwise be deforested (Tenenbaum, D., 'The greening of Costa Rica', Technology Review, Vol. 98, No. 7, October 1995, p. 42; Kosloff, L.H., 'Climate change and sustainable development: linking climate change mitigation with sustainable economic development: a status report', Widener Law Symposium Journal, Vol. 3, Fall 1998, pp. 379-80; Centre for Science and Environment, op. cit. ref. 13, p. 8).
63. WRI, op. cit. ref. 30. Other projects that involve forest conservation are also under way in Costa Rica. For example, the country receives funds from Tenaska, a power company in Nebraska, which has contracted with the Bonneville Power Authority to 'offset' greenhouse gas emissions with conservation and carbon storage, to set aside a portion of a national park which, it is claimed, would otherwise be deforested (Tenenbaum, D., 'The greening of Costa Rica', Technology Review, Vol. 98, No. 7, October 1995, p. 42; Kosloff, L.H., 'Climate change and sustainable development: linking climate change mitigation with sustainable economic development: a status report', Widener Law Symposium Journal, Vol. 3, Fall 1998, pp. 379-80; Centre for Science and Environment, op. cit. ref. 13, p. 8).
64. Canada News Wire, 12 November 1998; WRI, op. cit. ref. 29; Kosloff, L.H., op. cit. ref. 32. The project was designed to meet the requirements for international action under the Framework Convention on Climate Change, conforms to US legislation concerning carbon offset registration, and has been approved by the government of Belize.
65. Canada News Wire, 12 November 1998; WRI, op. cit. ref. 29; Kosloff, L.H., op. cit. ref. 32. The project was designed to meet the requirements for international action under the Framework Convention on Climate Change, conforms to US legislation concerning carbon offset registration, and has been approved by the government of Belize.
66. Canada News Wire, 12 November 1998; WRI, op. cit. ref. 29; Kosloff, L.H., op. cit. ref. 32. The project was designed to meet the requirements for international action under the Framework Convention on Climate Change, conforms to US legislation concerning carbon offset registration, and has been approved by the government of Belize.
67. '"Billions" in greenhouse gas market', Australian Financial News, 25 March 1999.
68. Houlder, V., 'Salvation or hot air', Financial Times, 15 April 1999.
69. Thackray, R., 'Stars help trees make a meal of car fumes', Independent (London), 21 June 1998.
70. Quoted in Shiva, V., 'Monsanto wants to control the water business in India and Mexico', The Hindu, 1 May 1999.
71. Smith, J., op. cit. ref. 18, p. 15.
72. Carrere, R. and Lohmann, L. (1996) Pulping the South: Industrial Tree Plantations and the World Paper Economy, Zed Books, London; World Rainforest Movement (1999) Tree Plantations: Impacts and Struggles, World Rainforest Movement, Montevideo; Kerski, A. (1995) 'Pulp, paper and power: how an industry reshapes its social environment', The Ecologist, Vol. 25, No. 4, pp. 142-9.
73. Carrere, R. and Lohmann, L. (1996) Pulping the South: Industrial Tree Plantations and the World Paper Economy, Zed Books, London; World Rainforest Movement (1999) Tree Plantations: Impacts and Struggles, World Rainforest Movement, Montevideo; Kerski, A. (1995) 'Pulp, paper and power: how an industry reshapes its social environment', The Ecologist, Vol. 25, No. 4, pp. 142-9.
74. Carrere, R. and Lohmann, L. (1996) Pulping the South: Industrial Tree Plantations and the World Paper Economy, Zed Books, London; World Rainforest Movement (1999) Tree Plantations: Impacts and Struggles, World Rainforest Movement, Montevideo; Kerski, A. (1995) 'Pulp, paper and power: how an industry reshapes its social environment', The Ecologist, Vol. 25, No. 4, pp. 142-9.
75. 2 emissions would require a tropical plantation about 1.5 times the size of the country (Independent, 2 March 1992).
76. Future Forests, run by Dan Morrell, has hired Pete Wilkinson, one of the founders of Greenpeace UK and Friends of the Earth (Houlder, V., 'Wilkinson joins future forests', Financial Times, 18 February 1999), and works with Richard Tipper of the Institute of Ecology Management at Edinburgh University (Pryor, M., 'Planting trees is a gas, gas, gas', The Times (London), 12 June 1999). The organization has come up with a 'carbon calculator' capable of telling anyone how much they would need to invest in forestry to offset their carbon emissions (Houlder, V., 'Avis goes into trees to earn its green stripes', Financial Times, 31 May 1999, p. 1).
