Exploring the environmental and political dimensions of poverty: The cases of the cities of Mar del Plata and Necochea-Quequén

Environment and Urbanization

Volumn 13, Issue 1, 2001, Pages 185-199

  Navarro, Lía ^a,b  

^a Environmental Research Center (CIAM)   (Argentina)

^b UNIVERSIDAD NACIONAL DE MAR DEL PLATA   (Argentina)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS; HOUSING CONDITIONS; POVERTY ALLEVIATION; POVERTY DETERMINANT; URBAN AREA;

ARGENTINA; BUENOS AIRES PROVINCE; MAR DEL PLATA; NECOCHEA; QUEQUEN;

EID: 0034996212     PISSN: 09562478     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1630/095624701101285559     Document Type: Article

References (72)

1. Cafferata, A (1987), Pobreza y políticas sociales; Una aproximación teórico metodológica para la elaboración de diagnósticos operativos, CFI, Buenos Aires; also Chambers, R (1995), "Poverty and livelihoods; whose reality counts?", Environment and Urbanization Vol 7, No 1, pages 173-204; Stewart, F (1995), Adjustment and Poverty. Options and Choices, Routledge, London; Douglass, M (1992), "The political economy of urban poverty and environmental management in Asia: access, empowerment and community-based alternatives", in Environment and Urbanization, Vol 4, No 2, pages 9-32; and Satterthwaite, D (1999), The Links between Poverty and the Environment in Urban Areas of Africa, Asia and Latin America, UNDP, mimeo.
2. Cafferata, A (1987), Pobreza y políticas sociales; Una aproximación teórico metodológica para la elaboración de diagnósticos operativos, CFI, Buenos Aires; also Chambers, R (1995), "Poverty and livelihoods; whose reality counts?", Environment and Urbanization Vol 7, No 1, pages 173-204; Stewart, F (1995), Adjustment and Poverty. Options and Choices, Routledge, London; Douglass, M (1992), "The political economy of urban poverty and environmental management in Asia: access, empowerment and community-based alternatives", in Environment and Urbanization, Vol 4, No 2, pages 9-32; and Satterthwaite, D (1999), The Links between Poverty and the Environment in Urban Areas of Africa, Asia and Latin America, UNDP, mimeo.
3. Cafferata, A (1987), Pobreza y políticas sociales; Una aproximación teórico metodológica para la elaboración de diagnósticos operativos, CFI, Buenos Aires; also Chambers, R (1995), "Poverty and livelihoods; whose reality counts?", Environment and Urbanization Vol 7, No 1, pages 173-204; Stewart, F (1995), Adjustment and Poverty. Options and Choices, Routledge, London; Douglass, M (1992), "The political economy of urban poverty and environmental management in Asia: access, empowerment and community-based alternatives", in Environment and Urbanization, Vol 4, No 2, pages 9-32; and Satterthwaite, D (1999), The Links between Poverty and the Environment in Urban Areas of Africa, Asia and Latin America, UNDP, mimeo.
4. Cafferata, A (1987), Pobreza y políticas sociales; Una aproximación teórico metodológica para la elaboración de diagnósticos operativos, CFI, Buenos Aires; also Chambers, R (1995), "Poverty and livelihoods; whose reality counts?", Environment and Urbanization Vol 7, No 1, pages 173-204; Stewart, F (1995), Adjustment and Poverty. Options and Choices, Routledge, London; Douglass, M (1992), "The political economy of urban poverty and environmental management in Asia: access, empowerment and community-based alternatives", in Environment and Urbanization, Vol 4, No 2, pages 9-32; and Satterthwaite, D (1999), The Links between Poverty and the Environment in Urban Areas of Africa, Asia and Latin America, UNDP, mimeo.
5. Cafferata, A (1987), Pobreza y políticas sociales; Una aproximación teórico metodológica para la elaboración de diagnósticos operativos, CFI, Buenos Aires; also Chambers, R (1995), "Poverty and livelihoods; whose reality counts?", Environment and Urbanization Vol 7, No 1, pages 173-204; Stewart, F (1995), Adjustment and Poverty. Options and Choices, Routledge, London; Douglass, M (1992), "The political economy of urban poverty and environmental management in Asia: access, empowerment and community-based alternatives", in Environment and Urbanization, Vol 4, No 2, pages 9-32; and Satterthwaite, D (1999), The Links between Poverty and the Environment in Urban Areas of Africa, Asia and Latin America, UNDP, mimeo.
