Before downtown: Cleveland, Ohio, and Urban renewal, 1949-1958

Journal of Urban History

Volumn 27, Issue 4, 2001, Pages 471-496

  Jenkins, William D ^b  

^a YOUNGSTOWN STATE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^b NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE; HOUSING PROVISION; URBAN DEVELOPMENT; URBAN PLANNING; URBAN RENEWAL;

CLEVELAND; OHIO; UNITED STATES;

EID: 0034999594     PISSN: 00961442     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/009614420102700405     Document Type: Article

References (135)

1. Mark I. Gelfand, A Nation of Cities: The Federal Government and Urban America, 1933-1965 (New York, 1975), Chapter 4, 105-56.
2. David C. Hammack, "Comprehensive Planning Before the Comprehensive Plan: A New Look at the Nineteenth-Century City," in Daniel Schaffer, ed., Two Centuries of American Planning (Baltimore, 1988), 155; Walter C. Leedy, Jr., "Cleveland's Struggle for Self-Identity: Aesthetics, Economics and Politics," in R. G. Wilson and S. K. Robinson, eds., Modern Architecture in America: Visions and Revisions (Iowa State University Press, 1991), 75-105.
3. David C. Hammack, "Comprehensive Planning Before the Comprehensive Plan: A New Look at the Nineteenth-Century City," in Daniel Schaffer, ed., Two Centuries of American Planning (Baltimore, 1988), 155; Walter C. Leedy, Jr., "Cleveland's Struggle for Self-Identity: Aesthetics, Economics and Politics," in R. G. Wilson and S. K. Robinson, eds., Modern Architecture in America: Visions and Revisions (Iowa State University Press, 1991), 75-105.
4. Mel Scott, American City Planning Since 1890 (Berkeley, 1969), 61-3; Planning in Cleveland: 1903-1963, City Planning Commission (Cleveland, 1963), 1-3.
5. Mel Scott, American City Planning Since 1890 (Berkeley, 1969), 61-3; Planning in Cleveland: 1903-1963, City Planning Commission (Cleveland, 1963), 1-3.
6. David D. Van Tassel and John J. Grabowski, eds., The Encyclopedia of Cleveland History (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1987), xlii, 65-7, 137-9, 185-6, 333, 407, 518, 578-9, 668-9, 683, 692.
7. Thomas W. Hanchett, "Roots of the Renaissance': Federal Incentives to Urban Planning, 1941 to 1948," in Mary Corbin Sies and Christopher Silver, eds., Planning the Twentieth Century American City (Baltimore, 1996), 283-304. Clearly the effect of federal incentives began even earlier than the beginnings of the war.
8. William D. Jenkins, "Ernest J. Bohn and the Configuration of Public Housing and Urban Planning, 1932-1945," in Proceedings of the Fifth National Conference on American Planning History (Hilliard: The Society for American City and Regional Planning History, 1994), 109-23.
9. Director's Progress Report No. 7, Regional Association of Cleveland, October 1944, 1-4, Ernest J. Bohn Papers (Kelvin Smith Library, Case Western Reserve University Library); Ernest J. Bohn, "The Regional Association of Cleveland - A Citizens' Coordinating Organization on Planning," (Speech to the Chamber of Commerce, 20 March 1940, Bohn Papers). I am also grateful to Maury Klain, former political science professor at Case Western Reserve University, for granting me access to the Maury Klain interviews of Cleveland's leadership housed at the Western Reserve Historical Society. These papers are invaluable but limited by his promise of secrecy for the interviewees. They provide support for many of the points made in this article.
10. Director's Progress Report No. 7, Regional Association of Cleveland, October 1944, 1-4, Ernest J. Bohn Papers (Kelvin Smith Library, Case Western Reserve University Library); Ernest J. Bohn, "The Regional Association of Cleveland - A Citizens' Coordinating Organization on Planning," (Speech to the Chamber of Commerce, 20 March 1940, Bohn Papers). I am also grateful to Maury Klain, former political science professor at Case Western Reserve University, for granting me access to the Maury Klain interviews of Cleveland's leadership housed at the Western Reserve Historical Society. These papers are invaluable but limited by his promise of secrecy for the interviewees. They provide support for many of the points made in this article.
