Phoenicianism: The formation of an identity in Lebanon in 1920

Middle Eastern Studies

Volumn 37, Issue 1, 2001, Pages 173-194

  Kaufman, Asher ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

CULTURAL IDENTITY; HISTORICAL GEOGRAPHY; IDENTITY CONSTRUCTION; TWENTIETH CENTURY;

LEBANON;

EID: 0035071958     PISSN: 00263206     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/714004369     Document Type: Article

References (92)

1. The following paragraphs were written in the spirit of Anthony Smith's The Ethnic Origins of Nations (Oxford, 1986). I see his concept of ethnie as the most appropriate to the creation of Lebanese collective identity.
2. Philip L. Kohl and Clare Fawcett, Nationalism, Politics and the Practice of Archaeology (Cambridge, 1995). See also an interesting article which deals with the connection between archaeology and the Zionist national movement. Aharon Kampinsky. 'The inspiration of archeology over Israeli society and culture', Ariel, Vol. 100-1 (April 1994), pp.179-90.
3. Philip L. Kohl and Clare Fawcett, Nationalism, Politics and the Practice of Archaeology (Cambridge, 1995). See also an interesting article which deals with the connection between archaeology and the Zionist national movement. Aharon Kampinsky. 'The inspiration of archeology over Israeli society and culture', Ariel, Vol. 100-1 (April 1994), pp.179-90.
4. Smith, The Ethnic Origins, p.192.
5. Ernest Renan, Mission de Phénicie (Paris, 1864).
6. Edward Said, Orientalism (London, 1978), pp.137-48.
7. Barbara Tuchman, Bible and Sword (New York, 1956), p.6.
8. René Ristelhueber, Les traditions françaises au Liban (Paris, 1918), p.V. 'The Lebanese mountain does not reach the highest altitudes, but, it is one of the highest summits in would history. From Solomon to Renan human wisdom has sat in the shade of the secular cedars'.
9. M. l'Abbé Gagnol, Histoire ancienne des peuples de l'Orient (Paris, 1891), p.274. Désiré Blanchard and Jules Toutain, Histoire ancienne des peuples d'Orient (Paris, 1901). Emile Segond, Histoire ancienne de l'Orient (Paris, 1920), p.9.
10. M. l'Abbé Gagnol, Histoire ancienne des peuples de l'Orient (Paris, 1891), p.274. Désiré Blanchard and Jules Toutain, Histoire ancienne des peuples d'Orient (Paris, 1901). Emile Segond, Histoire ancienne de l'Orient (Paris, 1920), p.9.
11. M. l'Abbé Gagnol, Histoire ancienne des peuples de l'Orient (Paris, 1891), p.274. Désiré Blanchard and Jules Toutain, Histoire ancienne des peuples d'Orient (Paris, 1901). Emile Segond, Histoire ancienne de l'Orient (Paris, 1920), p.9.
12. C.H. Andrew and K. Fostner, 'The French Colonial Party', The Historical Journal (1971), p.88. 'The Mediterranean flows through France as the Seine flows through Paris'.
13. René Millet, Notre politique extérieure de 1898 à 1905 (Paris, 1905) pp.218-78.
14. As Léon Gambetta, the great imperialist, said: 'Anti-clericalism is for France, it is not an article to export'. Andrew and Kanya Forster, The Climax of French Imperial Expansion (Stanford, 1981), p.21.
15. On the Jesuit mission see the hook written by a French Jesuit: M. Jullien, La nouvelle mission de la Compagnie de Jésus en Syrie (Paris, 1899). On the importance of St. Joseph see George Naccache, 'Au service du Liban: les 75 ans de l'Université Saint Joseph', L'Orient, 30 April 1950, cited in Sélim Abou, Le bilinguisme arabe-français au Liban (Paris, 1962), pp.203-4. G. Naccache was a member of one of the more active 'Phoenician' families and in this article he praises the University where all that had been created in Lebanon in the last 75 years was born.
