The role of corticotropin-releasing factor in drug addiction

Pharmacological Reviews

Volumn 53, Issue 2, 2001, Pages 209-243

  Sarnyai, Zoltan ^a,b   Shaham, Yavin ^c   Heinrichs, Stephen C ^d  

^a ROCKEFELLER UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^b PSYCHOGENICS INC   (United States)

^c NATIONAL INSTITUTE ON DRUG ABUSE   (United States)

^d BOSTON COLLEGE   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ALCOHOL; BENZODIAZEPINE; BINDING PROTEIN; CANNABINOID; COCAINE; CORTICOTROPIN RELEASING FACTOR; CORTICOTROPIN RELEASING FACTOR ANTAGONIST; CORTICOTROPIN RELEASING FACTOR RECEPTOR; DIAMORPHINE; HYPNOTIC SEDATIVE AGENT; MORPHINE; NICOTINE; OPIATE; PSYCHOSTIMULANT AGENT; SEDATIVE AGENT; UROCORTIN;

BINDING SITE; BRAIN FUNCTION; COMPULSION; CONDITIONING; DRUG DEPENDENCE; DRUG WITHDRAWAL; HYPOTHALAMUS HYPOPHYSIS ADRENAL SYSTEM; LOCOMOTION; MENTAL DISEASE; NEUROANATOMY; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PROTEIN LOCALIZATION; RELAPSE; REVIEW; REWARD; STRESS;

ANIMALS; BRAIN; CORTICOTROPIN-RELEASING HORMONE; HUMANS; HYPOTHALAMO-HYPOPHYSEAL SYSTEM; PITUITARY-ADRENAL SYSTEM; SUBSTANCE WITHDRAWAL SYNDROME; SUBSTANCE-RELATED DISORDERS;

EID: 0035023610     PISSN: 00316997     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Review

References (378)

1. Adinoff B, Anton R, Linnoila M, Guidotti A, Nemeroff CB and Bissette G (1996) Cerebrospinal fluid concentrations of corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) and diazepam-binding inhibitor (DBI) during alcohol withdrawal and abstinence. Neuropsychopharmacology 15:288-295.
2. Aghajanian GK and VanderMaelen CP (1982) Alpha 2-adrenoceptor-mediated hyperpolarization of locus coeruleus neurons: intracellular studies in vivo. Science (Wash DC) 215:1394-1396.
3. Ahmed SH and Koob GF (1997) Cocaine - but not food-seeking behavior - is reinstated by stress after extinction. Psychopharmacology 32:289-295.
4. Ahmed SH, Walker JE and Koob GF (2000) Persistent increase in the motivation to take heroin in rats with a history of drug escalation. Neuropsychopharmacology 22:413-421.
5. Alcaraz C, Vargas ML and Milanes MV (1996) Chronic naloxone-induced supersensitivity affects neither tolerance to nor physical dependence on morphine at hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenocortical axis. Neuropeptides 30:29-36.
6. Allolio B, Schulte HM, Deuss U, Kallabis D, Hamel E and Winkelman W (1987) Effect of oral morphine and naloxone on pituitary-adrenal response in man induced by human corticotropin-releasing hormone. Acta Endocrinol (Copenh) 114: 509-514.
7. Altemus M, Pigott T, Kalogeras KT, Demitrack M, Dubbert B, Murphy DL and Gold PW (1992) Abnormalities in the regulation of vasopressin and corticotropin releasing factor secretion in obsessive-compulsive disorder. Arch Gen Psychiatry 49:9-20.
8. Ambrosio E, Sharpe L and Pilotte N (1997) Regional binding to corticotropin releasing factor receptors in brain of rats exposed to chronic cocaine and cocaine withdrawal. Synapse 25:272-276.
9. Andersson K, Siegel R, Fuxe K and Eneroth P (1983) Intravenous injections of nicotine induce very rapid and discrete reductions of hypothalamic catecholamine levels associated with increases of ACTH, vasopressin and prolactin secretion. Acta Physiol Scand 118:35-40.
10. Antoni FA (1986) Hypothalamic control of adrenocorticotropin secretion: advances since the discovery of 41-residue corticotropin-releasing factor. Endocr Rev 7:351-378.
11. APA (1994) Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-IV), 4th ed., American Psychiatric Association, Washington, DC.
12. Arborelius L, Owens MJ, Plotsky PM and Nemeroff CB (1999) The role of corticotropin-releasing factor in depression and anxiety disorders. J Endocrinol 160:1-12.
13. Aston-Jones G, Delfs JM, Druhan J and Zhu Y (1999) The bed nucleus of the stria terminalis: a target site for noradrenergic actions in opiate withdrawal. Ann N Y Acad Sci 877:486-498.
14. Aston-Jones S, Aston-Jones G and Koob GF (1984) Cocaine antagonizes anxiolytic effects of ethanol. Psychopharmacology 84:28-31.
15. Baldwin HA and Koob GF (1993) Rapid induction of conditioned opiate withdrawal in the rat. Neuropsychopharmacology 8:15-21.
16. Baldwin HA, Rassnick S, Rivier J, Koob GF and Britton KT (1991) CRF antagonist reverses the "anxiogenic" response to ethanol withdrawal in the rat. Psychopharmacology 103:227-232.
17. Barlow SM, Knight AF and Sullivan FM (1979) Plasma corticosterone responses to stress following chronic oral administration of diazepam in the rat. J Pharm Pharmacol 31:23-26.
18. Basso AM, Spina M, Rivier J, Vale W and Koob GF (1999) Corticotropin-releasing factor antagonist attenuates the "anxiogenic-like" effect in the defensive burying paradigm but not in the elevated plus-maze following chronic cocaine in rats. Psychopharmacology 145:21-30.
19. Baumann MH, Gendron TM, Becketts KM, Henningfield JE, Gorelick DA and Rothman RB (1995) Effects of intravenous cocaine on plasma cortisol and prolactin in human cocaine abusers. Biol Psychiatry 38:751-755.
20. Behan DP, Grigoriadis DE, Lovenberg T, Chalmers D, Heinrichs S, Liaw C and De Souza EB (1996) Neurobiology of corticotropin releasing factor (CRF) receptors and CRF-binding protein: implications for the treatment of CNS disorders. Mol Psychiatry 1:265-277.
21. Behan DP, Heinrichs SC, Troncoso JC, Liu X-J, Kawas CH, Ling N and De Souza EB (1995) Displacement of corticotropin releasing factor from its binding protein as a possible treatment for Alzheimer's disease. Nature (Lond) 378:284-287.
22. Bell SM, Reynolds JG, Thiele TE, Gan J, Figlewicz DP and Woods SC (1998) Effects of third intracerebroventricular injections of corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF) on ethanol drinking and food intake. Psychopharmacology 139:128-135.
23. Benoit SC, Thiele TE, Heinrichs SC, Rushing PA, Blake KA and Steeley RJ (2000) Comparison of central administration of corticotropin-releasing hormone and urocortin on food intake, conditioned taste aversion, and c-fos expression. Peptides (New York) 21:345-351.
24. Berridge CW and Dunn AJ (1987) A corticotropin-releasing factor antagonist reverses the stress-induced changes of exploratory behavior in mice. Horm Behav 21:393-401.
25. Biro E, Sarnyai Z, Penke B, Szabo G and Telegdy G (1993) Role of endogenous corticotropin-releasing factor in mediation of neuroendocrine and behavioral responses to cholecystokinin octapeptide sulfate ester in rats. Neuroendocrinology 57:340-345.
26. Bittencourt JC and Sawchenko PE (2000) Do centrally administered neuropeptides access cognate receptors? An analysis in the central corticotropin-releasing factor system. J Neurosci 20:1142-1156.
27. Bittencourt JC, Vaughan J, Arias C, Rissman RA, Vale WW and Sawchenko PE (1999) Urocortin expression in rat brain: evidence against a pervasive relationship of urocortin-containing projections with targets bearing type 2 CRF receptors. J Comp Neurol 415:285-312.
28. Block RI, Farinpour R and Schlechte JA (1991) Effects of chronic marijuana use on testosterone, luteinizing hormone, follicle stimulating hormone, prolactin and cortisol in men and women. Drug Alcohol Depend 28:121-128.
29. Bornstein SR, Webster EL, Torpy DJ, Richman SJ, Mitsiades N, Igel M, Lewis DB, Rice KC, Joost HG, Tokos M and Chrousos GP (1998) Chronic effects of a nonpeptide corticotropin-releasing hormone type I receptor antagonist on pituitary-adrenal function, body weight, and metabolic regulation. Endocrinology 139: 1546-1555.
30. Borowsky B and Kuhn CM (1991a) Chronic cocaine administration sensitizes behavioral but not neuroendocrine responses. Brain Res 543:301-306.
31. Borowsky B and Kuhn CM (1991b) Monoamine mediation of cocaine-induced hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenal activation. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 256:204-210.
32. Brady JV (1991) Animal models for assessing drugs of abuse. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 15:35-43.
33. Bremner JD, Krystal JH, Southwick SM and Charney DS (1996) Noradrenergic mechanisms in stress and anxiety: I. Preclinical studies. Synapse 23:28-38.
34. Britton DR, Varela M, Garcia A and Rosenthal M (1986a) Dexamethasone suppresses pituitary-adrenal but not behavioral effects of centrally administered CRF. Life Sci 38:211-216.
35. Britton KT and Koob GF (1986) Alcohol reverses the proconflict effect of corticotropin releasing factor. Regul Pept 16:315-320.
36. Britton KT, Lee G, Dana R, Risch SC and Koob GF (1986b) Activating and "anxiogenic" effects of CRF are not inhibited by blockade of the pituitary-adrenal system with dexamethasone. Life Sci 39:1281-1286.
37. Britton KT, Lee G and Koob GF (1988) Corticotropin-releasing factor and amphetamine exagerate partial agonist properties of benzodiazepine agonist Ro 15-1788 in the conflict test. Psychopkarmacology 94:306-311.
38. Britton KT, Lee G, Vale WW, Rivier J and Koob GF (1986c) Corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF) receptor antagonist blocks activating and "anxiogenic" actions of CRF in the rat. Brain Res 369:303-306.