77. Future Forests, run by Dan Morrell, has hired Pete Wilkinson, one of the founders of Greenpeace UK and Friends of the Earth (Houlder, V., 'Wilkinson joins future forests', Financial Times, 18 February 1999), and works with Richard Tipper of the Institute of Ecology Management at Edinburgh University (Pryor, M., 'Planting trees is a gas, gas, gas', The Times (London), 12 June 1999). The organization has come up with a 'carbon calculator' capable of telling anyone how much they would need to invest in forestry to offset their carbon emissions (Houlder, V., 'Avis goes into trees to earn its green stripes', Financial Times, 31 May 1999, p. 1).
78. Future Forests, run by Dan Morrell, has hired Pete Wilkinson, one of the founders of Greenpeace UK and Friends of the Earth (Houlder, V., 'Wilkinson joins future forests', Financial Times, 18 February 1999), and works with Richard Tipper of the Institute of Ecology Management at Edinburgh University (Pryor, M., 'Planting trees is a gas, gas, gas', The Times (London), 12 June 1999). The organization has come up with a 'carbon calculator' capable of telling anyone how much they would need to invest in forestry to offset their carbon emissions (Houlder, V., 'Avis goes into trees to earn its green stripes', Financial Times, 31 May 1999, p. 1).
79. 2 produced by their holiday in Kenya for a mere £12.31 extra (Carbon Storage Trust, 'Climate care products', Oxford, 1999).
80. 2 produced by their holiday in Kenya for a mere £12.31 extra (Carbon Storage Trust, 'Climate care products', Oxford, 1999).
81. 2 produced by their holiday in Kenya for a mere £12.31 extra (Carbon Storage Trust, 'Climate care products', Oxford, 1999).
82. Boley, J., 'Car firms keen to plant trees and make motoring greener', Deutsche Presse-Agentur, 13 March 1999; Car firms take a breather', Western Daily Press (Bristol), 7 June 1999.
83. Boley, J., 'Car firms keen to plant trees and make motoring greener', Deutsche Presse-Agentur, 13 March 1999; 'Car firms take a breather', Western Daily Press (Bristol), 7 June 1999.
84. Ibid.
85. Lohmann, L. (1991) 'Peasants, plantations and pulp: the politics of eucalyptus in Thailand', Bulletin of Concerned Asian Scholars, Vol. 23, No. 4, pp. 3-17; Carrere, R. and Lohmann, L., op. cit. ref. 39, pp. 229-245; 'Forest cleansing: racial oppression in nature conservation', Corner House Briefing No. 13, January 1999; Sathirathai, S., 'The role of property rights in the adoption of conservation practices in Northern Thailand', Thai Environment Institute Quarterly Environment Journal, April-June 1995, pp. 41-54.
86. Lohmann, L. (1991) 'Peasants, plantations and pulp: the politics of eucalyptus in Thailand', Bulletin of Concerned Asian Scholars, Vol. 23, No. 4, pp. 3-17; Carrere, R. and Lohmann, L., op. cit. ref. 39, pp. 229-245; 'Forest cleansing: racial oppression in nature conservation', Corner House Briefing No. 13, January 1999; Sathirathai, S., 'The role of property rights in the adoption of conservation practices in Northern Thailand', Thai Environment Institute Quarterly Environment Journal, April-June 1995, pp. 41-54.
87. Lohmann, L. (1991) 'Peasants, plantations and pulp: the politics of eucalyptus in Thailand', Bulletin of Concerned Asian Scholars, Vol. 23, No. 4, pp. 3-17; Carrere, R. and Lohmann, L., op. cit. ref. 39, pp. 229-245; 'Forest cleansing: racial oppression in nature conservation', Corner House Briefing No. 13, January 1999; Sathirathai, S., 'The role of property rights in the adoption of conservation practices in Northern Thailand', Thai Environment Institute Quarterly Environment Journal, April-June 1995, pp. 41-54.
88. Lohmann, L. (1991) 'Peasants, plantations and pulp: the politics of eucalyptus in Thailand', Bulletin of Concerned Asian Scholars, Vol. 23, No. 4, pp. 3-17; Carrere, R. and Lohmann, L., op. cit. ref. 39, pp. 229-245; 'Forest cleansing: racial oppression in nature conservation', Corner House Briefing No. 13, January 1999; Sathirathai, S., 'The role of property rights in the adoption of conservation practices in Northern Thailand', Thai Environment Institute Quarterly Environment Journal, April-June 1995, pp. 41-54.