6. Moser, Caroline O N (1997), "Urban social policy and poverty reduction" in Burgess, Rod, Marisa Carmona and Theo Kolstee (editors), The Challenge of Sustainable Cities, Zed Books, London, page 46.
7. For example, the Poverty Gap Measurement, the Poverty Band, the Sen Index, the FGT Index, etc. See reference 1, Stewart (1995); also, Wratten, E (1995), "Conceptualizing urban poverty" in Environment and Urbanization, Vol 7, No 1, pages 11-36.
8. For example, the Poverty Gap Measurement, the Poverty Band, the Sen Index, the FGT Index, etc. See reference 1, Stewart (1995); also, Wratten, E (1995), "Conceptualizing urban poverty" in Environment and Urbanization, Vol 7, No 1, pages 11-36.
9. See for example the Basic Needs method, the Integrated method and the different efforts which allow comparison between countries, such as the Human Development Index or the Physical Quality Index. See reference 3, Wratten (1995).
10. Beccaria, Luis and Alberto Minujin (1991), Sobre la medicién de la pobreza: enseñanzas a partir de la experiencia argentina, Documento de trabajo No 8, UNICEF Argentina, Buenos Aires; also Minujín, A and A Scharf (s/f), Estructura del hogar y línea de pobreza: algunas consideraciones en el empleo del concepto del adulto equivalente, INDEC/IPA, Buenos Aires; and Epszteyn, E and A Orsatti (1985), Características de una linea de pobreza para Argentina, Documento de trabajo No 8, INDEC/IPA, Buenos Aires.
11. Beccaria, Luis and Alberto Minujin (1991), Sobre la medicién de la pobreza: enseñanzas a partir de la experiencia argentina, Documento de trabajo No 8, UNICEF Argentina, Buenos Aires; also Minujín, A and A Scharf (s/f), Estructura del hogar y línea de pobreza: algunas consideraciones en el empleo del concepto del adulto equivalente, INDEC/IPA, Buenos Aires; and Epszteyn, E and A Orsatti (1985), Características de una linea de pobreza para Argentina, Documento de trabajo No 8, INDEC/IPA, Buenos Aires.
12. Beccaria, Luis and Alberto Minujin (1991), Sobre la medicién de la pobreza: enseñanzas a partir de la experiencia argentina, Documento de trabajo No 8, UNICEF Argentina, Buenos Aires; also Minujín, A and A Scharf (s/f), Estructura del hogar y línea de pobreza: algunas consideraciones en el empleo del concepto del adulto equivalente, INDEC/IPA, Buenos Aires; and Epszteyn, E and A Orsatti (1985), Características de una linea de pobreza para Argentina, Documento de trabajo No 8, INDEC/IPA, Buenos Aires.
13. Rakodi, C (1995), "Poverty lines or households strategies? A review of conceptual issues in the study of urban poverty", Habitat International Vol 19, No 4, London, pages 407-426; also see reference 1, Stewart (1995); and Novaro, M and P Perelman (1993), "La pobreza en el AMBA (1974-1991)" in Medio Ambiente y Urbanización No 45, IIED-AL, Buenos Aires.
14. Rakodi, C (1995), "Poverty lines or households strategies? A review of conceptual issues in the study of urban poverty", Habitat International Vol 19, No 4, London, pages 407-426; also see reference 1, Stewart (1995); and Novaro, M and P Perelman (1993), "La pobreza en el AMBA (1974-1991)" in Medio Ambiente y Urbanización No 45, IIED-AL, Buenos Aires.
15. Rakodi, C (1995), "Poverty lines or households strategies? A review of conceptual issues in the study of urban poverty", Habitat International Vol 19, No 4, London, pages 407-426; also see reference 1, Stewart (1995); and Novaro, M and P Perelman (1993), "La pobreza en el AMBA (1974-1991)" in Medio Ambiente y Urbanización No 45, IIED-AL, Buenos Aires.
16. See reference 3, Wratten (1995); also Douglass, M (1998), "World city formation on the Asia Pacific rim: poverty, "everyday" forms of civil society and environmental management" in Douglass, M and J Friedmann (editors), Cities for Citizens. Planning and Rise of Civil Society in a Global Age, John Wiley & Sons, London; and see reference 5, Beccaria and Minujín (1991).