39. Britton KT, Morgan J, Rivier J, Vale W and Koob GF (1985) Chlordiazepoxide attenuates response suppression induced by corticotropin-releasing factor in the conflict test. Psychopharmacology 86:170-174.
40. Broadbear JH, Winger G, Cicero TJ and Woods JH (1999a) Effects of self-administered cocaine on plasma adrenocorticotropic hormone and cortisol in male rhesus monkeys. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 289:1641-1647.
41. Broadbear JH, Winger G and Woods JH (1999b) Cocaine-reinforced responding in rhesus monkeys: pharmacological attenuation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis response. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 290:1347-1355.
42. Brown SA, Vik PW, Patterson TL, Grant I and Schuckit MA (1995) Stress, vulnerability and adult alcohol relapse. J Stud Alcohol 56:538-545.
43. Buckingham JC (1982) Secretion of corticotrophin and its hypothalamic releasing factor in response to morphine and opioid peptides. Neuroendocrinology 35:111-116.
44. Buckingham JC and Cooper TA (1986) Effects of naloxone on hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenocortical activity in the rat, Neuroendocrinol 42:421-426.
45. Buckingham JC and Cooper TA (1987) Interrelationships of opioidergic and adrenergic mechanisms controlling the secretion of corticotrophin releasing factor in the rat. Neuroendocrinology 46:199-206.
46. Buczek Y, Le AD, Wang A, Stewart J and Shaham Y (1999) Stress reinstates nicotine seeking but not sucrose solution seeking in rats. Psychopharmacology 144:183-188.
47. Cador M, Ahmed SH, Koob GF, Le Moal M and Stinus L (1992) Corticotropin-releasing factor induces a place aversion independent of its neuroendocrine role. Brain Res 41:61-69.
48. Cador M, Cole BJ, Koob GF, Stinus L and Le Moal M (1993) Central administration of corticotropin releasing factor induces long-term sensitization to d-amphetamine. Brain Res 606:181-186.
49. Calogero AE, Gallucci WT, Kling MA, Chrousos GP and Gold PW (1989) Cocaine stimulates rat hypothalamic corticotropin-releasing hormone secretion in vitro. Brain Res 505:7-11.
50. Calogero AE, Kamilaris TC, Bernardini R, Johnson EO, Chrousos GP and Gold PW (1990) Effects of peripheral benzodiazepine receptor ligands on hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis function in the rat. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 253:729-737.
51. Cam GR, Bassett JR and Cairncross KD (1979) The action of nicotine on the pituitary-adrenal cortical axis. Arch Int Pharmacodyn Ther 237:49-66.
52. Campeau S, Day HE, Helmreich DL, Kollack-Walker S and Watson SJ (1998) Principles of psychoneuroendocrinology. Psychiatry Clin North Am 21:259-276.
53. Carnes M, Kalin NH, Lent SJ, Barksdale CM and Brownfield MS (1988) Pulsatile ACTH secretion: variation with time of day and relationship to cortisol. Peptides 9:325-331.
54. Carnes M, Lent SJ, Goodman B, Mueller C, Saydoff J and Erisman S (1990) Effects of immunoneutralization of corticotropin-releasing hormone on ultradian rhythms of plasma adrenocorticotropin. Endocrinology 126:1904-1913.
55. Carroll ME and Meisch ME (1984) Increased drug-reinforced behavior due to food deprivation, in Advances in Behavioral Pharmacology (Thompson T, Dews PB, and Barrett JE eds) pp 47-88, Academic Press, New York.
56. Carter AJ (1997) Hippocampal noradrenaline release in awake, freely moving rats is regulated by alpha-2 adrenoceptors but not by adenosine receptors. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 281:648-654.
57. Catania CA (1992) Learning. Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ.
58. Chabot G, Brissette Y and Gascon AL (1982) Relationship between plasma corticosterone and adrenal epinephrine after diazepam treatment in rats. Can J Physiol Pharmacol 60:589-596.
59. Chalmers DT, Lovenberg TW and De Souza EB (1995) Localization of novel corticotropin-releasing factor receptor (CRF2) mRNA expression to specific sub-cortical nuclei in rat brain: Comparison with CRF1 receptor mRNA expression. J Neurosci 15:6340-6350.
60. Chalmers DT, Lovenberg TW, Grigoriadis DE, Behan DP and De Souza EB (1996) Corticotropin-releasing factor receptors: from molecular biology to drug design. Trends Pharmacol Sci 17:166-172.
61. Chan RKW, Vale WW and Sawchenko PE (2000) Paradoxical activational effects of a corticotropin-releasing factor-binding protein "ligand inhibitor" in rat brain. Neuroscience 101:115-129.
62. Chappell P, Leckman J, Goodman W, Bissette G, Pauls D, Anderson G, Riddle M, Scahill L, McDougle C and Cohen D (1996) Elevated cerebrospinal fluid corticotropin-releasing factor in Tourette's syndrome: comparison to obsessive compulsive disorder and normal controls. Biol Psychiatry 39:776-783.
63. Chen R, Lewis KA, Perrin MH and Vale WW (1993) Expression cloning of a human corticotropin-releasing-factor receptor. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 90:8967-8971.
64. Chrousos GP and Gold PW (1992) The concepts of stress and stress system disorders. JAMA 267:1244-1252.
65. Cohen S, Evans GW, Stokols D and Krantz DS (1986) Behavior, Health, and Environmental Stress. Plenum Press, New York.
66. Cole BJ, Cador M, Stinus L, Rivier J, Vale W, Koob GF and Le Moal M (1990) Central administration of a CRF antagonist blocks the development of stress-induced behavioral sensitization. Brain Res 512:343-346.
67. Cole BJ and Koob GF (1989) Low doses of corticotropin-releasing factor potentiate amphetamine-induced stereotyped behavior. Psychopharmacology 99:27-33.
68. Cone EJ, Johnson RE, Moore JD and Roache JD (1986) Acute effects of smoking marijuana on hormones, subjective effects and performance in male human subjects. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 24:1749-1754.
69. Conte-Devolx B, Grino M, Nieoullon A, Javoy-Agid F, Castanas E, Guillaume V, Tonon MC, Vaudry H and Oliver C (1985) Corticoliberin, somatocrinin and amine cintents in normal and parkinsonian human hypothalamus. Neurosci Lett 56:217-222.
70. Corchero J, Fuentes JA and Manzanares J (1999a) Chronic treatment with CP-55,940 regulates corticotropin releasing factor and proopiomelanocortin gene expression in the hypothalamus and pituitary gland of the rat. Life Sci 64:905-911.
71. Corchero J, Manzanares J and Fuentes JA (1999b) Repeated administration of delta9-tetrahydrocannabinol produces a differential time related responsiveness on proenkephalin, proopiomelanocortin and corticotropin releasing factor gene expression in the hypothalamus and pituitary gland of the rat. Neuropharmacology 38:433-439.
72. Cornish JL and Kalivas PW (2000) Glutamate transmission in the nucleus accumbens mediates relapse in cocaine addiction. J Neurosci 20:RC89.
73. Costall B, Jones BJ, Kelly ME, Naylor RJ, Onaivi ES and Tyers MB (1990) Ondansetron inhibits a behavioural consequence of withdrawing from drugs of abuse. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 36:339-344.
74. Davis KL, Mohs RC, Marin DB, Purohit DP, Perl DP, Lantz M, Austin G and Haroutunian V (1999) Neuropeptide abnormalities in patients with early Alzheimer disease. Arch Gen Psychiatry 56:981-987.
75. Davis M, Walker DL and Lee Y (1997) Roles of the amygdala and bed nucleus of the stria terminalis in fear and anxiety measured with the acoustic startle reflex. Possible relevance to PTSD. Ann N Y Acad Sci 821:305-331.
76. Davis WM and Smith SG (1976) Role of conditioned reinforcers in the initiation, maintenance and extinction of drug-seeking behavior. Pavlovian J Biol Sci 11: 222-236.
77. Dax EM, Pilotte NS, Adler WH, Nagel JE and Lange WR (1989) The effects of 9-ene-tetrahydrocannabinol on hormone release and immune function. J Steroid Biochem 34:263-270.
78. De Boer SF, Slangen JL and Van der Gugten J (1990) Plasma catecholamine and corticosterone levels during active and passive shock-prod avoidance behavior in rats: effects of chlordiazepoxide. Physiol Behav 47:1089-1098.
79. De Boer SF, Van der Gugten J and Slangen JL (1991) Effects of chlordiazepoxide, flumazenil and DMCM on plasma catecholamine and corticosterone concentrations in rats. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 38:13-19.
80. De Souza EB, Whitehouse PJ, Price DL and Vale WW (1987) Abnormalities in corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) in Alzheimer's disease and other human disorders. Ann N Y Acad Sci 512:237-247.
81. De Vries AC and Pert A (1998) Conditioned increases in anxiogenic-like behavior following exposure to contextual stimuli associated with cocaine are mediated by corticotropin-releasing factor. Psychopharmacology 137:333-340.
82. De Vries AC, Taymans SE, Sundstrom JM and Pert A (1998a) Conditioned release of corticosterone by contextual stimuli associated with cocaine is mediated by corticotropin-releasing factor. Brain Res 786:39-46.
83. De Vries TJ, Schoffelmeer AN, Binnekade R and Vanderschuren LJ (1999) Dopaminergic mechanisms mediating the incentive to seek cocaine and heroin following long-term withdrawal of IV drug self-administration. Psychopharmacology 143: 254-260.
84. De Vries TJ, Schoffelmeer ANM, Binnekade R, Mulder AH and Vanderschuren LJMJ (1998b) Drug-induced reinstatement of heroin-and cocaine-seeking behavior following long-term extinction is associated with expression of behavioural sensitization. Eur J Neurosci 10:3565-3571.
85. de Waele JP and Gianoulakis C (1993) Effects of single and repeated exposures to ethanol on hypothalamic beta-endorphin and CRH release by the C57BL/6 and DBA/2 strains of mice. Neuroendocrinology 57:700-709.