89. This is how long carbon emissions from fossil fuels are currently believed to retain their 'radiative forcing qualities' in the atmosphere (Schimel, D. et al., 'Radiative forcing of climate change', in Houghton, J.T. et al. (Editors) Climate Change 1995: The Science of Climate Change, Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, 1995). After finally being deposited on the ocean floor, much carbon is eventually subducted under continental plates. In a sense, native forests and industrial plantations also belong to distinct carbon 'pools', owing to the difficulty in many places of re-establishing ecosystems that perform the functions of the original forest once land has been industrially cleared. It would be theoretically possible, of course, to use carbon plantation wood to replace some fossil fuels, thereby slowing depletion of the underground carbon pool. But this is not, in reality, what most carbon 'offset' schemes are aimed at.
90. Pyne, S. (1995) World Fire: The Culture of Fire on Earth, University of Washington, Seattle.
91. De Freitas, C., op. cit. ref. 28.
92. 'ANZAAS Congress: efficiency key to carbon cutback', Melbourne Age, 16 February 1990, p. 16. See also Cullet, P. and Kameri Mbote, A.P. (1998) 'Joint implementation and forestry projects: conceptual and operational fallacies', International Affairs, Vol. 74, No. 2, p. 393.
93. 'ANZAAS Congress: efficiency key to carbon cutback', Melbourne Age, 16 February 1990, p. 16. See also Cullet, P. and Kameri Mbote, A.P. (1998) 'Joint implementation and forestry projects: conceptual and operational fallacies', International Affairs, Vol. 74, No. 2, p. 393.
94. 2 out', Popular Science, Vol. 244, 2 February 1994, p.65; US Department of Energy, Office of Fossil Energy, 'Working paper on Carbon Sequestration Science and Technology', Washington, February 1999.
95. 2 out', Popular Science, Vol. 244, 2 February 1994, p.65; US Department of Energy, Office of Fossil Energy, 'Working paper on Carbon Sequestration Science and Technology', Washington, February 1999.
96. Carbon Storage Trust, Carbon Offsets in Forestry, Oxford, 1999, p. 8.
97. Smith, J. et al., op. cit. ref. 18, p. 8.
98. Carbon Storage Trust, op. cit. ref. 51, p. 12.
99. Isomaki, R. (1991) 'Paper, pollution and global warming: unsustainable forestry in Finland', The Ecologist, Vol. 21, No. 1, pp. 14-17.
100. Fearnside, P.M., 'Tropical silvicultural plantations as a means of sequestering atmospheric carbon dioxide', Manaus.
101. Suzuki, D., 'Defense of clearcut logging is specious', Toronto Star, 29 May 1993, p. D6.
102. Pyne, op. cit. ref. 47.
103. Houghton, R.A., Davidson, E.A. and Woodwell, G.M. (1998) 'Missing sinks, feedbacks, and understanding the role of terrestrial ecosystems in the global carbon balance', Global Biogeochemical Cycles, Vol. 12, No. 1, pp. 25-34; Woodwell, G.M. and Houghton, R.A., 'The mystery of the Great Northern Forest', in Proceedings of the 7th Annual Conference of the International Boreal Forest Research Association: Sustainable Development of Boreal Forests, ARICFR, Moscow, 1997, pp. 37-44.
104. Houghton, R.A., Davidson, E.A. and Woodwell, G.M. (1998) 'Missing sinks, feedbacks, and understanding the role of terrestrial ecosystems in the global carbon balance', Global Biogeochemical Cycles, Vol. 12, No. 1, pp. 25-34; Woodwell, G.M. and Houghton, R.A., 'The mystery of the Great Northern Forest', in Proceedings of the 7th Annual Conference of the International Boreal Forest Research Association: Sustainable Development of Boreal Forests, ARICFR, Moscow, 1997, pp. 37-44.
105. Dodds, S., op. cit. ref. 28.
106. FACE Foundation, op. cit. ref. 25.
107. International Institute for Sustainable Development, Earth Negotiations Bulletin, Vol. 12, 98 (UNFCCC Technical Workshops), April 1999, http://www.iisd.ca. As noted above, many scientists of international reputation have already tacitly assumed, without any visible discomfort at lack of evidence, that the problems of political control and biological stabilization of plantation wood, which would make the status of carbon in plantations equivalent to that in hydrocarbon reserves, are resolvable.
108. Environmental Resources Management, Ltd., 'Lessons from the World Bank for the Kyoto Mechanisms: A Review of World Bank Reports', confidential report to the World Bank, Washington, April 1999.
109. The equation can be refined to favour earlier or later emissions reductions. See Smith, J., op. cit. ref. 18, p. 9; Goldberg, D.M. et al., op. cit. ref. 21; Chomitz, K., 'Baselines for greenhouse gas reductions' and 'The permanence and duration issue in carbon offsets based on sequestration', Carbon Offset Unit, World Bank, Washington, 1998; Heister, J. 'Towards a methodology for quantifying greenhouse gas offsets from joint implementation projects and activities implemented jointly', World Bank, Washington, 1997; Fearnside, P.M. (1997) 'Monitoring needs to transform amazonian forest maintenance into a global-warming mitigation option', Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies for Global Change, Vol. 2, pp. 285- 302; Ridley, M.A. (1998) Lowering the Cost of Emission Reduction, Kluwer, Dordrecht; Smith, J.S., Mourato, E., Veneklaas, R. et al., 'Can slash-and-burn farmers contribute to environmental protection? An example from the Peruvian Amazon', CIFOR, Bogor, 1998; CIEL, op. cit. ref. 18.