17. See reference 3, Wratten (1995); also Douglass, M (1998), "World city formation on the Asia Pacific rim: poverty, "everyday" forms of civil society and environmental management" in Douglass, M and J Friedmann (editors), Cities for Citizens. Planning and Rise of Civil Society in a Global Age, John Wiley & Sons, London; and see reference 5, Beccaria and Minujín (1991).
18. See reference 3, Wratten (1995); also Douglass, M (1998), "World city formation on the Asia Pacific rim: poverty, "everyday" forms of civil society and environmental management" in Douglass, M and J Friedmann (editors), Cities for Citizens. Planning and Rise of Civil Society in a Global Age, John Wiley & Sons, London; and see reference 5, Beccaria and Minujín (1991).
19. Some studies on social indices include: INDEC (1984), La pobreza en la Argentina: Indicadores de necesidades básions insatisfechas a partir de datos del censo nacional de población y vivienda 1980, Estudios INDEC, Buenos Aires; also INDEC (1996), Perfil de los hogares y de la población con necesidades básicas insatisfechas, Estudios 24, INDEC, Buenos Aires; see reference 6, Novaro and Perelman (1993); INDEC/CEPA (1992), Necesidades básicas insatisfechas. Evolución intercensal 1980-1991, Documento de trabajo No 1, INDEC, Buenos Aires; Psacharopoulos, G, S Morley et al. (1996), La Pobreza y la distribución de los ingresos en América Latina. Historia del decenio de 1980, Temas de debate: investigaciones en curso, Documento técnico del Banco Mundial, Washington DC; UNDP (1996), Informe sobre desarrollo humano 1996, Ediciones Mundi-Prensa, Madrid; and Morris, M (1979), Measuring the Condition of the World's Poor: The Physical Quality of Life Index, Frank Cass, London.
20. Some studies on social indices include: INDEC (1984), La pobreza en la Argentina: Indicadores de necesidades básions insatisfechas a partir de datos del censo nacional de población y vivienda 1980, Estudios INDEC, Buenos Aires; also INDEC (1996), Perfil de los hogares y de la población con necesidades básicas insatisfechas, Estudios 24, INDEC, Buenos Aires; see reference 6, Novaro and Perelman (1993); INDEC/CEPA (1992), Necesidades básicas insatisfechas. Evolución intercensal 1980-1991, Documento de trabajo No 1, INDEC, Buenos Aires; Psacharopoulos, G, S Morley et al. (1996), La Pobreza y la distribución de los ingresos en América Latina. Historia del decenio de 1980, Temas de debate: investigaciones en curso, Documento técnico del Banco Mundial, Washington DC; UNDP (1996), Informe sobre desarrollo humano 1996, Ediciones Mundi-Prensa, Madrid; and Morris, M (1979), Measuring the Condition of the World's Poor: The Physical Quality of Life Index, Frank Cass, London.
21. Some studies on social indices include: INDEC (1984), La pobreza en la Argentina: Indicadores de necesidades básions insatisfechas a partir de datos del censo nacional de población y vivienda 1980, Estudios INDEC, Buenos Aires; also INDEC (1996), Perfil de los hogares y de la población con necesidades básicas insatisfechas, Estudios 24, INDEC, Buenos Aires; see reference 6, Novaro and Perelman (1993); INDEC/CEPA (1992), Necesidades básicas insatisfechas. Evolución intercensal 1980-1991, Documento de trabajo No 1, INDEC, Buenos Aires; Psacharopoulos, G, S Morley et al. (1996), La Pobreza y la distribución de los ingresos en América Latina. Historia del decenio de 1980, Temas de debate: investigaciones en curso, Documento técnico del Banco Mundial, Washington DC; UNDP (1996), Informe sobre desarrollo humano 1996, Ediciones Mundi-Prensa, Madrid; and Morris, M (1979), Measuring the Condition of the World's Poor: The Physical Quality of Life Index, Frank Cass, London.