86. Delfs JM, Zhu JP, Druhan JP and Aston-Jones G (2000) Noradrenaline in the ventral forebrain is critical for opiate withdrawal-induced aversion. Nature (Lond) 403: 400-404.
87. Delitala G, Grossman A and Besser M (1983) Differential effects of opiate peptides and alkaloids on anterior pituitary hormone secretion. Neuroendocrinology 37: 275-279.
88. Deroche V, Marinelli M, Le Moal M and Piazza PV (1997) Glucocorticoids and behavioral effects of psychostimulants. II: Cocaine intravenous self-administration and reinstatement depend on glucocorticoids levels. J Pharmcol Exp Ther 281: 1401-1407.
89. Diamant M, Croiset G and De Wied D (1992) The effect of corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF) on autonomic and behavioral responses during shock-prod burying test in rats. Peptides 13:1149-1158.
90. Dieterich KD, Lehnert H and De Souza EB (1997) Corticotropin-releasing factor receptors: an overview. Exp Clin Endocrinol Diabetes 105:65-82.
91. Dole VP, Nyswander ME and Kreek MJ (1966) Narcotic blockade. Arch Intern Med 118:304-309.
92. Dunn AJ and Berridge CW (1990) Physiological and behavioral responses to corticotropin-releasing factor administration: is CRF a mediator of anxiety of stress responses? Brain Res Rev 15:71-100.
93. Dunn AJ and File SE (1987) Corticotropin-releasing factor has an anxiogenic action in the social interaction test. Horm Behav 21:193-202.
94. Eaves M, Thatcher BK, Rivier J, Vale W and Koob GF (1985) Effects of corticotropin releasing factor on locomotor activity in hypophysectomized rats. Peptides 6:923-926.
95. Ehlers CL and Chaplin RI (1987) Chronic ethanol exposure potentiates the locomotor activating effects of corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF) in rats. Regul Peptides 19:345-354.
96. Ehlers CL, Chaplin RI, Wall TL, Lumeng L, Li T-K and Nemeroff CB (1992) Corticotropin releasing factor (CRF) studies in alcohol preferring and non-preferring rats. Psychopharmacology 106:359-364.
97. Ehlers CL, Henriksen SJ, Wang M, Rivier J, Vale W and Bloom FE (1983) Corticotropin releasing factor produces increases in brain excitability and convulsive seizures in the rat. Brain Res 278:332-336.
98. el Daly ES (1996) Influence of acute and chronic morphine or stadol on the secretion of adrenocorticotrophin and its hypothalamic releasing hormone in the rat. Life Sci 59:1881-1890.
99. Ellis FW (1966) Effect of ethanol on plasma corticosterone levels. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 153:121-127.
100. Erb S, Salmaso N, Rodaros D and Stewart J (2000) Possible role of the CRF pathway projecting from amygdala to BNST in mediating the effect of footshock on relapse to cocaine seeking in rats. Soc Neurosci Abstr 26:1312.
101. Erb S, Shaham Y and Stewart J (1996) Stress reinstates cocaine-seeking behavior after prolonged extinction and drug-free periods. Psychopharmacology 128:408-412.
102. Erb S, Shaham Y and Stewart J (1998) The role of corticotropin-releasing factor and corticosterone in stress-and cocaine-induced relapse to cocaine seeking in rats. J Neurosci 14:5529-5536.
103. Erb S and Stewart J (1999) Antagonism of CRF receptors in the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis (BNST) blocks footshock-induced reinstatement of cocaine seeking in rats. Soc Neurosci Abstr 25:303.
104. Fahey JM, Pritchard GA, Moltke LL, Pratt JS, Grassi JM, Shader RI and Greenblatt DJ (1998) Effects of ketoconazole on triazolam pharmacokinetics, pharmacodynamics and benzodiazepine receptor binding in mice. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 285:271-276.
105. Fahlke C, Engel JA, Eriksson CJP, Harlan RE and Soderpalm B (1994a) Involvement of corticosterone in the modulation of ethanol consumption in the rat. Alcohol 11:195-202.
106. Fahlke C, Hurd E and Hansen S (1996) Facilitation of ethanol consumption by intracerebroventricular infusions of corticosterone. Psychopharmacology 127:133-139.
107. Fahlke C, Hurd E, Thomasson R, Engel JA and Hansen S (1994b) Metyrapone-induced suppression of corticosterone synthesis reduces ethanol consumption in high-preferring rats. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 48:977-981.
108. Fisher L, Rivier C, Rivier J and Brown M (1991) Differential antagonist activity of a-helical corticotropin-releasing factor 9-41 in three bioassay systems. Endocrinology 129:1312-1316.
109. Fontana DJ and Commissaris RL (1989) Effects of cocaine on conflict behavior in the rat. Life Sci 45:819-827
110. Fossey MD, Lydiard RB, Ballenger JC, Laraia MT, Bissette G and Nemeroff CB (1996) Cerebrospinal fluid corticotropin-releasing factor concentrations in patients with anxiety disorders and normal comparison subjects. Biol Psychiatry 39:703-707.
111. Freeman GB and Thurmond JB (1986) Monoamines and effects of chlordiazepoxide on the corticosterone response to stress. Physiol Behav 37:933-938.
112. Fritschy JM and Grzanna R (1991) Selective effects of DSP-4 on locus coeruleus axons: are there pharmacologically different types of noradrenergic axons in the central nervous system? Prog Brain Res 88:257-268.
113. Gaiardi M, Bartoletti M, Bacchi A, Gubellini C and Babbini M (1987) Increased sensitivity to the stimulus properties of morphine in food deprived rats. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 26:719-723.
114. Gardi J, Biro E, Sarnyai Z, Vecsernyes M, Julesz J and Telegdy G (1997) Time-dependent alterations in corticotropin-releasing factor-like immunoreactivity in different brain regions after acute cocaine administration to rats. Neuropeptides 31:15-18.
115. Gawin FH (1991) Cocaine addiction: psychology and neurophysiology. Science (Wash DC) 251:1580-1586.
116. Gawin FH and Ellinwood EH (1989) Cocaine dependence. Annu Rev Med 40:149-161.
117. Gawin FH and Kleber HD (1986) Abstinence symptomatology and psychiatric diagnosis in cocaine abusers. Arch Gen Psychiatry 43:107-113.
118. George SR, Fan T, Roldan L and Naranjo CA (1990) Corticotropin-releasing factor is altered in brains of animals with high preference for ethanol. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 14:425-429.
119. Gietzen K, Penka L and Eisenburger R (1996) Imidazole fungicides provoke histamine release from mast cells and induce airway contraction. Exp Toxicol Pathol 48:529-531.
120. Gilbert DG, Meliska CJ, Williams CL and Jensen RA (1992) Subjective correlates of cigarette-smoking-induced elevations of peripheral beta-endorphin and cortisol. Psychopharmacology 106:275-281.
121. Glowa JR, Barrett JE, Russell J and Gold PW (1992) Effects of corticotropin releasing hormone on appetitive behaviors. Peptides 13:609-621.
122. Goeders NE (1997) A neuroendocrine role in cocaine reinforcement. Psychoneuroendocrinology 4:237-259.
123. Goeders NE, Bienvenu OJ and De Souza EB (1990) Chronic cocaine administration alters corticotropin-releasing factor receptors in the rat brain. Brain Res 531:322-328.
124. Goeders NE and Guerin GF (2000) Effects of the CRH receptor antagonist CP-154,526 on intravenous cocaine self-administration in rats. Neuropsychopharmacology 23:577-586.
125. Goeders NE, Peltier RL and Guerin GF (1998) Ketoconazole reduces low dose cocaine self-administration in rats. Drug Alcohol Depend 53:67-77.
126. Gold PW and Chrousos GP (1999) The endocrinology of melancholic and atypical depression: relation to neurocircuitry and somatic consequences. Proc Assoc Am Physicians 111:22-34.
127. Gold PW, Wong ML, Chrousos GP and Licinio J (1996) Stress system abnormalities in melancholic and atypical depression: molecular, pathophysiological, and therapeutic implications [editorial;see comments]. Mol Psychiatry 1:257-264.
128. Gonzalvez ML, Milanes MV and Vargas ML (1991) Effects of acute and chronic administration of mu-and delta-opioid agonists on the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical (HPA) axis in the rat. Eur J Pharmacol 200:155-158.
129. Gosselin RE, Blankstein J, Dent DW, Hobson WC, Fuller GB, Reyes FI, Winter JS and Faiman C (1983) Effects of naloxone and an enkephalin analog on serum prolactin, cortisol, and gonadotropins in the chimpanzee. Endocrinology 112: 2168-2173.
130. Gray TS and Bingaman EW (1996) The amygdala: corticotropin-releasing factor, steroids, and stress. Crit Rev Neurobiol 10:155-168.
131. Guaza C and Borrell S (1985) Modifications in adrenal hormones response to ethanol by prior ethanol dependence. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 22:357-360.
132. Guaza C, Torrellas A and Borrell S (1983) Adrenocortical response to acute and chronic ethanol administration in rats. Psychopharmacology 79:173-176.
133. Haas DA and George SR (1988) Single or repeated mild stress increases synthesis and release of hypothalamic corticotropin-releasing factor. Brain Res 461:230-237.
134. Hall SM, Tunstall CD, Vila KL and Duffy J (1992) Weight gain prevention and smoking cessation: cautionary findings. Am J Public Health 82:799-803.
135. Hansen S, Fahlke C, Soderpalm A and Hurd E (1995) Significance of adrenal corticosteroid secretion for the food-induced enhancement of alcohol drinking in the rat. Psychopharmacology 121:213-221.
136. Harris GC and Aston-Jones G (1993) Beta-adrenergic antagonists attenuate withdrawal anxiety in cocaine-and morphine-dependent rats. Psychopharmacology 113:131-136.
137. Hashimoto K, Suemaru S, Ono N, Hattori T, Inoue H, Takao T, Sugawara M, Kageyama J and Ota Z (1987) Dual effects of (D-Ala2, Met5)-enkephalinamide on CRF and ACTH secretion. Peptides 8:113-118.