110. The equation can be refined to favour earlier or later emissions reductions. See Smith, J., op. cit. ref. 18, p. 9; Goldberg, D.M. et al., op. cit. ref. 21; Chomitz, K., 'Baselines for greenhouse gas reductions' and 'The permanence and duration issue in carbon offsets based on sequestration', Carbon Offset Unit, World Bank, Washington, 1998; Heister, J. 'Towards a methodology for quantifying greenhouse gas offsets from joint implementation projects and activities implemented jointly', World Bank, Washington, 1997; Fearnside, P.M. (1997) 'Monitoring needs to transform amazonian forest maintenance into a global-warming mitigation option', Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies for Global Change, Vol. 2, pp. 285- 302; Ridley, M.A. (1998) Lowering the Cost of Emission Reduction, Kluwer, Dordrecht; Smith, J.S., Mourato, E., Veneklaas, R. et al., 'Can slash-and-burn farmers contribute to environmental protection? An example from the Peruvian Amazon', CIFOR, Bogor, 1998; CIEL, op. cit. ref. 18.
111. The equation can be refined to favour earlier or later emissions reductions. See Smith, J., op. cit. ref. 18, p. 9; Goldberg, D.M. et al., op. cit. ref. 21; Chomitz, K., 'Baselines for greenhouse gas reductions' and 'The permanence and duration issue in carbon offsets based on sequestration', Carbon Offset Unit, World Bank, Washington, 1998; Heister, J. 'Towards a methodology for quantifying greenhouse gas offsets from joint implementation projects and activities implemented jointly', World Bank, Washington, 1997; Fearnside, P.M. (1997) 'Monitoring needs to transform amazonian forest maintenance into a global-warming mitigation option', Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies for Global Change, Vol. 2, pp. 285- 302; Ridley, M.A. (1998) Lowering the Cost of Emission Reduction, Kluwer, Dordrecht; Smith, J.S., Mourato, E., Veneklaas, R. et al., 'Can slash-and-burn farmers contribute to environmental protection? An example from the Peruvian Amazon', CIFOR, Bogor, 1998; CIEL, op. cit. ref. 18.
112. The equation can be refined to favour earlier or later emissions reductions. See Smith, J., op. cit. ref. 18, p. 9; Goldberg, D.M. et al., op. cit. ref. 21; Chomitz, K., 'Baselines for greenhouse gas reductions' and 'The permanence and duration issue in carbon offsets based on sequestration', Carbon Offset Unit, World Bank, Washington, 1998; Heister, J. 'Towards a methodology for quantifying greenhouse gas offsets from joint implementation projects and activities implemented jointly', World Bank, Washington, 1997; Fearnside, P.M. (1997) 'Monitoring needs to transform amazonian forest maintenance into a global-warming mitigation option', Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies for Global Change, Vol. 2, pp. 285- 302; Ridley, M.A. (1998) Lowering the Cost of Emission Reduction, Kluwer, Dordrecht; Smith, J.S., Mourato, E., Veneklaas, R. et al., 'Can slash-and-burn farmers contribute to environmental protection? An example from the Peruvian Amazon', CIFOR, Bogor, 1998; CIEL, op. cit. ref. 18.
113. The equation can be refined to favour earlier or later emissions reductions. See Smith, J., op. cit. ref. 18, p. 9; Goldberg, D.M. et al., op. cit. ref. 21; Chomitz, K., 'Baselines for greenhouse gas reductions' and 'The permanence and duration issue in carbon offsets based on sequestration', Carbon Offset Unit, World Bank, Washington, 1998; Heister, J. 'Towards a methodology for quantifying greenhouse gas offsets from joint implementation projects and activities implemented jointly', World Bank, Washington, 1997; Fearnside, P.M. (1997) 'Monitoring needs to transform amazonian forest maintenance into a global-warming mitigation option', Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies for Global Change, Vol. 2, pp. 285- 302; Ridley, M.A. (1998) Lowering the Cost of Emission Reduction, Kluwer, Dordrecht; Smith, J.S., Mourato, E., Veneklaas, R. et al., 'Can slash-and-burn farmers contribute to environmental protection? An example from the Peruvian Amazon', CIFOR, Bogor, 1998; CIEL, op. cit. ref. 18.