22. Some studies on social indices include: INDEC (1984), La pobreza en la Argentina: Indicadores de necesidades básions insatisfechas a partir de datos del censo nacional de población y vivienda 1980, Estudios INDEC, Buenos Aires; also INDEC (1996), Perfil de los hogares y de la población con necesidades básicas insatisfechas, Estudios 24, INDEC, Buenos Aires; see reference 6, Novaro and Perelman (1993); INDEC/CEPA (1992), Necesidades básicas insatisfechas. Evolución intercensal 1980-1991, Documento de trabajo No 1, INDEC, Buenos Aires; Psacharopoulos, G, S Morley et al. (1996), La Pobreza y la distribución de los ingresos en América Latina. Historia del decenio de 1980, Temas de debate: investigaciones en curso, Documento técnico del Banco Mundial, Washington DC; UNDP (1996), Informe sobre desarrollo humano 1996, Ediciones Mundi-Prensa, Madrid; and Morris, M (1979), Measuring the Condition of the World's Poor: The Physical Quality of Life Index, Frank Cass, London.
23. Some studies on social indices include: INDEC (1984), La pobreza en la Argentina: Indicadores de necesidades básions insatisfechas a partir de datos del censo nacional de población y vivienda 1980, Estudios INDEC, Buenos Aires; also INDEC (1996), Perfil de los hogares y de la población con necesidades básicas insatisfechas, Estudios 24, INDEC, Buenos Aires; see reference 6, Novaro and Perelman (1993); INDEC/CEPA (1992), Necesidades básicas insatisfechas. Evolución intercensal 1980-1991, Documento de trabajo No 1, INDEC, Buenos Aires; Psacharopoulos, G, S Morley et al. (1996), La Pobreza y la distribución de los ingresos en América Latina. Historia del decenio de 1980, Temas de debate: investigaciones en curso, Documento técnico del Banco Mundial, Washington DC; UNDP (1996), Informe sobre desarrollo humano 1996, Ediciones Mundi-Prensa, Madrid; and Morris, M (1979), Measuring the Condition of the World's Poor: The Physical Quality of Life Index, Frank Cass, London.
24. Some studies on social indices include: INDEC (1984), La pobreza en la Argentina: Indicadores de necesidades básions insatisfechas a partir de datos del censo nacional de población y vivienda 1980, Estudios INDEC, Buenos Aires; also INDEC (1996), Perfil de los hogares y de la población con necesidades básicas insatisfechas, Estudios 24, INDEC, Buenos Aires; see reference 6, Novaro and Perelman (1993); INDEC/CEPA (1992), Necesidades básicas insatisfechas. Evolución intercensal 1980-1991, Documento de trabajo No 1, INDEC, Buenos Aires; Psacharopoulos, G, S Morley et al. (1996), La Pobreza y la distribución de los ingresos en América Latina. Historia del decenio de 1980, Temas de debate: investigaciones en curso, Documento técnico del Banco Mundial, Washington DC; UNDP (1996), Informe sobre desarrollo humano 1996, Ediciones Mundi-Prensa, Madrid; and Morris, M (1979), Measuring the Condition of the World's Poor: The Physical Quality of Life Index, Frank Cass, London.
25. Some studies on social indices include: INDEC (1984), La pobreza en la Argentina: Indicadores de necesidades básions insatisfechas a partir de datos del censo nacional de población y vivienda 1980, Estudios INDEC, Buenos Aires; also INDEC (1996), Perfil de los hogares y de la población con necesidades básicas insatisfechas, Estudios 24, INDEC, Buenos Aires; see reference 6, Novaro and Perelman (1993); INDEC/CEPA (1992), Necesidades básicas insatisfechas. Evolución intercensal 1980-1991, Documento de trabajo No 1, INDEC, Buenos Aires; Psacharopoulos, G, S Morley et al. (1996), La Pobreza y la distribución de los ingresos en América Latina. Historia del decenio de 1980, Temas de debate: investigaciones en curso, Documento técnico del Banco Mundial, Washington DC; UNDP (1996), Informe sobre desarrollo humano 1996, Ediciones Mundi-Prensa, Madrid; and Morris, M (1979), Measuring the Condition of the World's Poor: The Physical Quality of Life Index, Frank Cass, London.