138. Heckman WR, Kane BR, Pakyz RE and Cosentino MJ (1992) The effect of ketoconazole on endocrine and reproductive parameters in male mice and rats. J Androl 13:191-198.
139. Heesch CM, Negus BH, Keffer JH, Snyder RW, 2nd, Risser RC and Eichhorn EJ (1995) Effects of cocaine on cortisol secretion in humans. Am J Med Sci 310:61-64.
140. Heimer L, Harlan RE, Alheid GF, Garcia MM and De Olmos J (1997) Substantia innominata: a notion which impedes clinical-anatomical correlations in neuropsychiatric disorders. Neuroscience 76:957-1006.
141. Heinrichs SC, Lapsansky J, Behan DP, Chan RKW, Sawchenko PE, Lorang M, Ling N, Vale WW and De Souza EB (1996) Corticotropin-releasing factor-binding protein ligand inhibitor blunts excessive weight gain in genetically obese Zucker rats and rats during nicotine withdrawal. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 93:15475-15480.
142. Heinrichs SC, Menzaghi F, Merlo Pich E, Baldwin HA, Rassnick S, Britton KT and Koob GF (1994) Anti-stress action of a corticotropin-releasing factor antagonist on behavioral reactivity to stressors of varying type and intensity. Neuropsychopharmacology 11:179-186.
143. Heinrichs SC, Menzaghi F, Schulteis G, Koob GF and Stinus L (1995) Suppression of corticotropin-releasing factor in the amygdala attenuates aversive consequences of morphine withdrawal. Behav Pharmacol 6:74-80.
144. Heinrichs SC and Richard D (1999) The role of corticotropin-releasing factor and urocortin in the modulation of ingestive behavior. Neuropeptides 33:350-359.
145. Herman JP and Cullinan WE (1997) Neurocircuitry of stress: central control of the hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenocortical axis. Trends Neurosci 20:78-84.
146. Hernandez JF, Kornreich W, Rivier C, Miranda A, Yamamoto G, Andrews J, Tache Y, Vale W and Rivier J (1993) Synthesis and relative potencies of new constrained CRF antagonists. J Med Chem 36:2860-2867.
147. Hillhouse EW and Milton NG (1989) Effect of noradrenaline and gamma-aminobutyric acid on the secretion of corticotrophin-releasing factor-41 and arginine vasopressin from the rat hypothalamus in vitro. J Endocrinol 122:719-723.
148. Himmelsbach CK (1941) Studies on the relation of drug addiction to the autonomie nervous system: results of cold pressor tests. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 73:91-98.
149. Himmelsbach CK (1942) Clinical studies of drug addiction. Arch Intern Med 69:766-775.
150. Ignar DM and Kuhn CM (1990) Effects of specific mu and kappa opiate tolerance and abstinence on hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenal axis secretion in the rat. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 255:1287-1295.
151. Ikemoto S and Goeders NE (1998) Microinjections of dopamine agonists and cocaine elevate plasma corticosterone: dissociation effects among the ventral and dorsal striatum and medial prefrontal cortex. Brain Res 814:171-178.
152. Iranmanesh A, Lizarralde G, Short D and Veldhuis JD (1990) Intensive venous sampling paradigms disclose high frequency adrenocorticotropin release episodes in normal men. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 71:1276-1283.
153. Iredale PA, Alvaro JD, Lee Y, Terwilliger R, Chen YL and Duman RS (2000) Role of corticotropin-releasing factor receptor-1 in opiate withdrawal. J Neurochem 74: 199-208.
154. Jackson AL and Murphy LL (1997) Role of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis in the suppression of luteinizing hormone release by delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol. Neuroendocrinology 65:446-452.
155. Jacobs JA, Dellarco AJ, Manfredi RA and Harclerode J (1979) The effects of delta 9-tetrahydrocannabinol, cannabidiol, and shock on plasma corticosterone concentrations in rats. J Pharm Pharmacol 31:341-342.
156. Jacobsen LK, Giedd JN, Kreek MJ, Gottschalk C and Kosten TR (2001) Quantitative medial temporal lobe brain morphology and hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis function in cocaine dependence: a preliminary report. Drug Alcohol Depend 62: 49-56.
157. Jaffe JH (1990) Drug addiction and drug abuse, in Goodman & Gilman's the Pharmacological Basis of Therapeutics (Gilman AG, Rall TW, Nies AS and Taylor P eds) pp 522-573, Pergamon Press, New York.
158. Jaffe JH (1992) Current concepts of addiction. Res Publ Assoc Res Nerv Ment Dis 70:1-21.
159. Johanson CE and Fischman MW (1989) The pharmacology of cocaine related to its abuse. Pharmacol Rev 41:3-52.
160. Johnson KM, Dewey WL, Ritter KS and Beckner JS (1978) Cannabinoid effects on plasma corticosterone and uptake of 3H-corticosterone by mouse brain. Eur J Pharmacol 47:303-310.
161. Jones DN, Kortikaas R, Slade PD, Middlemiss DN and Hagan JJ (1998) The behavioral effects of corticotropin-releasing factor-related peptides in rats. Psychopharmacology 138:124-132.
162. Kalin NH, Sherman JE and Takahashi LK (1988) Antagonism of endogenous CRH systems attenuates stress-induced freezing behavior in rats. Brain Res 457:130-135.
163. Kalivas PW, Pierce RC, Cornish J and Sorg BA (1998) A role for sensitization in craving and relapse in cocaine addiction. J Psychopharmacol 12:49-53.
164. Kalivas PW and Stewart J (1991) Dopamine transmission in the initiation and expression of drug-and stress-induced sensitization of motor activity. Brain Res Rev 16:223-244.
165. Kalman BA, Kim PJ, Cole MA, Chi MS and Spencer RL (1997) Diazepam attenuation of restraint stress-induced corticosterone levels is enhanced by prior exposure to repeated restraint. Psychoneuroendocrinology 22:349-360.
166. Karanth S, Lyson K and McCann SM (1999) Effects of cholinergic agonists and antagonists on interleukin-2-induced corticotropin-releasing hormone release from the mediobasal hypothalamus. Neuroimmunomodulation 6:168-174.
167. Karolyi IJ, Burrows HL, Ramesh TM, Nakajima M, Lesh JS, Seong E, Camper SA and Seasholtz AF (1999) Altered anxiety and weight gain in corticotropin-releasing hormone-binding protein-deficient mice. Proc Natl Acad SciUSA 96: 11595-11600.
168. Kasckow JW, Regmi A, Sheriff S, Mulchahey JJ and Geracioti TD (1999) Regulation of corticotropin-releasing factor messenger RNA by nicotine in an immortalized amygdalar cell line. Life Sci 65:2709-2714.
169. Kemp CF, Woods RJ and Lowry PJ (1998) The corticotropin-releasing factor-binding protein: an act of several parts. Peptides 19:1119-1128.
170. Kirschbaum C, Wust S and Strasburger CJ (1992) 'Normal' cigarette smoking increases free cortisol in habitual smokers. Life Sci 50:435-442.
171. Knych ET and Eisenberg RM (1979) Effect of amphetamine on plasma corticosterone in the conscious rat. Neuroendocrinology 29:110-118.
172. Koob GF (1996) Drug addiction: the yin and yang of hedonic homeostasis. Neuron 16:893-896.
173. Koob GF (1999) The role of the striatopallidal and extended amygdala systems in drug addiction. Ann N Y Acad Sci 877:445-460.
174. Koob GF and Britton KT (1996) Neurobiological substrates for the anti-anxiety effects of ethariol, in The Pharmacology of Alcohol and Alcohol Dependence (Begleiter H and Kissin B eds) pp 477-506, Oxford University Press, New York.
175. Koob GF and Cador M (1993) Psychomotor stimulant sensitization: the corticotropin-releasing factor-steroid connection. Behav Pharmacol 4:351-354.
176. Koob GF and Goeders NE (1988) Neuroanatomical Substrates of Drug Self-Administration, pp 216-263, Oxford University Press, Oxford.
177. Koob GF and Heinrichs SC (1999) A role for corticotropin releasing factor and urocortin in behavioral responses to stressors. Brain Res 848:141-152.
178. Koob GF and Le Moal M (1997) Drugs abuse: hodonic homeostatic dysregulation. Science (Wash DC) 278:52-58.
179. Koob GF and Le Moal M (2001) Drug addiction, dysregulation of reward, and allostasis. Neuropsychopharmacology 24:97-129.
180. Koob GF, Sanna PP and Bloom FE (1998) Neuroscience of addiction. Neuron 21: 467-476.
181. Kosten TR, Rounsaville BJ and Kleber HD (1986) A 2.5-year follow-up of depressions, life crises, and treatment effects on abstinence among opioid addicts. Arch Gen Psychiatry 43:733-739.
182. Kostich WA, Chen A, Sperle K and Largent BL (1998) Molecular identification and analysis of a novel human corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF) receptor: the CRF 2γ receptor. Mol Endocrinol 12:1077-1085.
183. Krahn DD, Gosnell BA, Grace M and Levine AS (1986) CRF antagonist partially reverses CRF-and stress-induced effects on feeding. Brain Res Bull 17:285-289.
184. Kreek MJ (1992) Rationale for maintenance pharmacotherapy of opiate dependence. Res Publ Assoc Res Nerv Ment Dis 70:205-230.
185. Kreek MJ (1996) Opiates, opioids and addiction. Mol Psychiatry 1:232-254.
186. Kreek MJ and Koob GF (1998) Drug dependence: stress and dysregulation of brain reward systems. Drug Alcohol Depend 51:23-47.
187. Kumar MS and Chen CL (1983) Effect of an acute dose of delta 9-THC on hypothalamic luteinizing hormone releasing hormone and met-enkephalin content and serum levels of testosterone and corticosterone in rats. Subst Alcohol Actions Misuse 4:37-43.
188. Lakic N, Pericic D and Manev H (1986) Mechanisms by which picrotoxin and a high dose of diazepam elevate plasma corticosterone level. Neuroendocrinology 43:331-335.
189. Laviola G, Wood RD, Kuhn C, Francis R and Spear LP (1995) Cocaine sensitization in periadolescent and adult rats. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 275:345-357.