16. On the Jesuit mission see the hook written by a French Jesuit: M. Jullien, La nouvelle mission de la Compagnie de Jésus en Syrie (Paris, 1899). On the importance of St. Joseph see George Naccache, 'Au service du Liban: les 75 ans de l'Université Saint Joseph', L'Orient, 30 April 1950, cited in Sélim Abou, Le bilinguisme arabe-français au Liban (Paris, 1962), pp.203-4. G. Naccache was a member of one of the more active 'Phoenician' families and in this article he praises the University where all that had been created in Lebanon in the last 75 years was born.
17. On the Jesuit mission see the hook written by a French Jesuit: M. Jullien, La nouvelle mission de la Compagnie de Jésus en Syrie (Paris, 1899). On the importance of St. Joseph see George Naccache, 'Au service du Liban: les 75 ans de l'Université Saint Joseph', L'Orient, 30 April 1950, cited in Sélim Abou, Le bilinguisme arabe-français au Liban (Paris, 1962), pp.203-4. G. Naccache was a member of one of the more active 'Phoenician' families and in this article he praises the University where all that had been created in Lebanon in the last 75 years was born.
18. On the relations between St. Joseph University and the State see David A. Kerr. The Temporal Authority of the Maronite Patriarchate (Ph.D. thesis, St. Antony's College, Oxford, 1973), p.151. See also: Iskandar al-Riyashi, Ru'asa' Lubran Kama 'Araftuhum (Beirut, 1861), p.15. See also a speech given by Paul Huvelin, the Dean of the Law Faculty of the University of Lyons which provided patronage to Université Saint Joseph: Chambre de commerce de Marseilles, Congrès français de la Syrie (Marseilles, 3-5 Jan. 1919), pp.7-8.
19. On the relations between St. Joseph University and the State see David A. Kerr. The Temporal Authority of the Maronite Patriarchate (Ph.D. thesis, St. Antony's College, Oxford, 1973), p.151. See also: Iskandar al-Riyashi, Ru'asa' Lubran Kama 'Araftuhum (Beirut, 1861), p.15. See also a speech given by Paul Huvelin, the Dean of the Law Faculty of the University of Lyons which provided patronage to Université Saint Joseph: Chambre de commerce de Marseilles, Congrès français de la Syrie (Marseilles, 3-5 Jan. 1919), pp.7-8.
20. On the relations between St. Joseph University and the State see David A. Kerr. The Temporal Authority of the Maronite Patriarchate (Ph.D. thesis, St. Antony's College, Oxford, 1973), p.151. See also: Iskandar al-Riyashi, Ru'asa' Lubran Kama 'Araftuhum (Beirut, 1861), p.15. See also a speech given by Paul Huvelin, the Dean of the Law Faculty of the University of Lyons which provided patronage to Université Saint Joseph: Chambre de commerce de Marseilles, Congrès français de la Syrie (Marseilles, 3-5 Jan. 1919), pp.7-8.
21. See for example David Gordon, Self-Determination and History in the Third World (New Jersey, 1971), pp.55-130. On the Berber case in North Africa see: Archives diplomatique, Nantes, DAT 59 'Principe d'organisation et d'administration des tribus Berbères'. Direction du service des renseignements, 5 Jan. 1916.
22. The curricula of the Faculté orientale focus on the local history in Syria and Lebanon from ancient times to modernity. Ancient Phoenicia, Syrian Christian churches, the Crusaders and the Umayyad period were the major subjects tuught. The Jesuit Archives at Vanves, file no. RPO 52. Programme des cours et conférences, 1905-1906, 1906-1907.
23. A detailed acount on this debate see: Ahmed Beydoun, Identité confessionnelle et temps social chez les historiens libanais contemporains (Beirut, 1984), pp.161-208.
24. Kamal Salibi, 'Islam and Syria in the Writings of Henri Lammens', in Lewis and Holt (eds.), Historians of the Middle East (London, 1962), pp.330-42.
25. Bulletin annuel de l'association amicale des anciens élèves de l'USJ (Beirut, 1907), especially p.26. L'U. Revue de l'anciens élèves de l'Université. Première année (Beirut, 1934).
26. Bulletin annuel de l'association amicale des anciens élèves de l'USJ (Beirut, 1907), especially p.26. L'U. Revue de l'anciens élèves de l'Université. Première année (Beirut, 1934).