26. See reference 6, Rakodi (1995); also reference 1, Satterthwaite (1999); and reference 8, Psacharopoulos (1996). The analysis of poverty and income distribution in Latin America in Psacharopoulos (1996) points out that "...although the specific poverty thresholds of each country are more appropriate for the analysis of one country, a regional analysis should balance the conditions of the poorest and richest states to determine the threshold. What can be an adequate threshold for a relatively rich country such as Argentina is inappropriate for assessing poverty in Guatemala. A regional threshold, to be uniform, should be focused on the actual poor, and give up the consideration of relative poverty" (page 59). The Basic Needs method of measurement is used in Argentina, developed on the basis of statistical information available from the National Census of Population, Households and Houses. The main aim of this index of basic needs is its application to the whole national territory, which has very different cultural and natural conditions. In consequence, the index is very inclusive, with very low thresholds for each indicator and little capacity to identify where poverty is not extreme.
27. See reference 6, Rakodi (1995); also reference 1, Satterthwaite (1999); and reference 8, Psacharopoulos (1996). The analysis of poverty and income distribution in Latin America in Psacharopoulos (1996) points out that "...although the specific poverty thresholds of each country are more appropriate for the analysis of one country, a regional analysis should balance the conditions of the poorest and richest states to determine the threshold. What can be an adequate threshold for a relatively rich country such as Argentina is inappropriate for assessing poverty in Guatemala. A regional threshold, to be uniform, should be focused on the actual poor, and give up the consideration of relative poverty" (page 59). The Basic Needs method of measurement is used in Argentina, developed on the basis of statistical information available from the National Census of Population, Households and Houses. The main aim of this index of basic needs is its application to the whole national territory, which has very different cultural and natural conditions. In consequence, the index is very inclusive, with very low thresholds for each indicator and little capacity to identify where poverty is not extreme.
28. See reference 6, Rakodi (1995); also reference 1, Satterthwaite (1999); and reference 8, Psacharopoulos (1996). The analysis of poverty and income distribution in Latin America in Psacharopoulos (1996) points out that "...although the specific poverty thresholds of each country are more appropriate for the analysis of one country, a regional analysis should balance the conditions of the poorest and richest states to determine the threshold. What can be an adequate threshold for a relatively rich country such as Argentina is inappropriate for assessing poverty in Guatemala. A regional threshold, to be uniform, should be focused on the actual poor, and give up the consideration of relative poverty" (page 59). The Basic Needs method of measurement is used in Argentina, developed on the basis of statistical information available from the National Census of Population, Households and Houses. The main aim of this index of basic needs is its application to the whole national territory, which has very different cultural and natural conditions. In consequence, the index is very inclusive, with very low thresholds for each indicator and little capacity to identify where poverty is not extreme.
29. See reference 6, Chambers (1995) in Rakodi (1995), page 411.
30. See reference 2, Moser (1997).
31. See reference 3, Wratten (1995).
32. See reference 1, Douglass (1992).
33. Chambers, R (1989), "Vulnerability: how the poor cope", IDS Bulletin Vol 20, No 2.
34. Geisse, Guillermo (1988), Alternativas urbanas para enfrentar la crisis. Repensando la ciudad de América Latina, GEL, Buenos Aires.
35. Graciarena, J (1982), "La estrategia de las necesidades básicas como alternativa. Sus posibilidades en el contexto latinoamericano in Franco, R (compiler), Pobreza, necesidades básicas y desarrollo, CEPAL/ILPES/UNICEF, Santiago de Chile.
36. INDEC is part of the National Ministry of Economy, and it is the office that carries out the censuses and sample surveys. It is the only one that receives the data demands from all over the country for these sources of information. Sometimes, it is possible to find some degree of disaggregation and some preliminary outputs of this information at the provincial offices of statistics.
37. It includes the Argentinean human development reports, and the specific reports for some provinces done every year since 1995 (UNDP website www.undp.org.ar).
38. Especially human resources, through a massive process of withdrawal of municipal staff in the earlier stages of the application of structural adjustment policies.