190. Le AD, Harding S, Juzytsch W, Watchus J, Shalev U and Shaham Y (2000) The role of corticotrophin-releasing factor in stress-induced relapse to alcohol-seeking behavior in rats. Psychopharmacology 150:317-324.
191. Lee S and Rivier C (1993) Effect of exposure to an alcohol diet for 10 days on the ability of interleukin-1 beta to release ACTH and corticosterone in the adult ovariectomized female rat. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 17:1009-1013.
192. Lee S and Rivier C (1997a) Alcohol increases the expression of type 1, but not type 2 alpha corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF) receptor messenger ribonucleic acid in the rat hypothalamus [In Process Citation]. Brain Res Mol Brain Res 52:78-89.
193. Lee S and Rivier C (1997b) An initial, three-day-long treatment with alcohol induces a long-lasting phenomenon of selective tolerance in the activity of the rat hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis. J Neurosci 17:8856-8866.
194. Lee S, Schmidt D, Tilders F, Cole M, Smith A and Rivier C (2000) Prolonged exposure to intermittent alcohol vapors blunts hypothalamic responsiveness to immune and non-immune signals. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 24:110-122.
195. Levy AD, Li Q, Kerr JE, Rittenhouse PE, Milonas G, Cabrera TM, Battaglia G, Alvarez Sanz MC and van de Kar LD (1991) Cocaine-induced elevation of plasma adrenocorticotropin hormone and corticosterone is mediated by serotonergic neurons. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 259:495-500.
196. Li TK, Lumeng L, McBride WJ, Waller MB and Murphy JM (1986) Studies on an animal model of alcoholism. Natl Inst Drug Abuse Res Monogr 66:41-49.
197. Lightman SL and Young WSD (1988) Corticotrophin-releasing factor, vasopressin and pro-opiomelanocortin mRNA responses to stress and opiates in the rat. J Physiol (Lond) 403:511-523.
198. Loose DS, Stover EP and Feldman D (1983) Ketoconazole binds to glucocorticoid receptors and exhibits glucocorticoid antagonist activity in cultured cells. J Clin Invest 72:404-408.
199. Lovejoy DA, Aubry J-M, Turnbull A, Sutton S, Potter E, Yehling J, Rivier C and Vale WW (1998) Ectopic expression of the CRF-binding protein: minor impact on HPA axis regulation but induction of sexually dimorphic weight gain. J Neuroendocrinol 10:483-491.
200. Lovenberg TW, Grigoriadis DE, Chalmers DT, McCarthy JR and De Souza EB (1995a) Corticotropin-releasing factor receptors: inhibitors, subtypes, pharmacology, localization, and their role in central nervous system function. Curr Pharmaceut Design 1:305-316.
201. Lovenberg TW, Liaw CW, Grigoriadis DE, Clevenger W, Chalmers DT, De Souza EB and Oltersdorf T (1995b) Cloning and characterization of a functionally distinct corticotropin-releasing factor receptor subtype from rat brain. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 92:836-840.
202. Lu L, Ceng X and Huang M (2000) Corticotropin-releasing factor receptor type 1 mediates stress-induced relapse to opiate dependence in rats. Neuroreport 11: 2373-2378.
203. Macey DJ, Koob GF and Markou A (2000) CRF and urocortin decreased brain stimulation reward in the rat: reversal by a CRF receptor antagonist. Brain Res 866:82-91.
204. Mantsch JR and Goeders NE (1999) Ketoconazole blocks the stress-induced reinstatement of cocaine-seeking behavior in rats: relationship to the discriminative stimulus effects of cocaine. Psychopharmacology 142:399-407.
205. Mantsch JR and Goeders NE (2000) Effects of cocaine self-administration on plasma corticosterone in rats: relationship to hippocampal type II glucocorticoid receptors. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 24:633-646.
206. Manzanares J, Corchero J and Fuentes JA (1999) Opioid and cannabinoid receptor-mediated regulation of the increase in adrenocorticotropin hormone and corticosterone plasma concentrations induced by central administration of delta(9)-tetrahydrocannabinol in rats. Brain Res 839:173-179.
207. Markou A, Weiss F, Gold LH, Caine SB, Schulteis G and Koob GF (1993) Animal models of drug craving. Psychopharmacology 112:163-182.
208. Martin-Calderon JL, Munoz RM, Villanua MA, del Arco I, Moreno JL, de Fonseca FR and Navarro M (1998) Characterization of the acute endocrine actions of (-)-11-hydroxy-delta8-tetrahydrocannabinol-dimethylheptyl (HU-210), a potent synthetic cannabinoid in rats. Eur J Pharmacol 344:77-86.
209. Martin-Fardon R, Ciccocioppo R, Massi M and Weiss F (2000) Nociceptin prevents stress-induced ethanol-but not cocaine-seeking behavior in rats. Neuroreport 11:1939-1943.
210. Matheson GK, Gage D, White G, Dixon V and Gipson D (1988) A comparison of the effects of buspirone and diazepam on plasma corticosterone levels in rat. Neuropharmacology 27:823-830.
211. Matsuzawa S, Suzuki T and Misawa M (1998) Conditioned fear stress induces ethanol-associated place preference in rats. Eur J Pharmacol 341:127-130.
212. Matta SG, Beyer HS, McAllen KM and Sharp BM (1987) Nicotine elevates rat plasma ACTH by a central mechanism. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 243:217-226.
213. Matta SG, Fu Y, Valentine JD and Sharp BM (1998) Response of the hypothalamopituitary-adrenal axis to nicotine. Psychoneuroendocrinology 23:103-113.
214. Matta SG, McAllen KM and Sharp BM (1990) Role of the fourth cerebroventricle in mediating rat plasma ACTH responses to intravenous nicotine. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 252:623-630.
215. McCarthy JR, Heinrichs SC and Grigoriadis DE (1999) Recent advances with the CRF1 receptor: design of small molecule inhibitors, receptor subtypes and clinical indications. Curr Pharmaceut Design 5:247-273.
216. McCubbin JA, Kaplan JR, Manuck SB and Adams MR (1993) Opioidergic inhibition of circulatory and endocrine stress responses in cynomolgus monkeys: a preliminary study. Psychosom Med 55:23-28.
217. McElroy JF, Miller JM and Meyer JS (1987) Comparison of the effects of chlordiazepoxide and CL 218,872 on serum corticosterone concentrations in rats. Psychopharmacology 91:467-472.
218. McEwen BS (1998) Protective and damaging effects of stress mediators. N Engl J Med 338:171-179.
219. McFall ME, Mackay PW and Donovan DM (1992) Combat-related posttraumatic stress disorder and severity of substance abuse in Vietnam veterans. J Stud Alcohol 53:357-363.
220. McLean SJ, Lucas RL, McEwen BS, Kreek MJ and Sarnyai Z (2000) Chronic cocaine administration alters CRF-1 receptor and GAD-65 gene expression in limbic structures. Soc Neurosci Abstr 26:681-686.
221. Meisch RA and Carroll ME (1987) Oral drug self-administration: drugs as reinforcers, in Methods of Assessing the Reinforcing Properties of Abused Drugs (Bozarth MA eds) pp 143-161, Springer Verlag, New York.
222. Meller RE, Keverne EB and Herbert J (1980) Behavioural and endocrine effects of naltrexone in male talapoin monkeys. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 13:663-672.
223. Mendelson JH, Sholar M, Mello NK, Teoh SK and Sholar JW (1998) Cocaine tolerance: behavioral, cardiovascular, and neuroendocrine function in men. Neuropsychopharmacology 18:263-271.
224. Mendelson JH, Teoh SK, Mello NK, Ellingboe J and Rhoades E (1992) Acute effects of cocaine on plasma adrenocorticotropic hormone, luteinizing hormone and prolactin levels in cocaine-dependent men. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 263:505-509.
225. Menzaghi F, Rassnick S, Heinrichs S, Bladwin H, Pich EM, Weiss F and Koob GF (1994) The role of corticotropin-releasing factor in the anxiogenic effects of ethanol withdrawal. Ann N Y Acad Sci 739:176-194.
226. Merlo Pich E, Heinrichs SC, Rivier C, Miczek KA, Fisher DA and Koob GF (1993) Blockade of pituitary-adrenal axis activation induced by peripheral immunoneutralization of corticotropin-releasing factor does not affect the behavioral response to social stress in rats. Psychoneuroendocrinology 18:495-507.
227. Merlo Pich E, Koob GF, Vale W and Weiss F (1994) Release of corticotropin releasing factor (CRF) from the amygdala of ethanol-dependent rats measured with microdialysis. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 18:522.
228. A receptor/chloride channel complex, in Alcohol and Alcoholism (Begleiter H and Kissin J eds), Oxford University Press, New York.
229. Milanes MV, Laorden ML, Chapleur-Chateau M and Burlet A (1997) Differential regulation of corticotropin-releasing factor and vasopressin in discrete brain regions after morphine administration: correlations with hypothalamic noradrenergic activity and pituitary-adrenal response. Naunyn-Schmiedebergs Arch Pharmacol 356:603-610.
230. Milanes MV, Laorden ML, Chapleur-Chateau M and Burlet A (1998) Alterations in corticotropin-releasing factor and vasopressin content in rat brain during morphine withdrawal: correlation with hypothalamic noradrenergic activity and pituitary-adrenal response. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 285:700-706.
231. Mitchell AJ (1998) The role of corticotropin releasing factor in depressive illness: a critical review, Neurosci Biobehav Rev 22:635-651.
232. Miyata I, Shiota C, Ikeda Y, Oshida Y, Chaki S, Okuyama S and Inagami T (1999) Cloning and characterization of a short variant of the corticotropin-releasing factor receptor subtype from rat amygdala. Biochem Biophys Res Comm 256:692-696.
233. Moldow RL and Fischman AJ (1987) Cocaine induced secretion of ACTH, beta-endorphin, and corticosterone. Peptides 8:819-822.
234. Moore RY and Bloom FE (1979) Central catecholaimine neuron systems: anatomy and physiology of the norepinephrine and epinephrine systems. Annu Rev Neurosci 2:113-168.