11. Cleveland's General Plan: An Address by John T. Howard, Publication No. 21 (Regional Association of Cleveland, 1949), 1-7, Bohn Papers.
12. Jon C. Teaford, The Rough Road to Renaissance: Urban Revitalization in America, 1940-1985 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1990), 7.
13. Teaford, Rough Road, 12.
14. Teaford, Rough Road, 7 & 26.
15. Teaford, Rough Road, 54.
16. Teaford, Rough Road, 59.
17. Teaford, Rough Road, 105.
18. Teaford, Rough Road, 108.
19. Letter Seward H. Mott to EJB, 17 May 1949; letters EJB to Seward H. Mott, 31 May 1945, 7 July 1945, 24 June 1946, and 8 May 1947, Bohn Papers. In a letter to EJB, 31 December 1941, Edmond H. Hoben, assistant director of the National Association of Housing Officials, gives credit to National Association of Real Estate Brokers (NAREB) for its interest in city planning, but not its attempt to create the impression that it originated the idea; "its present championship of planning and urban rehabilitation and its definite attempt to pose as the originator of these ideas is somewhat amusing in view of the traditional disinterestedness or actual opposition toward essential planning functions by local realtors previous to the last two or three years."
20. Report of Cuyahoga Metropolitan Housing Authority: 1949 (Bohn Papers), 7.
21. Letter EJB to Joseph Porath, 16 June 1952, Bohn Papers.
22. Report of Cuyahoga Metropolitan Housing Authority: 1949, 1-3;
23. John T. Howard, Cleveland's General Plan (Cleveland: Regional Association of Cleveland, 1949), Publication No. 21, 6-7;
24. "Report of the Urban Redevelopment Commission to the Members of the General Assembly of the State of Ohio," 28 December 1946, page b; letter EJB to Bleeker Marquette, executive secretary of the Cincinnati Better Housing League, 11 July 1945, Bohn Papers.
25. Letter EJB to Rev. A. J. Murphy, Diocesan Director of Catholic Charities, 27 November 1941, Bohn Papers.
26. Jenkins, "Bohn and Configuration," 112.
27. Catholic Universe Bulletin, 6 July 1951, Scrapbooks, Bohn Papers.
28. Cleveland Press, 14 December 1954, Scrapbooks, Bohn Papers.
29. Letter Frank S. Horne to Hugh R. Pomeroy, director of the National Association of Housing Officials, 15 October 1942, Bohn Papers.
30. Ernest J. Bohn, "Cleveland's Future in Housing the Poorly Housed" (Speech before the Urban League, 11 January 1958), 3; Cleveland Press, 10 December 1951, Bohn Papers.
31. Ernest J. Bohn, "Cleveland's Future in Housing the Poorly Housed" (Speech before the Urban League, 11 January 1958), 3; Cleveland Press, 10 December 1951, Bohn Papers.
32. Letter Edward Howden, executive director, Council for Civic Unity of San Francisco to EJB, 5 September 1950, Bohn Papers.
33. Cleveland Plain Dealer, 11 May 1952, Scrapbooks, Bohn Papers.
34. Call and Post, 26 April 1953, Scrapbooks, Bohn Papers.
35. Jenkins, "Bohn and Configuration," 114.
36. Report of Cuyahoga Metropolitan Housing Authority: 1950, 4; Report of Cuyahoga Metropolitan Housing Authority: 1949, 6; Ernest J. Bohn, "Housing and Democracy" (Speech at the Chicago Housing Conference, 8 June 1940), 3-5; Ernest J. Bohn, "Assisted Housing Policies" (Speech before the 17th annual convention of the Canadian Construction Association, 24 January 1935), 3-4, Bohn Papers.
37. Report of Cuyahoga Metropolitan Housing Authority: 1950, 4; Report of Cuyahoga Metropolitan Housing Authority: 1949, 6; Ernest J. Bohn, "Housing and Democracy" (Speech at the Chicago Housing Conference, 8 June 1940), 3-5; Ernest J. Bohn, "Assisted Housing Policies" (Speech before the 17th annual convention of the Canadian Construction Association, 24 January 1935), 3-4, Bohn Papers.