39. This list is based on different authors: Bradley, D, C Stephens, T Harpham and S Cairncross (1992), A Review of Environmental Health Impacts in Developing Country Cities, World Bank Urban Management Programme (PGU), Washington DC; also Vanderschueren, Franz, Emiel Wegelin and Kadmiel Wekwete (1996), Opciones para políticas y programas de reducción de la pobreza urbana. Un marco para la acción a nivel municipal, World Bank Urban Management Programme (PGU), Washington DC; Hardoy J and D Satterthwaite (1991), "Medio ambiente y condiciones de vida en América Latina: su impacto sobre la salud" in Medio Ambiente y Urbanización No 36, Buenos Aires; Satterthwaite (1999), see reference 1; Moser, Caroline ON (1996), Confronting Crisis. A Comparative Study of Household Responses to Poverty and Vulnerability in Four Poor Urban Communities, ESD Studies and Monographs No 8, The World Bank, Washington, DC; and Garrett, James and Marie Ruel (1999), cited in Research Perspectives Vol 22, No 1, IFPRI, Spring 2000
40. This list is based on different authors: Bradley, D, C Stephens, T Harpham and S Cairncross (1992), A Review of Environmental Health Impacts in Developing Country Cities, World Bank Urban Management Programme (PGU), Washington DC; also Vanderschueren, Franz, Emiel Wegelin and Kadmiel Wekwete (1996), Opciones para políticas y programas de reducción de la pobreza urbana. Un marco para la acción a nivel municipal, World Bank Urban Management Programme (PGU), Washington DC; Hardoy J and D Satterthwaite (1991), "Medio ambiente y condiciones de vida en América Latina: su impacto sobre la salud" in Medio Ambiente y Urbanización No 36, Buenos Aires; Satterthwaite (1999), see reference 1; Moser, Caroline ON (1996), Confronting Crisis. A Comparative Study of Household Responses to Poverty and Vulnerability in Four Poor Urban Communities, ESD Studies and Monographs No 8, The World Bank, Washington, DC; and Garrett, James and Marie Ruel (1999), cited in Research Perspectives Vol 22, No 1, IFPRI, Spring 2000
41. This list is based on different authors: Bradley, D, C Stephens, T Harpham and S Cairncross (1992), A Review of Environmental Health Impacts in Developing Country Cities, World Bank Urban Management Programme (PGU), Washington DC; also Vanderschueren, Franz, Emiel Wegelin and Kadmiel Wekwete (1996), Opciones para políticas y programas de reducción de la pobreza urbana. Un marco para la acción a nivel municipal, World Bank Urban Management Programme (PGU), Washington DC; Hardoy J and D Satterthwaite (1991), "Medio ambiente y condiciones de vida en América Latina: su impacto sobre la salud" in Medio Ambiente y Urbanización No 36, Buenos Aires; Satterthwaite (1999), see reference 1; Moser, Caroline ON (1996), Confronting Crisis. A Comparative Study of Household Responses to Poverty and Vulnerability in Four Poor Urban Communities, ESD Studies and Monographs No 8, The World Bank, Washington, DC; and Garrett, James and Marie Ruel (1999), cited in Research Perspectives Vol 22, No 1, IFPRI, Spring 2000
42. This list is based on different authors: Bradley, D, C Stephens, T Harpham and S Cairncross (1992), A Review of Environmental Health Impacts in Developing Country Cities, World Bank Urban Management Programme (PGU), Washington DC; also Vanderschueren, Franz, Emiel Wegelin and Kadmiel Wekwete (1996), Opciones para políticas y programas de reducción de la pobreza urbana. Un marco para la acción a nivel municipal, World Bank Urban Management Programme (PGU), Washington DC; Hardoy J and D Satterthwaite (1991), "Medio ambiente y condiciones de vida en América Latina: su impacto sobre la salud" in Medio Ambiente y Urbanización No 36, Buenos Aires; Satterthwaite (1999), see reference 1; Moser, Caroline ON (1996), Confronting Crisis. A Comparative Study of Household Responses to Poverty and Vulnerability in Four Poor Urban Communities, ESD Studies and Monographs No 8, The World Bank, Washington, DC; and Garrett, James and Marie Ruel (1999), cited in Research Perspectives Vol 22, No 1, IFPRI, Spring 2000