114. The equation can be refined to favour earlier or later emissions reductions. See Smith, J., op. cit. ref. 18, p. 9; Goldberg, D.M. et al., op. cit. ref. 21; Chomitz, K., 'Baselines for greenhouse gas reductions' and 'The permanence and duration issue in carbon offsets based on sequestration', Carbon Offset Unit, World Bank, Washington, 1998; Heister, J. 'Towards a methodology for quantifying greenhouse gas offsets from joint implementation projects and activities implemented jointly', World Bank, Washington, 1997; Fearnside, P.M. (1997) 'Monitoring needs to transform amazonian forest maintenance into a global-warming mitigation option', Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies for Global Change, Vol. 2, pp. 285- 302; Ridley, M.A. (1998) Lowering the Cost of Emission Reduction, Kluwer, Dordrecht; Smith, J.S., Mourato, E., Veneklaas, R. et al., 'Can slash-and-burn farmers contribute to environmental protection? An example from the Peruvian Amazon', CIFOR, Bogor, 1998; CIEL, op. cit. ref. 18.
115. The equation can be refined to favour earlier or later emissions reductions. See Smith, J., op. cit. ref. 18, p. 9; Goldberg, D.M. et al., op. cit. ref. 21; Chomitz, K., 'Baselines for greenhouse gas reductions' and 'The permanence and duration issue in carbon offsets based on sequestration', Carbon Offset Unit, World Bank, Washington, 1998; Heister, J. 'Towards a methodology for quantifying greenhouse gas offsets from joint implementation projects and activities implemented jointly', World Bank, Washington, 1997; Fearnside, P.M. (1997) 'Monitoring needs to transform amazonian forest maintenance into a global-warming mitigation option', Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies for Global Change, Vol. 2, pp. 285- 302; Ridley, M.A. (1998) Lowering the Cost of Emission Reduction, Kluwer, Dordrecht; Smith, J.S., Mourato, E., Veneklaas, R. et al., 'Can slash-and-burn farmers contribute to environmental protection? An example from the Peruvian Amazon', CIFOR, Bogor, 1998; CIEL, op. cit. ref. 18.
116. The equation can be refined to favour earlier or later emissions reductions. See Smith, J., op. cit. ref. 18, p. 9; Goldberg, D.M. et al., op. cit. ref. 21; Chomitz, K., 'Baselines for greenhouse gas reductions' and 'The permanence and duration issue in carbon offsets based on sequestration', Carbon Offset Unit, World Bank, Washington, 1998; Heister, J. 'Towards a methodology for quantifying greenhouse gas offsets from joint implementation projects and activities implemented jointly', World Bank, Washington, 1997; Fearnside, P.M. (1997) 'Monitoring needs to transform amazonian forest maintenance into a global-warming mitigation option', Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies for Global Change, Vol. 2, pp. 285- 302; Ridley, M.A. (1998) Lowering the Cost of Emission Reduction, Kluwer, Dordrecht; Smith, J.S., Mourato, E., Veneklaas, R. et al., 'Can slash-and-burn farmers contribute to environmental protection? An example from the Peruvian Amazon', CIFOR, Bogor, 1998; CIEL, op. cit. ref. 18.
117. 'Missing the point of development talk; reflections for activists', Corner House Briefing No. 9, August 1998.