27. Meir Zamir, The Formation of Modern Lebanon (London, 1985), pp.1-37.
28. Nicolas Murad, Notice historique sur l'origine de la nation maronite et sur ses rapports avec la France (Paris, 1844). See also, Abbé Azar, Les Marounites d'après le manuscrit arabe du R.P. Azar (Cambari, 1852). For other works that were written in a similar vain see Yussuf Debs, Lettre de Mgr Debs touchant le Patriarche des Maronites. 30 Decembre 1893 (Amiens, 1894). Mgr Emmanuel Pharès, Les Maronites du Liban (Lille, 1908). Bernard Ghobaira al-Ghaziri, Rome et l'église syrienne maronite d'Antioche. 517-1513 (Beirut, 1906).
29. Nicolas Murad, Notice historique sur l'origine de la nation maronite et sur ses rapports avec la France (Paris, 1844). See also, Abbé Azar, Les Marounites d'après le manuscrit arabe du R.P. Azar (Cambari, 1852). For other works that were written in a similar vain see Yussuf Debs, Lettre de Mgr Debs touchant le Patriarche des Maronites. 30 Decembre 1893 (Amiens, 1894). Mgr Emmanuel Pharès, Les Maronites du Liban (Lille, 1908). Bernard Ghobaira al-Ghaziri, Rome et l'église syrienne maronite d'Antioche. 517-1513 (Beirut, 1906).
30. Nicolas Murad, Notice historique sur l'origine de la nation maronite et sur ses rapports avec la France (Paris, 1844). See also, Abbé Azar, Les Marounites d'après le manuscrit arabe du R.P. Azar (Cambari, 1852). For other works that were written in a similar vain see Yussuf Debs, Lettre de Mgr Debs touchant le Patriarche des Maronites. 30 Decembre 1893 (Amiens, 1894). Mgr Emmanuel Pharès, Les Maronites du Liban (Lille, 1908). Bernard Ghobaira al-Ghaziri, Rome et l'église syrienne maronite d'Antioche. 517-1513 (Beirut, 1906).
31. Nicolas Murad, Notice historique sur l'origine de la nation maronite et sur ses rapports avec la France (Paris, 1844). See also, Abbé Azar, Les Marounites d'après le manuscrit arabe du R.P. Azar (Cambari, 1852). For other works that were written in a similar vain see Yussuf Debs, Lettre de Mgr Debs touchant le Patriarche des Maronites. 30 Decembre 1893 (Amiens, 1894). Mgr Emmanuel Pharès, Les Maronites du Liban (Lille, 1908). Bernard Ghobaira al-Ghaziri, Rome et l'église syrienne maronite d'Antioche. 517-1513 (Beirut, 1906).
32. Nicolas Murad, Notice historique sur l'origine de la nation maronite et sur ses rapports avec la France (Paris, 1844). See also, Abbé Azar, Les Marounites d'après le manuscrit arabe du R.P. Azar (Cambari, 1852). For other works that were written in a similar vain see Yussuf Debs, Lettre de Mgr Debs touchant le Patriarche des Maronites. 30 Decembre 1893 (Amiens, 1894). Mgr Emmanuel Pharès, Les Maronites du Liban (Lille, 1908). Bernard Ghobaira al-Ghaziri, Rome et l'église syrienne maronite d'Antioche. 517-1513 (Beirut, 1906).
33. See Carol Hakim-Dowek, The Origins of the Lebanese National Idva, 1840-1914 (Ph.D. thesis. St. Antony's College, Oxford, 1997), pp.283-97.
34. Yusuf al-Dibs, Kitab Tarikh Suriyya, Vol.1 (Beirut, 1893), pp.255-365.
35. E.P. Hoyek, 'Les Revendications du Liban, mémoire de la délégation libanise à la Conférence de la Paix', La Revue Phénicienne (Beirut, 1919), p.236.
36. Elias Huwayyek, al-Dhakha Dir al-Siniyya (Junich, 1937). Many communiqués are preoccupied with patriotism and with the importance of historical memory, but none mentions any Phoenician descent.
37. Yusuf al-Saouda was close to the Patriarch and collaborated with him politically. He claims that Huwayyek was influenced by him in his political views. Yusuf al-Sawad. Fi Sabil al-Istiqlal (Beirut, 1967), pp.183-4.
38. M. Jouplain, La Question du Liban: étude d'histoire diplomatique et de droit international, 2nd Edition (Jounieh, 1961).