38. Report of Cuyahoga Metropolitan Housing Authority: 1950, 4; Report of Cuyahoga Metropolitan Housing Authority: 1949, 6; Ernest J. Bohn, "Housing and Democracy" (Speech at the Chicago Housing Conference, 8 June 1940), 3-5; Ernest J. Bohn, "Assisted Housing Policies" (Speech before the 17th annual convention of the Canadian Construction Association, 24 January 1935), 3-4, Bohn Papers.
39. Report of Cuyahoga Metropolitan Housing Authority: 1950, 4; Report of Cuyahoga Metropolitan Housing Authority: 1949, 6; Ernest J. Bohn, "Housing and Democracy" (Speech at the Chicago Housing Conference, 8 June 1940), 3-5; Ernest J. Bohn, "Assisted Housing Policies" (Speech before the 17th annual convention of the Canadian Construction Association, 24 January 1935), 3-4, Bohn Papers.
40. Letter EJB to Rev. Timothy L. McDonnell; Msgr. Robert A. Navin, "Analysis of a Slum Area in Cleveland," Publication No. 3, Regional Planning Association of Cleveland; Ernest J. Bohn, "Social Conditions," (Bohn Papers), 1-7.
41. Letter EJB to Rev. Timothy L. McDonnell; Msgr. Robert A. Navin, "Analysis of a Slum Area in Cleveland," Publication No. 3, Regional Planning Association of Cleveland; Ernest J. Bohn, "Social Conditions," (Bohn Papers), 1-7.
42. Cleveland Plain Dealer, 22 February 1951, 24 April 1951; Cleveland Press, 5 May 1951, Scrapbooks, Bohn Papers.
43. Cleveland Plain Dealer, 22 February 1951, 24 April 1951; Cleveland Press, 5 May 1951, Scrapbooks, Bohn Papers.
44. Van Tassel and Grabowski, eds., The Encyclopedia, xlii, 66-7, 137-9, 185-6, 578-9, 668-9.
45. Cleveland Plain Dealer, 4 August 1953, Scrapbooks, Bohn Papers.
46. Teaford mistakenly places Cleveland in this pattern when he comments, after discussing Boston politics, that "elsewhere the forces of reform and revival also tried to rid municipal government of the remnants of aging political machines." He then proceeds to discuss St. Louis and Cleveland. "In Cleveland," Teaford notes, "Mayor Anthony Celebrezze likewise won election in 1953 after defeating the candidate of the county Democratic organization in the primary." See Teaford, Rough Road, 59.
47. Cleveland City Planning Commission, "Status of Planning in Metropolitan Cleveland, Ohio," in Bohn Papers, 11 January 1952.
48. Statement of John T. Howard, Planning Director, Cleveland City Planning Commission, in Bohn Papers, 15 April 1949.
49. Report of the Cuyahoga Metropolitan Housing Authority: 1949, 3; Cleveland News, 13 October 1951, Bohn Papers.
50. Report of the Cuyahoga Metropolitan Housing Authority: 1949, 3; Cleveland News, 13 October 1951, Bohn Papers.
51. Cleveland Press, 4 May 1951, 16 May 1953, 18 June 1952;
52. Call and Post, 1 November 1947;
53. Cleveland Plain Dealer, 15 November 1947, Scrapbooks, Bohn Papers.
54. Letter EJB to Mayor Thomas A. Burke, 3 December 1951; Cleveland Plain Dealer, 19 December 1951, Bohn Papers.
55. Cleveland Plain Dealer, 24 July 1954, Scrapbook, Bohn Papers.
56. Cleveland Plain Dealer, 28 May 1954; Frank Baldau, Executive Director of the city's Community Relations Board, expressed a similar idea to the Jewish Community Federation, Cleveland Plain Dealer, 25 June 1953, Scrapbooks, Bohn Papers.
57. Cleveland Plain Dealer, 28 May 1954; Frank Baldau, Executive Director of the city's Community Relations Board, expressed a similar idea to the Jewish Community Federation, Cleveland Plain Dealer, 25 June 1953, Scrapbooks, Bohn Papers.
58. Cleveland Plain Dealer, 14 September 1954, Scrapbooks, Bohn Papers.
59. Cleveland Development Foundation, Bohn Papers, 4.
60. Report of the Cuyahoga Metropolitan Housing Authority: 1956, 4; Oscar Steiner, "Slums Are a Luxury We Cannot Afford," The Reporter, 14 November 1957, 28, Bohn Papers.