235. Moreau J-L, Kilpatrick G and Jenck F (1997) Urocortin, a novel neuropeptide with anxiogenic-like properties. Neuroreport 8:1697-1701.
236. Mormede P, Dantzer R and Perio A (1984) Relationship of the effects of the benzodiazepine derivative clorazepate on corticosterone secretion with its behavioural actions. Antagonism by Ro 15-1788. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 21:839-843.
237. Morse DE (1989) Neuroendocrine responses to nicotine and stress: enhancement of peripheral stress responses by the administration of nicotine. Psychopharmacology 98:539-543.
238. Nemeroff C (2000) Clinical studies on the role of CRF in mood and anxiety disorders. Neuropsychopharmacology 23.-S5.
239. Nemeroff CB (1996) The corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF) hypothesis of depression: new findings and new directions. Mol Psychiatry 1:336-342.
240. Nemeroff CB (1998) Psychopharmacology of affective disorders in the 21st Century. Biol Psychiatry 44:517-525.
241. Nemeroff CB, Bissette G, Slotkin TA, Seidler FJ, Miller BE and Ghanbari H (1991) Recent advances in the neurochemical pathology of Alzheimer's disease. Studies of neuropeptides, cholinergic function and Alzheimer's disease-associated protein. Ann N Y Acad Sci 640:193-196.
242. Nestler EJ and Aghajanian GK (1997) Molecular and cellular basis of addiction. Science (Wash DC) 278:58-63.
243. Newhouse PA, Sunderland T, Narang PK, Mellow AM, Fertig JB, Lawlor BA and Murphy DL (1990) Neuroendocrine, physiologic, and behavioral responses following intravenous nicotine in nonsmoking healthy volunteers and in patients with Alzheimer's disease. Psychoneuroendocrinology 15:471-484.
244. Nikolarakis K, Pfeiffer A, Stalla GK and Herz A (1987) The role of CRF in the release of ACTH by opiate agonists and antagonists in rats. Brain Res 421:373-376.
245. Nock B, Cicero TJ and Wich M (1998) Chronic exposure to morphine decreases physiologically active corticosterone in both male and female rats but by different mechanisms. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 286:875-882.
246. Nock B, Wich M and Cicero TJ (1997) Chronic exposure to morphine increases corticosteroid-binding globulin. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 282:1262-1268.
247. Ogilvie K, Lee S and Rivier C (1997a) Effect of three different modes of alcohol administration on the activity of the rat hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 21:467-476.
248. Ogilvie K, Lee S, Weiss B and Rivier C (1998) Mechanisms mediating the influence of alcohol on the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis responses to immune and nonimmune signals. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 22:243S-247S.
249. Ogilvie KM, Lee S and Rivier C (1997b) Role of arginine vasopressin and corticotropin-releasing factor in mediating alcohol-induced adrenocorticotropin and vasopressin secretion in male rats bearing lesions of the paraventricular nuclei. Brain Res 744:83-95.
250. Okuda H, Shioda S, Nakai Y, Nakayama H, Okamoto M and Nakashima T (1993) The presence of corticotropin-releasing factor-like immunoreactive synaptic vesicles in axon terminals with nicotinic acetylcholine receptor-like immunoreactivity in the median eminence of the rat. Neurosci Lett 161:183-186.
251. Owens MJ, Vargas MA, Knight DL and Nemeroff CB (1991) The effects of alprazolam on corticotropin-releasing factor neurons in the rat brain: acute time course, chronic treatment and abrupt withdrawal, J Pharmacol Exp Ther 258:349-356.
252. Pauly JR, Grun EU and Collins AC (1992) Tolerance to nicotine following chronic treatment by injections: a potential role for corticosterone. Psychopharmacology 108:33-39.
253. Pavlov IP (1927) Conditioned Reflexes, Oxford University Press, Oxford.
254. Pechnick RN (1993) Effects of opioids on the hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenal axis. Annu Rev Pharmacol Toticol 32:353-383.
255. Pericic D, Lakic N and Manev H (1984) Effect of diazepam on plasma corticosterone levels. Psychopharmacology 83:79-81.
256. Pericic D, Manev H, Boranic M, Poljak-Blazi M and Lakic N (1987) Effect of diazepam on brain neurotransmitters, plasma corticosterone, and the immune system of stressed rats. Ann NY Acad Sci 496:450-458.
257. Pericic D and Pivac N (1996) Effects of diazepam on conflict behaviour and on plasma corticosterone levels in male and female rats. Naunyn-Schmiedebergs Arch Pharmacol 353:369-376.
258. Perrin M, Donaldson C, Chen R, Blount A, Berggren T, Bilezikjian L, Sawchenko P and Vale W (1995) Identification of a second corticotropin-releasing factor receptor gene and characterization of a cDNA expressed in heart. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 92:2969-2973.
259. Petraglia F, Florio P, Gallo R, Salvestroni C, Lombardo M, Genazzani AD, Di Carlo C, Stomati M, G DA and Artini PG (1996) Corticotropin-releasing factor-binding protein: origins and possible functions. Horm Res 45:187-191.
260. Phelix CF, Liposits Z and Paull WK (1994) Catecholamine-CRF synaptic interaction in a septal bed nucleus: afferents of neurons in the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis. Brain Res Bull 33:109-119.
261. Phelix CF and Paull WK (1990) Demonstration of distinct corticotropin releasing factor-containing neuron populations in the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis. A light and electron microscopic immunocytochemical study in the rat. Histochemistry 94:345-364.
262. Phillips AG and Fibiger HC (1990) Role of reward and enhancement of conditioned reward in persistence of responding for cocaine. Behav Pharmacol 1:269-282.
263. Piazza PV, Deminière J-M, LeMoal M and Simon H (1989) Factors that predict individual vulnerability to amphetamine self-administration. Science (Wash DC) 245:1511-1513.
264. Piazza PV, Deroche V, Deminiere JM, Maccari S, Le Moal M and Simon H (1993) Corticosterone in the range of stress-induced levels possesses reinforcing properties: implications for sensation-seeking behaviors. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 90: 11738-11742.
265. Piazza PV and Le Moal M (1996) Pathophysiological basis of vulnerability to drug abuse: interaction between stress, glucocorticoids, and dopaminergic neurons. Ann Rev Pharmacol Toxicol 36:359-378.
266. Piazza PV and Le Moal M (1997) Glucocorticoids as a biological substrate of reward: physiological and pathophysiological implications. Brain Res Rev 25:359-372.
267. Piazza PV, Maccari S, Deminière J-M, LeMoal M, Mormède P and Simon H (1991) Corticosteroid levels determine individual vulnerability to amphetamine self-administration. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 88:2088-2092.
268. Pich EM, Lorang MT, Yeganeh M, De Fonseca FR, Raber J, Koob GF and Weiss F (1995) Increase of extracellular corticotropin-releasing factor levels in the amygdala of awake rats during restraint stress and ethanol withdrawal as measured by microdialysis. J Neurosci 15:5439-5447.
269. Pierce RC and Kalivas PW (1997) A circuitry model of the expression of behavioral sensitization to amphetamine-like psychostimulants. Brain Res Rev 25:192-216.
270. Pivac N and Pericic D (1993) Inhibitory effect of diazepam on the activity of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis in female rats. J Neural Transm Gen Sect 92:173-186.
271. Plotsky PM, Owens MJ and Nemeroff CB (1998) Psychoneuroendocrinology of depression. Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis. Psychiatr Clin North Am 21:293-307.
272. Pohorecky L (1990) Interaction of ethanol and stress: research with experimental animals - an update. Alcohol Alcohol 25:263-276.
273. Pohorecky LA, Cotler S, Carbone JJ and Roberts P (1988) Factors modifying the effect of diazepam on plasma corticosterone levels in rats. Life Sci 43:2159-2167.
274. Pomara N, Singh RR, Deptula D, Lewitt PA, Bissett G, Stanley M and Nemeroff CB (1989) CSF corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF) in Alzheimer's disease: its relationship to severity of dementia and monoamine metabolites. Biol Psychiatry 26:500-504.
275. Pomerleau CS, Garcia AW, Pomerleau OF and Cameron OG (1992) The effects of menstrual phase and nicotine abstinence on nicotine intake and on biochemical and subjective measures in women smokers: a preliminary report. Psychoneuroendocrinology 17:627-638.
276. Potter E, Behan DP, Linton EA, Lowry PJ, Sawchenko PE and Vale WW (1992) The central distribution of a corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF)-binding protein predicts multiple sites and modes of interaction with CRF. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 89:4192-4196.
277. Prevot V, Rialas CM, Croix D, Salzet M, Dupouy JP, Poulain P, Beauvillain JC and Stefano GB (1998) Morphine and anandamide coupling to nitric oxide stimulates GnRH and CRF release from rat median eminence: neurovascular regulation. Brain Res 790:236-244.
278. Puder M, Weidenfeld J, Chowers I, Nir I, Conforti N and Siegel RA (1982) Corticotrophin and corticosterone secretion following delta 1-tetrahydrocannabinol, in intact and in hypothalamic deafferentated male rats. Exp Brain Res 46:85-88.
279. Quinones-Jenab V, Krey LC, Schlussman SD, Ho A and Kreek MJ (2000) Chronic 'binge' pattern cocaine alters the neuroendocrine profile of pregnant rats. Neurosci Lett 282:120-122.
280. Rasmussen DD (1998) Effects of chronic nicotine treatment and withdrawal on hypothalamic proopiomelanocortin gene expression and neuroendocrine regulation. Psychoneuroendocrinology 23:245-259.
281. Rassnick S, Heinrichs SC, Britton KT and Koob GF (1993) Microinjection of a corticotropin-releasing factor antagonist into the central nucleus of the amygdala reverses anxiogenic-like effects of ethanol withdrawal. Brain Res 605:25-32.
282. Redei E, Branch BJ, Gholami S, Lin EY and Taylor AN (1988) Effects of ethanol on CRF release in vitro. Endocrinology 123:2736-2743.
283. Redei E, Branch BJ and Taylor AN (1986) Direct effect of ethanol on adrenocorticotropin (ACTH) release in vitro. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 237:59-64.