118. The approved Outline of this IPCC Special Report on 'Land use, land use change and forestry' released in May 2000, already begged enormous questions by including sections on 'carbon accounting rules' and 'operational implications of uncertainties' (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change document No. 12327/M/IPCC/SRLFC, Annex 1, Geneva, 27 May 1999). As David Bloor remarks, 'We do not [stop reasoning scientifically] in order to protect our institutions from collapse under the pressure of logical criticism. Rather, it is because we routinely accept [their] activities . . . that we adjust our reasoning' (Knowledge and Social Imagery, University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1991, pp. 142-146). See also Cohn, C., 'Sex and death in the rational world of defense intellectuals', in Laslett, B., Kohlstedt, S.G., et al. (Editors) Gender and Scientific Authority, Chicago, 1996, for a parallel discussion on how, in the 1980s, the issue of the impossibility of 'limited nuclear war' or 'surgically clean counterforce strikes' could not easily be raised within the language used in nuclear war-planning institutions. For different views of the phenomenon, see Davidson, D. (1982) 'Paradoxes of irrationality', in Wollheim, R. (Editor) Essays on Freud, Penguin, London, and Ferguson, J. (1990) The Anti-Politics Machine: 'Development', Depoliticization, and Bureaucratic Power in Lesotho, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
119. The approved Outline of this IPCC Special Report on 'Land use, land use change and forestry' released in May 2000, already begged enormous questions by including sections on 'carbon accounting rules' and 'operational implications of uncertainties' (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change document No. 12327/M/IPCC/SRLFC, Annex 1, Geneva, 27 May 1999). As David Bloor remarks, 'We do not [stop reasoning scientifically] in order to protect our institutions from collapse under the pressure of logical criticism. Rather, it is because we routinely accept [their] activities . . . that we adjust our reasoning' (Knowledge and Social Imagery, University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1991, pp. 142-146). See also Cohn, C., 'Sex and death in the rational world of defense intellectuals', in Laslett, B., Kohlstedt, S.G., et al. (Editors) Gender and Scientific Authority, Chicago, 1996, for a parallel discussion on how, in the 1980s, the issue of the impossibility of 'limited nuclear war' or 'surgically clean counterforce strikes' could not easily be raised within the language used in nuclear war-planning institutions. For different views of the phenomenon, see Davidson, D. (1982) 'Paradoxes of irrationality', in Wollheim, R. (Editor) Essays on Freud, Penguin, London, and Ferguson, J. (1990) The Anti-Politics Machine: 'Development', Depoliticization, and Bureaucratic Power in Lesotho, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
120. The approved Outline of this IPCC Special Report on 'Land use, land use change and forestry' released in May 2000, already begged enormous questions by including sections on 'carbon accounting rules' and 'operational implications of uncertainties' (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change document No. 12327/M/IPCC/SRLFC, Annex 1, Geneva, 27 May 1999). As David Bloor remarks, 'We do not [stop reasoning scientifically] in order to protect our institutions from collapse under the pressure of logical criticism. Rather, it is because we routinely accept [their] activities . . . that we adjust our reasoning' (Knowledge and Social Imagery, University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1991, pp. 142-146). See also Cohn, C., 'Sex and death in the rational world of defense intellectuals', in Laslett, B., Kohlstedt, S.G., et al. (Editors) Gender and Scientific Authority, Chicago, 1996, for a parallel discussion on how, in the 1980s, the issue of the impossibility of 'limited nuclear war' or 'surgically clean counterforce strikes' could not easily be raised within the language used in nuclear war-planning institutions. For different views of the phenomenon, see Davidson, D. (1982) 'Paradoxes of irrationality', in Wollheim, R. (Editor) Essays on Freud, Penguin, London, and Ferguson, J. (1990) The Anti-Politics Machine: 'Development', Depoliticization, and Bureaucratic Power in Lesotho, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
121. The approved Outline of this IPCC Special Report on 'Land use, land use change and forestry' released in May 2000, already begged enormous questions by including sections on 'carbon accounting rules' and 'operational implications of uncertainties' (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change document No. 12327/M/IPCC/SRLFC, Annex 1, Geneva, 27 May 1999). As David Bloor remarks, 'We do not [stop reasoning scientifically] in order to protect our institutions from collapse under the pressure of logical criticism. Rather, it is because we routinely accept [their] activities . . . that we adjust our reasoning' (Knowledge and Social Imagery, University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1991, pp. 142-146). See also Cohn, C., 'Sex and death in the rational world of defense intellectuals', in Laslett, B., Kohlstedt, S.G., et al. (Editors) Gender and Scientific Authority, Chicago, 1996, for a parallel discussion on how, in the 1980s, the issue of the impossibility of 'limited nuclear war' or 'surgically clean counterforce strikes' could not easily be raised within the language used in nuclear war-planning institutions. For different views of the phenomenon, see Davidson, D. (1982) 'Paradoxes of irrationality', in Wollheim, R. (Editor) Essays on Freud, Penguin, London, and Ferguson, J. (1990) The Anti-Politics Machine: 'Development', Depoliticization, and Bureaucratic Power in Lesotho, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
122. Barnes, P. 'Trillion dollar windfall: who'll get the manna when the heavens charge rent?', American Prospect, April 1999. For sophisticated recent analyses, from a broadly 'free market' perspective, of the importance of property rights definition to environmental problems, see Hill, P.J. and Meiners, R.E. (Editors) (1998) Who Owns the Environment?, Rowman and Littlefield, Boston.
123. Barnes, P. 'Trillion dollar windfall: who'll get the manna when the heavens charge rent?', American Prospect, April 1999. For sophisticated recent analyses, from a broadly 'free market' perspective, of the importance of property rights definition to environmental problems, see Hill, P.J. and Meiners, R.E. (Editors) (1998) Who Owns the Environment?, Rowman and Littlefield, Boston.
124. Macleay, J., 'Seeds sown for SFE greenhouse trade', The Australian, 27 October 1998.
125. 'Environmentalists oppose bill', Los Angeles Times, 24 March 1999; 'US Senate bill on "greenhouse gas" polluters draws fire', Dow Jones Newswires, 24 March 1999.