61. Report of the Cuyahoga Metropolitan Housing Authority: 1956, 4; Oscar Steiner, "Slums Are a Luxury We Cannot Afford," The Reporter, 14 November 1957, 28, Bohn Papers.
62. Teaford does comment that the Cleveland Development Foundation (CDF) was interested in inner-city housing but makes no remarks about how this might have involved social reform. His main concern is to note that the kind of projects started by CDF failed to gain the "public relations rewards equal to those of the Allegheny Conference," which he commends as a widely recognized and highly praised "product of cooperation between local authorities and private enterprise with the federal government playing no role." See Teaford, Rough Road, 47-9, 108, 111, 150.
63. Cleveland Plain Dealer, 24 July 1954, Scrapbooks, Bohn Papers.
64. Report of the Cuyahoga Metropolitan Housing Authority: 1955, Bohn Papers, 3.
65. Report of the Cuyahoga Metropolitan Housing Authority: 1956, Bohn Papers, 4.
66. Report of the Cuyahoga Metropolitan Housing Authority: 1954, Bohn Papers, 3.
67. Steiner, "Slums Are a Luxury," Bohn Papers, 27-9.
68. Teaford does portray one of the causes of the failure of the moderate income housing in Cleveland as the reluctance of the middle-class black to move into ghetto housing. See Teaford, 159.
69. Comment of Frank Baldau, executive director of the Community Relations Committee, to the Cleveland Press, 27 December 1951, Scrapbooks, Bohn Papers.
70. Van Tassel and Grabowski, Cleveland Encyclopedia, 102-3; Cleveland Press, 27 December 1951; Call and Post, 4 April 1953; Cleveland Plain Dealer, 21 May 1952;
71. Van Tassel and Grabowski, Cleveland Encyclopedia, 102-3; Cleveland Press, 27 December 1951; Call and Post, 4 April 1953; Cleveland Plain Dealer, 21 May 1952;
72. Van Tassel and Grabowski, Cleveland Encyclopedia, 102-3; Cleveland Press, 27 December 1951; Call and Post, 4 April 1953; Cleveland Plain Dealer, 21 May 1952;
73. Van Tassel and Grabowski, Cleveland Encyclopedia, 102-3; Cleveland Press, 27 December 1951; Call and Post, 4 April 1953; Cleveland Plain Dealer, 21 May 1952;
74. Cleveland News, 22 March 1957, Scrapbooks, Bohn Papers.
75. Call and Post, 6 September 1952, 20 December 1952; Cleveland Press, 27 December 1951; Cleveland Plain Dealer, 28 February 1952, Scrapbooks, Bohn Papers.
76. Call and Post, 6 September 1952, 20 December 1952; Cleveland Press, 27 December 1951; Cleveland Plain Dealer, 28 February 1952, Scrapbooks, Bohn Papers.
77. Call and Post, 6 September 1952, 20 December 1952; Cleveland Press, 27 December 1951; Cleveland Plain Dealer, 28 February 1952, Scrapbooks, Bohn Papers.
78. Cleveland Plain Dealer, 18 June 1952, Scrapbooks, Bohn Papers; Report of the Cuyahoga Metropolitan Housing Authority: 1952, 8-11, Bohn Papers.
79. Cleveland Plain Dealer, 18 June 1952, Scrapbooks, Bohn Papers; Report of the Cuyahoga Metropolitan Housing Authority: 1952, 8-11, Bohn Papers.
80. Cleveland Plain Dealer, 18 March 1952; Cleveland Press, 2 February 1952; Call and Post, 3 January 1952, 28 June 1952; Cleveland News, 8 November 1951, Scrapbooks, Bohn Papers.
81. Cleveland Plain Dealer, 18 March 1952; Cleveland Press, 2 February 1952; Call and Post, 3 January 1952, 28 June 1952; Cleveland News, 8 November 1951, Scrapbooks, Bohn Papers.
82. Cleveland Plain Dealer, 18 March 1952; Cleveland Press, 2 February 1952; Call and Post, 3 January 1952, 28 June 1952; Cleveland News, 8 November 1951, Scrapbooks, Bohn Papers.