39. Ibid., p.1: Elisée Reclus, Nouvelle géographie universelle, l'Asie antérieure (Paris, 1884), pp.6, 685, 745. See also Marwan Buheiry. 'Bulus Nujayam and the Grand Liban Idea 1908-1919', in L.I. Conrad (ed.), The Formation and Perception of the Modern Arab World, Studies by Marwan Buheiry (New Jersey, 1988), pp.575-95.
40. Ibid., p.1: Elisée Reclus, Nouvelle géographie universelle, l'Asie antérieure (Paris, 1884), pp.6, 685, 745. See also Marwan Buheiry. 'Bulus Nujayam and the Grand Liban Idea 1908-1919', in L.I. Conrad (ed.), The Formation and Perception of the Modern Arab World, Studies by Marwan Buheiry (New Jersey, 1988), pp.575-95.
41. Ibid., p.1: Elisée Reclus, Nouvelle géographie universelle, l'Asie antérieure (Paris, 1884), pp.6, 685, 745. See also Marwan Buheiry. 'Bulus Nujayam and the Grand Liban Idea 1908-1919', in L.I. Conrad (ed.), The Formation and Perception of the Modern Arab World, Studies by Marwan Buheiry (New Jersey, 1988), pp.575-95.
42. K.T., Khairallah, Les régions arabes libérées (Paris, 1919), pp.64-5. See also Zamir, pp.60-1.
43. K.T., Khairallah, Les régions arabes libérées (Paris, 1919), pp.64-5. See also Zamir, pp.60-1.
44. Yussuf al-Saouda, Fi Sabil Lubnan (Alexandria, 1919), p.15.
45. Ministre des Affaires Étrangères, Paris (henceforth MAE), Vol.7, pp.27-8, 2 Dec. 1918, Note 158.
46. The French referred to al-Saouda as anti-French. Just before his final return to Lebanon from Alexandria in 1922, he protested against the study of French in Lebanon and expressed his fear that Arabic, the local language, would he damaged. Such a view could not have been uttered by any other 'Phoenician at that time, see: MAE Vol.127, p.257. 'Note sur le nouveau statut du Liban, par Yussuf al-Saouda', Alexandrie, 21 May 1922.
47. See also the book by Auguste Adib Pacha. Le Liban après la Guerre (Paris, 1918). The writer became the president of the Alliance Libanaise after Iskandar Amoun, the first president, joined Faisal's government in Damascus. More importantly, after returning to Lebanon in 1920. Adib Pacha became a leading politician. This indicates that Phoenicianism was expressed by high-level officials during the formation of Greater Lebanon.
48. Victor Bérard, Les Phéniciens et l'Odyssée (Paris, 1902). See also Bérard, Les Phéniciens et les poèmes homériques (Paris, 1899).
49. Victor Bérard, Les Phéniciens et l'Odyssée (Paris, 1902). See also Bérard, Les Phéniciens et les poèmes homériques (Paris, 1899).
50. M. Gras, P. Rouillard, J. Teixidor, L'Univers phénicien (Paris, 1989), p.20.
51. Jacques Tabet, La Syrie (Paris, 1920), pp.28-9. 'Syria is Syrian and Phoenician just as its history and geographic character indicate'.
52. MAE Vol.252. Rapport sur la situation de la Syrie et du Liban (Paris, 1924), pp.34-44. MAE Vol.253, pp.89-91: The 1928 report to the League of Nations.
53. MAE Vol.252. Rapport sur la situation de la Syrie et du Liban (Paris, 1924), pp.34-44. MAE Vol.253, pp.89-91: The 1928 report to the League of Nations.
54. Hector Klat. Feuilles mortes (Beirut, 1970), pp.55, 60-2. Yussuf al-Saouda, Fi Sabil alIstiqlal (Beirut, 1967), p.15. See about Chiha's experiences in Alexandria: Fawaz Traboulsi, 'Identité et solidarité croisées dans les conflits du Liban contemporain' (Ph.D. thesis, Université de Paris VIII. 1993), pp.298-301.