126. 'Environmentalists oppose bill', Los Angeles Times, 24 March 1999; 'US Senate bill on "greenhouse gas" polluters draws fire', Dow Jones Newswires, 24 March 1999.
127. Barnes, P., op. cit. ref. 66; Gersh, J. op. cit. ref. 17.
128. Barnes, P., op. cit. ref. 66; Gersh, J. op. cit. ref. 17.
129. Goldberg, D.M. et al., op. cit. ref. 21.
130. 2-reducing agroforestry, management, sink-protecting and other 'sustainable production projects' in extractive reserves, indigenous areas, conservation units, or [projects] that benefit other rural forest communities (ECO: The Climate Action Network Newsletter, Buenos Aires, 24 October 1998).
131. This scenario is implied by Smith, J. et al., op. cit. ref. 18; Kosloff, L.H., op. cit. ref. 32; Trexler, M. and Haugen, C. (1994) Keeping it Green: Global Warming Mitigation Through Tropical Forestry, World Resources Institute, Washington; Grainger, A. (1998) 'Estimating areas of degraded tropical lands requiring replenishment of forest cover', International Tree Crops Journal, Vol. 5, No. 31; CIEL, op. cit. ref. 18.
132. This scenario is implied by Smith, J. et al., op. cit. ref. 18; Kosloff, L.H., op. cit. ref. 32; Trexler, M. and Haugen, C. (1994) Keeping it Green: Global Warming Mitigation Through Tropical Forestry, World Resources Institute, Washington; Grainger, A. (1998) 'Estimating areas of degraded tropical lands requiring replenishment of forest cover', International Tree Crops Journal, Vol. 5, No. 31; CIEL, op. cit. ref. 18.
133. This scenario is implied by Smith, J. et al., op. cit. ref. 18; Kosloff, L.H., op. cit. ref. 32; Trexler, M. and Haugen, C. (1994) Keeping it Green: Global Warming Mitigation Through Tropical Forestry, World Resources Institute, Washington; Grainger, A. (1998) 'Estimating areas of degraded tropical lands requiring replenishment of forest cover', International Tree Crops Journal, Vol. 5, No. 31; CIEL, op. cit. ref. 18.
134. This scenario is implied by Smith, J. et al., op. cit. ref. 18; Kosloff, L.H., op. cit. ref. 32; Trexler, M. and Haugen, C. (1994) Keeping it Green: Global Warming Mitigation Through Tropical Forestry, World Resources Institute, Washington; Grainger, A. (1998) 'Estimating areas of degraded tropical lands requiring replenishment of forest cover', International Tree Crops Journal, Vol. 5, No. 31; CIEL, op. cit. ref. 18.
135. This scenario is implied by Smith, J. et al., op. cit. ref. 18; Kosloff, L.H., op. cit. ref. 32; Trexler, M. and Haugen, C. (1994) Keeping it Green: Global Warming Mitigation Through Tropical Forestry, World Resources Institute, Washington; Grainger, A. (1998) 'Estimating areas of degraded tropical lands requiring replenishment of forest cover', International Tree Crops Journal, Vol. 5, No. 31; CIEL, op. cit. ref. 18.
136. Richards, K.R., 'Joint implementation in the framework convention on climate change: opportunities and pitfalls', in An Economic Perspective on Climate Change Policies, ACCF Center for Policy Research, 1996, cited in Goldberg, D.M., op. cit. ref. 21, p. 402.
137. See (e.g.) Testimony of Fred Krupp, Executive Director, Environmental Defense Fund, before the United States Senate Committee on Agriculture, Forestry and Nutrition, 5 March 1998.
138. Grubb, M., op. cit. ref. 15, p. 59.
139. 2 emission rights by sponsoring carbon forestry is perhaps no less likely to harm poor communities in the neighborhood of its factories than to harm rural communities in the neighborhood of its 'sequestering' plantation projects. As Belliveau points out, 'whenever a company forgoes reductions in carbon dioxide emissions because it purchased a credit, much more than carbon dioxide continues to flow from that company's stack. Every combustion source also emits dozens of other co-pollutants that pose deadly health risks locally and regionally. These include cancer-causing products of incomplete combustion such as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, unburned toxic hydrocarbons, and fine particulate matter linked to excessive death rates' (Belliveau, M., op. cit. ref. 13 and 'Smoke and mirrors: will global pollution trading save the climate or promote injustice and fraud?', Transnational Resource & Action Center, October 1998, http://www.corpwatch.org/trac/feature/climate/pollution/belliveau. html, accessed 28 April 1999).