83. Cleveland Plain Dealer, 18 March 1952; Cleveland Press, 2 February 1952; Call and Post, 3 January 1952, 28 June 1952; Cleveland News, 8 November 1951, Scrapbooks, Bohn Papers.
84. Cleveland Plain Dealer, 24 November 1951, Scrapbooks, Bohn Papers.
85. Report of the Cuyahoga Metropolitan Housing Authority: 1952, Bohn Papers, 11; Cleveland Plain Dealer, 3 April 1952, Scrapbooks, Bohn Papers.
86. Report of the Cuyahoga Metropolitan Housing Authority: 1952, Bohn Papers, 11; Cleveland Plain Dealer, 3 April 1952, Scrapbooks, Bohn Papers.
87. Cleveland Press, 18 June 1952, Scrapbooks, Bohn Papers.
88. Cleveland News, 30 April 1951, Scrapbooks, Bohn Papers.
89. Report of the Cuyahoga Metropolitan Housing Authority: 1949, Bohn Papers, 13.
90. Call and Post, 10 and 17 January 1953, Scrapbooks, Bohn Papers.
91. Report of the Cuyahoga Metropolitan Housing Authority: 1952, Bohn Papers, 11; the Private Enterprise Re-development Corporation had issued these figures. Cleveland Press, 2 February 1953, Scrapbooks, Bohn Papers.
92. Report of the Cuyahoga Metropolitan Housing Authority: 1952, Bohn Papers, 11; the Private Enterprise Re-development Corporation had issued these figures. Cleveland Press, 2 February 1953, Scrapbooks, Bohn Papers.
93. Cleveland Plain Dealer, 23 June 1952 and 7 February 1953; Cleveland News, 25 June 1952, Scrapbooks, Bohn Papers.
94. Cleveland Plain Dealer, 23 June 1952 and 7 February 1953; Cleveland News, 25 June 1952, Scrapbooks, Bohn Papers.
95. Cleveland Plain Dealer, 7 February 1953, Scrapbooks, Bohn Papers.
96. Cleveland Plain Dealer, 10 February 1953, Scrapbooks, Bohn Papers.
97. Cleveland News, 25 October 1951; Cleveland Plain Dealer, 29 August 1952, Scrapbooks, Bohn Papers.
98. Cleveland News, 25 October 1951; Cleveland Plain Dealer, 29 August 1952, Scrapbooks, Bohn Papers.
99. Cleveland Press, 22 April 1952; Cleveland Plain Dealer, 9 January 1953, Scrapbooks, Bohn Papers.
100. Cleveland Press, 22 April 1952; Cleveland Plain Dealer, 9 January 1953, Scrapbooks, Bohn Papers.
101. Cleveland Press, 18 August 1953, Scrapbooks, Bohn Papers.
102. According to a report of the City Planning Commission, those moving into private housing could afford only between $55 and $75 monthly, Cleveland News, 12 March 1953, Scrapbooks, Bohn Papers.
103. Cleveland Press, 1 July 1952; Cleveland Plain Dealer, 16 January 1953; Cleveland News, 12 March 1953, Scrapbooks, Bohn Papers.
104. Cleveland Press, 1 July 1952; Cleveland Plain Dealer, 16 January 1953; Cleveland News, 12 March 1953, Scrapbooks, Bohn Papers.
105. Cleveland Press, 1 July 1952; Cleveland Plain Dealer, 16 January 1953; Cleveland News, 12 March 1953, Scrapbooks, Bohn Papers.