55. Hector Klat. Feuilles mortes (Beirut, 1970), pp.55, 60-2. Yussuf al-Saouda, Fi Sabil alIstiqlal (Beirut, 1967), p.15. See about Chiha's experiences in Alexandria: Fawaz Traboulsi, 'Identité et solidarité croisées dans les conflits du Liban contemporain' (Ph.D. thesis, Université de Paris VIII. 1993), pp.298-301.
56. Hector Klat. Feuilles mortes (Beirut, 1970), pp.55, 60-2. Yussuf al-Saouda, Fi Sabil alIstiqlal (Beirut, 1967), p.15. See about Chiha's experiences in Alexandria: Fawaz Traboulsi, 'Identité et solidarité croisées dans les conflits du Liban contemporain' (Ph.D. thesis, Université de Paris VIII. 1993), pp.298-301.
57. Alexandria had a creative impact on many others who resided in it. The most notable example is of course Constantine Cavafy, the great Greek poet. It has long been understood that Cavafy's poetry cannot be separated from the city in which he composed it. A quick glance at the poetry of Klat and Chiha from Alexandria and the poetry of Cavafy may indicate similar inspiration (with different artistic results).
58. Y. Gershoni and P. Jankowski, Egypt, Islam and the Arabs (Oxford, 1986), p.164.
59. Charles Corm, La Montagne inspirée (Beirut, 1934), pp.7, 34. 'who could understand us because he loved us', 'who restored to us a legitimate part of our contribution to the legacy of civilization'.
60. Paul Déroulède, Chants du soldat (Paris, 1872). Compare Klat, Feuilles mortes, pp.60-2.
61. Paul Déroulède, Chants du soldat (Paris, 1872). Compare Klat, Feuilles mortes, pp.60-2.
62. Zeev Sternhell, Mario Sznajder and Maia Asheri, The Birth of Fascist Ideology (New Jersey, 1989), p.79. See Chiha's reference to Maurras in 'Entretiens de Patrice', La revue phénicienne (Aug. 1919), p.91.
63. Zeev Sternhell, Mario Sznajder and Maia Asheri, The Birth of Fascist Ideology (New Jersey, 1989), p.79. See Chiha's reference to Maurras in 'Entretiens de Patrice', La revue phénicienne (Aug. 1919), p.91.
64. See Hector Klat's poems in Dans le vent venu (Beirut, 1937), pp.10-11; Rachid Lahoud, La littérature libanaise de langue française (Beirut, 1945), p.10.
65. See Hector Klat's poems in Dans le vent venu (Beirut, 1937), pp.10-11; Rachid Lahoud, La littérature libanaise de langue française (Beirut, 1945), p.10.
66. Élisée Reclus, Nouvelle géographie universelle, l'Asie antérieure (Paris, 1884), pp.6, 685, 745. See also his La Phénicie et les Phéniciens (Neuchâtel. 1900).
67. Élisée Reclus, Nouvelle géographie universelle, l'Asie antérieure (Paris, 1884), pp.6, 685, 745. See also his La Phénicie et les Phéniciens (Neuchâtel. 1900).
68. The flirtation this group had with French radical right was even clearer during the Mandate period. The newspaper l'Orient, the printed voice of the Eddé clan throughout the Mandate period and that was close to the 'Phoenician group', did not hesitate to express its close relations with l'Action française and its leading thinker Charles Mauiras. See, for example, l'Orient, 6 June 1933, 18 June 1933, cited in MAE Vol.526, pp.181-2.
69. See, for example, MAE 288 The Lebanese League of New-York. MAE 46. The Lebanese Union, Buenos Aires.
70. E.P. Hoyek, 'Les revendications du Liban, Mémoire de la délégation libanaise à la conférence de lu paix', La Revue Phénicienne (Dec. 1919), p.236.
71. 'Le Patriarche Maronite en France', Correspondence d'Orient (Oct. 1919), p.125.
72. Comité Central Syrien, La Syrie devant la conférence (Paris, 1919).
73. George Samné, La Syrie (Paris, 1920), p.XI. 'In twenty or thirty years when a Muslim or a Christian of whatever rite will be asked: What are you? He will answer: I am Syrian and not as he used to answer in the past or in the early years. I am a Phoenician (Greater Lebanese), [sic] or Damascene or Alepine'.