140. 2 emission rights by sponsoring carbon forestry is perhaps no less likely to harm poor communities in the neighborhood of its factories than to harm rural communities in the neighborhood of its 'sequestering' plantation projects. As Belliveau points out, 'whenever a company forgoes reductions in carbon dioxide emissions because it purchased a credit, much more than carbon dioxide continues to flow from that company's stack. Every combustion source also emits dozens of other co-pollutants that pose deadly health risks locally and regionally. These include cancer-causing products of incomplete combustion such as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, unburned toxic hydrocarbons, and fine particulate matter linked to excessive death rates' (Belliveau, M., op. cit. ref. 13 and 'Smoke and mirrors: will global pollution trading save the climate or promote injustice and fraud?', Transnational Resource & Action Center, October 1998, http://www.corpwatch.org/trac/feature/climate/pollution/belliveau. html, accessed 28 April 1999).
141. 2 emission rights by sponsoring carbon forestry is perhaps no less likely to harm poor communities in the neighborhood of its factories than to harm rural communities in the neighborhood of its 'sequestering' plantation projects. As Belliveau points out, 'whenever a company forgoes reductions in carbon dioxide emissions because it purchased a credit, much more than carbon dioxide continues to flow from that company's stack. Every combustion source also emits dozens of other co-pollutants that pose deadly health risks locally and regionally. These include cancer-causing products of incomplete combustion such as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, unburned toxic hydrocarbons, and fine particulate matter linked to excessive death rates' (Belliveau, M., op. cit. ref. 13 and 'Smoke and mirrors: will global pollution trading save the climate or promote injustice and fraud?', Transnational Resource & Action Center, October 1998, http://www.corpwatch.org/trac/feature/climate/pollution/belliveau. html, accessed 28 April 1999).
142. Frassrand, T., et al., interview with Senator Chuck Hagel, CNN Newsroom Worldview, 15 December 1997; United Mine Workers, 'United mine workers President Cecil Roberts praises Senate action on UN Treaty', PR Newswire, 25 July 1997. For a rebuttal, see World Resources Institute website, http://www.wri.org/cpi/cop4.html.
143. Frassrand, T., et al., interview with Senator Chuck Hagel, CNN Newsroom Worldview, 15 December 1997; United Mine Workers, 'United mine workers President Cecil Roberts praises Senate action on UN Treaty', PR Newswire, 25 July 1997. For a rebuttal, see World Resources Institute website, http://www.wri.org/cpi/cop4.html.
144. Timber & Wood Products, op. cit. ref. 3.
145. The Guardian (London) 9 April 1999, p. 15.
146. Centre for Science and Environment, op. cit. ref. 13, p. 7.
147. Houlder, V., 'Salvation or hot air', Financial Times, 15 April 1999.
148. Palast, G., op. cit. ref. 19.
149. Baker, R., 'Trading in greenhouse gas permits to become big business', South China Morning Post, 2 November 1998.
150. Center for International Environmental Law, 'Responsibility for non-compliance under the Kyoto Protocol's mechanisms for cooperative implementation', CIEL, June 1998.
151. Thompson, E.P. (1963) The Making of the English Working Class, Penguin, London, p. 218.
152. 'Carbon is not a commodity like wheat or coffee,' the Carbon Storage Trust acknowledges. 'Buying any normal agricultural commodity involves paying a farmer for what he has extracted as a result of past actions. Buying a carbon credit, however, involves paying a farmer for what he will not extract as a result of his future actions' (op. cit. ref. 51, p. 9).
153. Polanyi, K. (1957) The Great Transformation, Beacon Press, Boston.
154. For a brief survey of this process as it relates to English woodlands, see Lohmann, L. (1999) 'Forests: myths and realities of violent conflicts', in Suliman, M. (Editor) Ecology, Politics and Violent Conflict, Zed, London, pp. 158-80.
155. Sullivan, J.R., op. cit. ref. 3.
156. Wysham, D., op. cit. ref. 22.
157. McGuinness, P.P., 'Forests to fight the greenhouse', The Age (Melbourne), 7 January 1995.
158. Carbon Storage Trust, op. cit. ref. 51.
159. Kosloff, L.H., op. cit. ref. 32, p. 371.
160. 'Climate and equity: after Kyoto', Corner House Briefing No. 3, December 1997; GLOBE website: http://globeint.org; GCI website: http://www.gn.apc.org/gci.
161. 'Climate and equity: after Kyoto', Corner House Briefing No. 3, December 1997; GLOBE website: http://globeint.org; GCI website: http://www.gn.apc.org/gci.
162. 'Climate and equity: after Kyoto', Corner House Briefing No. 3, December 1997; GLOBE website: http://globeint.org; GCI website: http://www.gn.apc.org/gci.