106. Cleveland Press, 16 March 1953, Scrapbooks, Bohn Papers.
107. Cleveland Press, 13 July 1953; Catholic Universe Bulletin, 13 November 1953, Scrapbooks, Bohn Papers.
108. Cleveland Press, 13 July 1953; Catholic Universe Bulletin, 13 November 1953, Scrapbooks, Bohn Papers.
109. Cleveland Plain Dealer, 22 July 1953, Scrapbooks, Bohn Papers.
110. Cleveland Plain Dealer, 27 June 1952, Scrapbooks, Bohn Papers.
111. Cleveland News, 26 June 1953, Scrapbooks, Bohn Papers
112. Cleveland Plain Dealer, 25 August 1953, Scrapbooks, Bohn Papers.
113. Cleveland Press, 6 October 1953, Scrapbooks, Bohn Papers.
114. Catholic Universe Bulletin, 13 November 1953, Scrapbooks, Bohn Papers.
115. Ibid., 27 November 1953, Scrapbooks, Bohn Papers.
116. Cleveland Press and Cleveland Plain Dealer, 14 December 1954, Scrapbooks, Bohn Papers.
117. Cleveland Press, 19 June 1952, 7 January 1954, Scrapbooks, Bohn Papers.
118. Cleveland Citizen, 27 June 1952, look for Patton, Scrapbooks, Bohn Papers.
119. Cleveland Press, 14 October 1952 & 22 April 1952, Scrapbooks, Bohn Papers.
120. Cleveland Plain Dealer, 3 February 1953; Call and Post, 7 February 1953; Cleveland News, 10 February 1953, Scrapbooks, Bohn Papers
121. Cleveland Plain Dealer, 3 February 1953; Call and Post, 7 February 1953; Cleveland News, 10 February 1953, Scrapbooks, Bohn Papers
122. Cleveland Plain Dealer, 3 February 1953; Call and Post, 7 February 1953; Cleveland News, 10 February 1953, Scrapbooks, Bohn Papers
123. Report of the Cuyahoga Metropolitan Housing Authority: 1954, 2-3; Cleveland Plain Dealer, 17 April 1954, Bohn Papers.
124. Report of the Cuyahoga Metropolitan Housing Authority: 1954, 2-3; Cleveland Plain Dealer, 17 April 1954, Bohn Papers.
125. Report of the Cuyahoga Metropolitan Housing Authority: 1950, Bohn Papers, 2.
126. Cleveland Press, 1 January 1953, Scrapbooks, Bohn Papers; Report of the Cuyahoga Metropolitan Housing Authority: 1951, Bohn Papers, 24-7.
127. Cleveland Press, 1 January 1953, Scrapbooks, Bohn Papers; Report of the Cuyahoga Metropolitan Housing Authority: 1951, Bohn Papers, 24-7.
128. Report from the Joint Staffs of the Cleveland Community Relations Board, Cleveland NAACP, and the Urban League of Cleveland, Bohn Papers.
129. Minutes of the Urban Renewal Advisory Committee, 1 July 1964, Bohn Papers.
130. Cleveland Press, 7 February 1953, Scrapbooks, Bohn Papers.
131. John Bauman, Public Housing, Race, and Renewal: Urban Planning in Philadelphia, 1920-74 (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1987), 118-82.
132. Arnold Hirsch, Making the Second Ghetto: Race and Housing in Chicago, 1940-1960 (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1983), xii-xiii, 41, 122, 185, 203-5, 224, 234-8, 256-8.
133. Robert B. Fairbanks, Making Better Citizens: Housing Reform and the Community Development Strategy in Cincinnati, 1890-1960 (Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 1988), 158-64; June Manning Thomas, Redevelopment and Race: Planning a Finer City in Postwar Detroit (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1997), 47-51. In a city not included in the Teaford study, Richmond, Virginia, Christopher Silver found that economic leaders and city planners conjoined to plan for redevelopment that restricted and segregated the black population. See Christopher Silver, Twentieth Century Richmond: Planning, Politics and Race (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1984).
134. Robert B. Fairbanks, Making Better Citizens: Housing Reform and the Community Development Strategy in Cincinnati, 1890-1960 (Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 1988), 158-64; June Manning Thomas, Redevelopment and Race: Planning a Finer City in Postwar Detroit (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1997), 47-51. In a city not included in the Teaford study, Richmond, Virginia, Christopher Silver found that economic leaders and city planners conjoined to plan for redevelopment that restricted and segregated the black population. See Christopher Silver, Twentieth Century Richmond: Planning, Politics and Race (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1984).
135. Robert B. Fairbanks, Making Better Citizens: Housing Reform and the Community Development Strategy in Cincinnati, 1890-1960 (Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 1988), 158-64; June Manning Thomas, Redevelopment and Race: Planning a Finer City in Postwar Detroit (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1997), 47-51. In a city not included in the Teaford study, Richmond, Virginia, Christopher Silver found that economic leaders and city planners conjoined to plan for redevelopment that restricted and segregated the black population. See Christopher Silver, Twentieth Century Richmond: Planning, Politics and Race (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1984).