74. Ibid. 'A few months ago I rend in a Syrian magazine published ir Beirut, The Phoenician Review, articles which would have stood out in any important Parisian magazine. Its editor, Mr. Charles Corm, had gathered around him a constellation of young writers, all Syrian. I am told the magazine is no longer published. I am sorry the Syrians and all those who have taken the destiny of such counting in hand should be proud to encourage such publications.'
75. Ibid. 'A few months ago I rend in a Syrian magazine published ir Beirut, The Phoenician Review, articles which would have stood out in any important Parisian magazine. Its editor, Mr. Charles Corm, had gathered around him a constellation of young writers, all Syrian. I am told the magazine is no longer published. I am sorry the Syrians and all those who have taken the destiny of such counting in hand should be proud to encourage such publications.'
76. MAE Vol.11, p.141. Corm to Ganem 28 March 1919. See also Correspondence d'Orient No. 211 (15 April 1919), p.324.
77. MAE Vol.11, p.141. Corm to Ganem 28 March 1919. See also Correspondence d'Orient No. 211 (15 April 1919), p.324.
78. MAE Vol.43, p.111. A petition of Beiruti journalists in support of the formation of Greater Lebanon.
79. The Zionist Archives, File no. S25 10225 A report of Eliyahu Epstein (Eilat) of a visit to Syria and Lebanon, Oct. 1934. Epstein describes a meeting with Corm and Albert Naccache, two of the founders and activists in the 'Young Phoenicians' association who claim that the association was helped by Robert de Caix in 1919.
80. Hector Klat, 'Edmond Rostand: Poète de guerre', La Revue Phénicienne (Aug. 1919), pp.92-104. In a separate article in the Revue, Lammens also refers to Rostand in order to reinforce his claims. He quotes Rostand's play La princesse lointaine which dealt with the desperate love of a troubadour for a girl from the Orient: La Revue Phénicienne (Dec. 1919), p.196. In the 1930s, the blooming days of the idea. Klat wrote a whole book related to Rostand and his work, in which he implied that the 'princesse lointaine' is actually Lebanon. Klat, Les miettes du Festin (Beyrouth, 1939). See also a poem written in Alexandria by China, cited by Klat, Dans le vent venu (Beirut, 1937), pp.10-11. 'Thus the soldiers of France and the Allies died for Hives, literally and figuratively, in order to save the honey of the world, fruit of this Mediterranean civilization of which France, after Athens and Rome, is today the supreme flowering, and of which the first to make "the gesture of sower", were these Phoenicians from whom I proudly descend'.
81. Hector Klat, 'Edmond Rostand: Poète de guerre', La Revue Phénicienne (Aug. 1919), pp.92-104. In a separate article in the Revue, Lammens also refers to Rostand in order to reinforce his claims. He quotes Rostand's play La princesse lointaine which dealt with the desperate love of a troubadour for a girl from the Orient: La Revue Phénicienne (Dec. 1919), p.196. In the 1930s, the blooming days of the idea. Klat wrote a whole book related to Rostand and his work, in which he implied that the 'princesse lointaine' is actually Lebanon. Klat, Les miettes du Festin (Beyrouth, 1939). See also a poem written in Alexandria by China, cited by Klat, Dans le vent venu (Beirut, 1937), pp.10-11. 'Thus the soldiers of France and the Allies died for Hives, literally and figuratively, in order to save the honey of the world, fruit of this Mediterranean civilization of which France, after Athens and Rome, is today the supreme flowering, and of which the first to make "the gesture of sower", were these Phoenicians from whom I proudly descend'.
82. Hector Klat, 'Edmond Rostand: Poète de guerre', La Revue Phénicienne (Aug. 1919), pp.92-104. In a separate article in the Revue, Lammens also refers to Rostand in order to reinforce his claims. He quotes Rostand's play La princesse lointaine which dealt with the desperate love of a troubadour for a girl from the Orient: La Revue Phénicienne (Dec. 1919), p.196. In the 1930s, the blooming days of the idea. Klat wrote a whole book related to Rostand and his work, in which he implied that the 'princesse lointaine' is actually Lebanon. Klat, Les miettes du Festin (Beyrouth, 1939). See also a poem written in Alexandria by China, cited by Klat, Dans le vent venu (Beirut, 1937), pp.10-11. 'Thus the soldiers of France and the Allies died for Hives, literally and figuratively, in order to save the honey of the world, fruit of this Mediterranean civilization of which France, after Athens and Rome, is today the supreme flowering, and of which the first to make "the gesture of sower", were these Phoenicians from whom I proudly descend'.