284. Redmond DEJ and Krystal JH (1984) Multiple mechanisms of withdrawal from opioid drugs. Annu Rev Neurosci 7:443-478.
285. Redmond J and Huang YH (1979) Current concepts, 2. New evidence for a locus ceruleus-norepinephrine connection with anxiety. Life Sci 25:2149-2162.
286. Reyes TM, Lewis K, Perrin MH, Kunitake KS, Vaughan J, Arias CA, Hogenesch JB, Gulyas J, Rivier J, Vale WW and Sawchenko PE (2001) Urocotrin II a member of the corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF) neuropeptide family that is selectively bound by type 2 CRF receptors. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 98:2843-2848.
287. Richter RM, Pich EM, Koob GF and Weiss F (1995) Sensitization of cocaine-stimulated increase in extracellular levels of corticotropin-releasing factor from the rat amygdala after repeated administration as determined by intracranial microdialysis. Neurosci Lett 187:169-172.
288. Richter RM and Weiss F (1999) In vivo CRF release in rat amygdala is increased during cocaine withdrawal in self-administering rats. Synapse (New York) 32:254-261.
289. Rivest S and Rivier C (1994) Lesions of hypothalamic PVN partially attenuate stimulatory action of alcohol on ACTH secretion in rats. Am J Physiol 266:R553-R558.
290. Rivier C (1996) Alcohol stimulates ACTH secretion in the rat: mechanisms of action and interactions with other stimuli. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 20:240-524.
291. Rivier C, Bruhn T and Vale W (1984) Effect of ethanol on the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis in the rat: role of corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF). J Pharmacol Exp Ther 229:127-131.
292. Rivier C and Lee S (1994) Stimulatory effect of cocaine on ACTH secretion: role of the hypothalamus. Mol Cell Neurosci 5:189-195.
293. Rivier C and Lee S (1996) Acute alcohol administration stimulates the activity of hypothalamic neurons that express corticotropin-releasing factor and vasopressin. Brain Res 726:1-10.
294. Rivier C, Rivier J and Lee S (1996) Importance of pituitary and brain receptors for corticotrophin-releasing factor in modulating alcohol-induced ACTH secretion in the rat. Brain Res 721:83-90.
295. Rivier C and Vale W (1987) Cocaine stimulates adrenocorticotropin (ACTH) secretion through a corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF)-mediated mechanism. Brain Res 422:403-406.
296. Rivier CL and Plotsky PM (1986) Mediation by corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF) of adenohypophyseal hormone secretion. Ann Rev Physiol 48:475-494.
297. Robinson TE and Berridge KC (1993) The neural basis of drug craving: an incentive-sensitization theory of addiction. Brain Res Rev 18:247-291.
298. Rodriguez de Fonseca F, Carrera MRA, Navarro M, Koob GF and Weiss F (1997) Activation of corticotropin-releasing factor in the limbic system during cannabinoid withdrawal. Science (Wash DC) 276:2050-2054.
299. Rodríguez de Fonseca F, Rubio P, Menzaghi F, Merlo-Pich E, Rivier J, Koob GF and Navarro M (1996) Corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF) antagonist [D-Phe 12, NLE21,38, CalphaMeLeu37] CRF attenuates the acute actions of the highly potent cannabinoid receptor agonist HU-210 on defensive-withdrawal behavior in rats. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 276:56-64.
300. Rose JE and Corrigall WA (1997) Nicotine self-administration in animals and humans: similarities and differences. Psychopharmacology 130:28-40.
301. Ruhmann A, Bonk I, Lin CR, Rosenfeld MG and Spiess J (1998) Structural requirements for peptidic antagonists of the corticotropin-releasing factor receptor (CRFR): development of CRFR2beta-selective antisauvagine-30. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 95:15264-15269.
302. Salminen O, Seppa T, Gaddnas H and Ahtee L (2000) Effect of acute nicotine on fos protein expression in rat brain during chronic nicotine and its withdrawal. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 66:87-93.
303. Saphier D, Welch JE, Farrar GE and Goeders NE (1993) Effects of intracerebroventricular and intrahypothalamic cocaine administration on adrenocortical secretion. Neuroendocrinology 57:54-62.
304. Sarnyai Z (1998) Neurobiology of stress and cocaine addiction. Studies on corticotropin-releasing factor in rats, monkeys, and humans. Annal NY Acad Sci 851: 371-387.
305. Sarnyai Z, Biro E, Gardi J, Vecsernyes M, Julesz J and Telegdy G (1995a) Brain corticotropin-releasing factor mediates 'anxiety-like' behavior induced by cocaine withdrawal in rats. Brain Res 675:89-97.
306. Sarnyai Z, Biro E, Gardi J, Vecsernyés M, Julesz J and Telegdy G (1993a) Alterations of corticotropin-releasing factor-like immunoreactivity in different brain regions after acute cocaine administration in rats. Brain Res 616:315-319.
307. Sarnyai Z, Bíró É, Penke B and Telegdy G (1992a) The cocaine-induced elevation of plasma corticosterone is mediated by endogenous corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF) in rats. Brain Res 589:154-156.
308. Sarnyai Z, Bíró É and Telegdy G (1993b) Cocaine-induced elevation of plasma corticosterone is mediated by different neurotransmitter systems in rats. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 45:209-214.
309. Sarnyai Z, Dhabhar FS, McEwen BS and Kreek MJ (1998) Neuroendocrine-related effects of long-term, 'binge' cocaine administration: diminished individual differences in stress-induced corticosterone response. Neuroendocrinology 68:334-344.
310. Sarnyai Z, Höhn J, Szabó G and Penke B (1992b) Critical role of endogenous corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF) in the mediation of the behavioral action of cocaine in rats. Life Sci 51:2019-2024.
311. Sarnyai Z, Mello NK, Mendelson JH, Eros-Sarnyai M and Mercer G (1996) Effects of cocaine on pulsatile activity of hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis in male rhesus monkeys: neuroendocrine and behavioral correlates. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 277: 225-234.
312. Sarnyai Z, Mello NK, Mendelson JH, Nguyen PH and Eros-Sarnyai M (1995b) Effects of cocaine and corticotropin-releasing factor on pulsatile ACTH and cortisol release in ovariectomized rhesus monkeys. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 80:2745-2751.
313. Sarnyai Z, Szabo G, Kovacs GL and Telegdy G (1992c) Opposite actions of oxytocin and vasopressin in the development of cocaine-induced behavioral sensitization in mice. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 43:491-494.
314. Sarnyai Z, Veldhuis JD, Mello NK, Mendelson JH, Eros-Sarnyai M, Mercer G, Gelles H and Kelly M (1995c) The concordance of pulsatile ultradian release of adrenocorticotropin and cortisol in male rhesus monkeys. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 80:54-59.
315. Sawchenko PE, Imaki T, Potter E, Kovacs K, Imaki J and Vale W (1993) The functional neuroanatomy of corticotropin-releasing factor, in Corticotropin-Releasing Factor (Chadwick DJ, Marsh J, and Ackrill K eds) pp 5-29, Wiley, Chichester.
316. Schachter MD and Calcgnetti DJ (1993) Trends in place preference conditioning with a cross-indexed bibliography, 1957-1991. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 17:21-41.
317. Schmidt ED, Tilders FJ, Janszen AW, Binnekade R, De Vries TJ and Schoffelmeer AN (1995) Intermittent cocaine exposure causes delayed and long-lasting sensitization of cocaine-induced ACTH secretion in rats. Eur J Pharmacol 285:317-321.
318. Schulkin J, Gold PW and McEwen BS (1998) Induction of corticotropin-releasing hormone gene expression by glucocorticoids: implication for understanding the states of fear and anxiety and allostatic load. Psychoneuroendocrinology 23:219-243.
319. Schulz DW, Mansbach ES, Sprouse J, Braselton JP, Collins J, M, C, Dunaiskis A, Faraci S, Schmidt AW, Seeger T, Seymour P, Tingley III FD, Winston EN, Chen YL and Heym J (1996) CP-154,526: a potent and selective nonpeptide antagonist of corticotropin releasing factor receptors. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 93:10477-10482.
320. Seifert J, Seifert E, Brechteisbauer H, Kurz C and Thurau K (1984) The influence of chronic subcutaneous nicotine administration on aldosterone and corticosterone plasma concentrations and the plasma renin activity. Klin Wochenschr 62:81-85.
321. Sellers EM, Higgins GA and Sobel MB (1992) 5-HT and alcohol abuse. Trends Pharmacol Sci 13:69-75.
322. Selye H (1976) The Stress of Life. McGraw-Hill, New York.
323. Seyler LE Jr, Fertig J, Pomerleau O, Hunt D and Parker K (1984) The effects of smoking on ACTH and cortisol secretion. Life Sci 34:57-65.
324. Shaham Y (1996) Effect of stress on opioid-seeking behavior: evidence from studies with rats. Ann Behau Med 18:255-263.
325. Shaham Y, Erb S, Leung S, Buczek Y and Stewart J (1998) CP-154,526, a selective, non peptide antagonist of the corticotropin-releasing factor type 1 receptor attenuates stress-induced relapse to drug seeking in cocaine-and heroin-trained rats. Psychopharmacology 137:184-190.
326. Shaham Y, Erb S and Stewart J (2000a) Stress-induced relapse to heroin and cocaine seeking in rats: a review. Brain Res Rev 33:13-33.
327. Shaham Y, Funk D, Erb S, Brown TJ, Walker C-D and Stewart J (1997) Corticotropin-releasing factor, but not corticosterone, is involved in stress-induced relapse to heroin-seeking in rats. J Neurosci 17:2605-2614.
328. Shaham Y, Highfield D, Delfs JM, Leung S and Stewart J (2000b) Clonidine blocks stress-induced reinstatement of heroin seeking in rats: an effect independent of the locus coeruleus noradrenergic neurons. Eur J Neurosci 12:292-302.
329. Shaham Y, Rajabi H and Stewart J (1996) Relapse to heroin-seeking in rats under opioid maintenance: the effects of stress, heroin priming, and withdrawal. J Neurosci 16:1957-1963.
330. Shaham Y and Stewart J (1995) Stress reinstates heroin self-administration behavior in drug-free animals: an effect mimicking heroin, not withdrawal. Psychopharmacology 119:334-341.
331. Shalev U, Highfield D, Yap J and Shaham Y (2000) Stress and relapse to drug seeking in rats: studies on the generality of the effect. Psychopharmacology 150: 337-346.
332. Shalev U, Morales M, Hope B, Yap J and Shaham Y (2001) Time dependent changes in extinction behavior and stress-induced reinstatement of drug seeking following withdrawal from heroin in rats. Psychopharmacology, in press.
333. Sharp BM and Beyer HS (1986) Rapid desensitization of the acute stimulatory effects of nicotine on rat plasma adrenocorticotropin and prolactin. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 238:486-491.
334. Shiffman S and Wills TA (1985) Coping and Substance Abuse. Academic Press, Orlando.
335. Sholar MB, Mendelson JH, Mello NK, Siegel AJ, Kaufman MJ, Levin JM, Renshaw PF and Cohen BM (1998) Concurrent pharmacokinetic analysis of plasma cocaine and adrenocorticotropic hormone in men. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 83:966-968.
336. Sinha R, Catapano D and O'Malley S (1999) Stress-induced craving and stress response in cocaine dependent individuals. Psychopharmacology 142:343-351.
337. Sirinathsinghji DJS, Rees LH, Rivier J and Vale W (1983) Corticotropin-releasing factor is a potent inhibitor of sexual receptivity in the female rat. Nature (Lond) 305:232-235.
338. Skelton KH, Nemeroff CB, Knight DL and Owens MJ (2000) Chronic administration of the triazlobenzodiazepine alprazolam produces opposite effects on corticotropin-releasing factor and urocortin neuronal systems. J Neurosci 20:1240-1248.
339. Skinner BF (1953) Science and Human Behavior. Free Press, New York.
340. Slawecki CJ, Somes C and Ehlers CL (1999) Effects of chronic ethanol exposure on neurophysiological responses to corticotropin-releasing factor and neuropeptide Y. Alcohol Alcohol 34:289-299.
341. Smith R (1999) The timing of birth. Sci Am March:68-75.
342. Sonino N (1987) The use of ketoconazole as an inhibitor of steroid production. N Engl J Med 317:812-818.
343. Spencer RL and McEwen BS (1990) Adaptation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis to chronic ethanol stress. Neuroendocrinology 52:481-489.
344. Spencer RL and McEwen BS (1997) Impaired adaptation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis to chronic ethanol stress in aged rats. Neuroendocrinology 65:353-359.
345. Spina M, Merlo-Pich E, Chan RK, Basso AM, Rivier J, Vale W and Koob GF (1996) Appetite-suppressing effects of urocortin, a CRF-related neuropeptide. Science (Wash DC) 273:1561-1564.
346. Stanford SC (1995) Central noradrenergic neurones and stress. Pharmacol Ther 68:297-342.
347. Steckler T and Holsboer F (1999) Corticotropin-releasing hormone receptor subtypes and emotion. Biol Psychiatry 46:1480-1508.
348. Stewart J and deWit H (1987) Reinstatement of drug-taking behavior as a method of assessing incentive motivational properties of drugs, in Assessing the Reinforcing Properties of Abused Drugs, pp 211-227, Springer, New York.
349. Stinus L, Le MM and Koob GF (1990) The nucleus accumbens and amygdala as possible substrates for the aversive stimulus effects of opiate withdrawal. Neuroscience 37:767-773.
350. Stretch R, Gerber GJ and Wood SM (1971) Factors affecting behavior maintained by response-contingent intravenous infusions of amphetamine in squirrel monkeys. Can J Physiol Pharmacol 49:581-589.
351. Suemaru S, Hashimoto K and Ota Z (1985) Effects of morphine on hypothalamic corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF), norepinephrine and dopamine in non-stressed and stressed rats. Acta Med Okayama 39:463-470.
352. Swerdlow NR, Geyer MA, Vale WW and Koob GF (1986) Corticotropin-releasing factor potentiates acoustic startle in rats: blockade by chlordiazepoxide. Psychopharmacology 88:147-152.
353. Swerdlow NR, Koob GF, Cador M, Lorang M and Hauger RL (1993) Pituitary-adrenal axis responses to acute amphetamine in the rat. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 46:629-637.
354. Takahashi LK, Kalin NH, Vandenburgt JA and Sherman JE (1989) Corticotropin-releasing factor modulates defensive-withdrawal and exploratory behavior in rats. Behav Neurosci 103:648-654.
355. Tazi A, Dantzer R, Le Moal M, Rivier J, Vale W and Koob GF (1987) Corticotropin-releasing factor antagonist blocks stress-induced fighting in rats. Regul Peptides 18:37-42.
356. Teoh SK, Sarnyai Z, Mendelson JH, Mello NK, Springer SA, Sholar JW, Wapler M, Kuehnle JC and Gelles H (1994) Cocaine effects on pulsatile secretion of ACTH in men. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 270:1134-1138.
357. Ticku MK (1990) Alcohol and GABA-benzodiazepine receptor function. Ann Med 22:241-246.
358. Timpl P, Spanagel R, Sillaber I, Kress A, Reul JM, Stalla GK, Blanquet V, Steckler T, Holsboer F and Wurst W (1998) Impaired stress response and reduced anxiety in mice lacking a functional corticotropin-releasing hormone receptor. Nature Genet 19:162-166.
359. Tran-Nguyen TL, Fuchs RA, Coffey GP, O'Dell LE, Baker DA and Neisewander JL (1998) Time-dependent changes in cocaine-seeking behavior and dopamine overflow in the amygdala during cocaine withdrawal. Neuropsychopharmacology 19: 48-59.
360. Tsagarakis S, Navarra P, Rees LH, Besser M, Grossman A and Navara P (1989) Morphine directly modulates the release of stimulated corticotrophin-releasing factor-41 from rat hypothalamus in vitro. Endocrinology 124:2330-2335.
361. Tsagarakis S, Rees LH, Besser M and Grossman A (1990) Opiate receptor subtype regulation of CRF-41 release from rat hypothalamus in vitro. Neuroendocrinology 51:599-605.
362. Turnbull AV and Rivier C (1997) Corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF) and endocrine responses to stress: CRF receptors, binding protein, and related peptides. Proc Socr Exp Biol Med 215:1-10.
363. Vale W, Spiess J, Rivier C and Rivier J (1981) Characterization of a 41-residue ovine hypothalamic peptide that stimulates secretion of corticotropin and β-endorphin. Science (Wash DC) 213:1394-1397.
364. Van Ree JM, Gerrits MA and Vanderschuren LJ (1999) Opioids, reward and addiction: An encounter of biology, psychology, and medicine. Pharmacol Rev 51:341-396.
365. Vaughan J, Donaldson C, Bittencourt J, Perrin MH, Lewis K, Sutton S, Chan R, Turnbull AV, Lovejoy D, Rivier C, Rivier J, Sawchenko PE and Vale W (1995) Urocortin, a mammalian neuropeptide related to fish urotensin I and to corticotropin-releasing factor. Nature (Lond) 378:287-292.
366. Wang B, Luo F, Zhang WT and Han JS (2000) Stress or drug priming induces reinstatement of extinguished conditioned place preference. Neuroreport 11:2781-2784.
367. Weidenfeld J, Feldman S and Mechoulam R (1994) Effect of the brain constituent anandamide, a cannabinoid receptor agonist, on the hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenal axis in the rat. Neuroendocrinology 59:110-112.
368. White FJ and Kalivas PW (1998) Neuroadaptations involved in amphetamine and cocaine addiction. Drug Alcohol Depend 51:141-153.
369. Wilkins JN, Carlson HE, Van Vunakis H, Hill MA, Gritz E and Jarvik ME (1982) Nicotine from cigarette smoking increases circulating levels of cortisol, growth hormone, and prolactin in male chronic smokers Psychopharmacology 78:305-308.
370. Will MJ, Watkins LR and Maier SF (1998) Uncontrollable stress potentiates morphine's rewarding properties. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 60:655-664.
371. Wilson MA, Biscardi R, Smith MD and Wilson SP (1996) Effects of benzodiazepine agonist exposure on corticotropin-releasing factor content and hormonal stress responses: divergent responses in male and ovariectomized female rats. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 278:1073-1082.
372. Wise RA (1996) Addictive drugs and brain stimulation reward. Annu Rev Neurosci 19:319-340.
373. Wong M-L, Kling MA, Munson PJ, Listwak S, Licinio J, Prolo P, Karp B, McCutcheon IE, Geracioti TD, DeBellis MD, Rice KC, Goldstein DS, Veldhuis JD, Chrousos GP, Oldfield EH, McCann SM and Gold PW (2000) Pronounced and sustained central hypernoradrenergic function in major depression with melancholic features: relation to hypercortisolism and corticotropin-releasing hormone. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 97:325-330.
374. Wood DM and Lal H (1987) Anxiogenic properties of cocaine withdrawal. Life Sci 41:1431-1436.
375. Yang X-M, Gorman AL, Dunn AJ and Goeders NE (1992) Anxiogenic effects of acute and chronic cocaine administration: neurochemical and behavioral studies. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 41:643-650.
376. Zhou Y, Spangler R, LaForge S, Maggos CE, Ho A and Kreek MJ (1996a) Corticotropin-releasing factor and type 1 corticotropin-releasing factor receptor messenger RNAs in rat brain and pituitary during "binge"-pattern cocaine administration and chronic withdrawal. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 279:351-358.
377. Zhou Y, Spangler R, Maggos CE, LaForge KS, Ho A and Kreek MJ (1996b) Steady-state methadone in rats does not change mRNA levels of corticotropin-releasing factor, its pituitary receptor or proopiomelanocortin. Eur J Pharmacol 315:31-35.
378. Zobel AW, Nickel T, Kuenzel HE, Ackl N, Sonntag A, Ising M and Holsboer F (2000) Effects of the high-affinity corticotropin-releasing hormone receptor 1 antagonist R121919 in major depression the first 20 patients treated. J Psychiatr Res 34: 171-181.