83. Hector Klat, 'Edmond Rostand: Poète de guerre', La Revue Phénicienne (Aug. 1919), pp.92-104. In a separate article in the Revue, Lammens also refers to Rostand in order to reinforce his claims. He quotes Rostand's play La princesse lointaine which dealt with the desperate love of a troubadour for a girl from the Orient: La Revue Phénicienne (Dec. 1919), p.196. In the 1930s, the blooming days of the idea. Klat wrote a whole book related to Rostand and his work, in which he implied that the 'princesse lointaine' is actually Lebanon. Klat, Les miettes du Festin (Beyrouth, 1939). See also a poem written in Alexandria by China, cited by Klat, Dans le vent venu (Beirut, 1937), pp.10-11. 'Thus the soldiers of France and the Allies died for Hives, literally and figuratively, in order to save the honey of the world, fruit of this Mediterranean civilization of which France, after Athens and Rome, is today the supreme flowering, and of which the first to make "the gesture of sower", were these Phoenicians from whom I proudly descend'.
84. Hector Klat, 'Edmond Rostand: Poète de guerre', La Revue Phénicienne (Aug. 1919), pp.92-104. In a separate article in the Revue, Lammens also refers to Rostand in order to reinforce his claims. He quotes Rostand's play La princesse lointaine which dealt with the desperate love of a troubadour for a girl from the Orient: La Revue Phénicienne (Dec. 1919), p.196. In the 1930s, the blooming days of the idea. Klat wrote a whole book related to Rostand and his work, in which he implied that the 'princesse lointaine' is actually Lebanon. Klat, Les miettes du Festin (Beyrouth, 1939). See also a poem written in Alexandria by China, cited by Klat, Dans le vent venu (Beirut, 1937), pp.10-11. 'Thus the soldiers of France and the Allies died for Hives, literally and figuratively, in order to save the honey of the world, fruit of this Mediterranean civilization of which France, after Athens and Rome, is today the supreme flowering, and of which the first to make "the gesture of sower", were these Phoenicians from whom I proudly descend'.
85. Marwan Buheiry, Beirut's Role in the Political Economy of the French Mandate 1919-1939 (Oxford: Centre for Lebanese Studies, Papers on Lebanon, no. 4. n.d.).
86. See a report of the American Embassy in Beirut which deals with 'the new Phoenicians in Lebanon, the group of merchants, bankers and amateur economists, chiefly in Beirut, who have more confidence in their tradition of personal initiative and tree enterprise than in complete economic planning that would inhibit both and provide no compensating advantages'. USI NARA/WDC, Scattered Beirut regional files, Certro for Lebanese Studies, Oxford.
87. Henri Lammens, 'L'évolution historique de la nationalité Syrienne', La Revue Phénicienne (Dec. 1919), pp.193-207.
88. 'Je défends mon cimetière. J'ai abandonne toutes les autres positions. Religions, certitude scientifique, sens de la vie', quoted in Zeev Sternhell, Maurice Barrès et le Nationalisme Français (Paris, 1972), p.262. See also pp.254-81 on Barrès' concept 'la terre et les morts' (The earth and the dead). 'It is all "the dead who speak", move with their qualities and their faults'.
89. 'Je défends mon cimetière. J'ai abandonne toutes les autres positions. Religions, certitude scientifique, sens de la vie', quoted in Zeev Sternhell, Maurice Barrès et le Nationalisme Français (Paris, 1972), p.262. See also pp.254-81 on Barrès' concept 'la terre et les morts' (The earth and the dead). 'It is all "the dead who speak", move with their qualities and their faults'.
90. Henri Lammens, La Syrie: précis historique (Beirut, 1921).
91. Henri Lammens, La Syrie et son importance géographie (Lourain, 1904).
92. Lammens refers to Reclus' book L'Asie Antérieure, ibid., p.3. He is also helped by Bérard's book, repeating the idea that the origin of the European peoples is from the region of Syria. Lammens, ibid.