43. This list is based on different authors: Bradley, D, C Stephens, T Harpham and S Cairncross (1992), A Review of Environmental Health Impacts in Developing Country Cities, World Bank Urban Management Programme (PGU), Washington DC; also Vanderschueren, Franz, Emiel Wegelin and Kadmiel Wekwete (1996), Opciones para políticas y programas de reducción de la pobreza urbana. Un marco para la acción a nivel municipal, World Bank Urban Management Programme (PGU), Washington DC; Hardoy J and D Satterthwaite (1991), "Medio ambiente y condiciones de vida en América Latina: su impacto sobre la salud" in Medio Ambiente y Urbanización No 36, Buenos Aires; Satterthwaite (1999), see reference 1; Moser, Caroline ON (1996), Confronting Crisis. A Comparative Study of Household Responses to Poverty and Vulnerability in Four Poor Urban Communities, ESD Studies and Monographs No 8, The World Bank, Washington, DC; and Garrett, James and Marie Ruel (1999), cited in Research Perspectives Vol 22, No 1, IFPRI, Spring 2000
44. This list is based on different authors: Bradley, D, C Stephens, T Harpham and S Cairncross (1992), A Review of Environmental Health Impacts in Developing Country Cities, World Bank Urban Management Programme (PGU), Washington DC; also Vanderschueren, Franz, Emiel Wegelin and Kadmiel Wekwete (1996), Opciones para políticas y programas de reducción de la pobreza urbana. Un marco para la acción a nivel municipal, World Bank Urban Management Programme (PGU), Washington DC; Hardoy J and D Satterthwaite (1991), "Medio ambiente y condiciones de vida en América Latina: su impacto sobre la salud" in Medio Ambiente y Urbanización No 36, Buenos Aires; Satterthwaite (1999), see reference 1; Moser, Caroline ON (1996), Confronting Crisis. A Comparative Study of Household Responses to Poverty and Vulnerability in Four Poor Urban Communities, ESD Studies and Monographs No 8, The World Bank, Washington, DC; and Garrett, James and Marie Ruel (1999), cited in Research Perspectives Vol 22, No 1, IFPRI, Spring 2000
45. Based on Geisse (1988), see reference 15 and Navarro, L (1999), "Sustentabilidad social: problemática ambiental y pobreza en Mar del Plata" in Fernandez, R et al. (1999), Territorio, sociedad y desarrollo sustentable. Estudios de sustentabilidad ambiental urbana, Espacio Editorial, Buenos Aires, pages 303-352.
46. Based on Geisse (1988), see reference 15 and Navarro, L (1999), "Sustentabilidad social: problemática ambiental y pobreza en Mar del Plata" in Fernandez, R et al. (1999), Territorio, sociedad y desarrollo sustentable. Estudios de sustentabilidad ambiental urbana, Espacio Editorial, Buenos Aires, pages 303-352.
47. See Navarro (1999), reference 21.
48. See Douglass (1998), reference 7, pages 118-119.
49. "Newly poor" and "borderline poor" for the World Bank, "newly poor" as one of the categories of "vulnerables" for Minujin, A (1992), Los senderos que se bifurcan, Documenta de trabajo No 5, GADIS, Buenos Aires; also Minujin, A and G Kessler (1995), La nueva pobreza en la Argentina, Ensayos, Buenos Aires.
50. "Newly poor" and "borderline poor" for the World Bank, "newly poor" as one of the categories of "vulnerables" for Minujin, A (1992), Los senderos que se bifurcan, Documenta de trabajo No 5, GADIS, Buenos Aires; also Minujin, A and G Kessler (1995), La nueva pobreza en la Argentina, Ensayos, Buenos Aires.
51. Bryant, R and S Bailey (1997), Third World Political Ecology, Routledge, London.
52. See reference 15.
53. See reference 7, Douglass (1998).
54. Anzorena, Jorge, Joel Bolnick, Somsook Boonyabancha and others (1998), "Reducing urban poverty; some lessons from experience" in Environment and Urbanization Vol 10, No 2, pages 167-186.
55. See reference 1, Satterthwaite (1999).
56. Both studies were carried out by the Environmental Research Center (CIAM) of the Faculty of Architecture, Urbanism and Design of the National University of Mar del Plata.
57. In Fernández, R, A Allen, M Sagua, L Navarro, M Burmester, A Olszewski, H Goyeneche and M Malvares (1999), El observatorio ambiental. Estudios sobre información y problemática ambiental, CIAM (Environmental Research Center, Faculty of Architecture, Urbanism and Design, National University of Mar del Plata), Mar del Plata.
58. Structural attributes of a population obviously have a slower dynamic than economic ones. This makes it valid to use the national census as a source of information although the research was carried out seven years after the census was carried out.
59. As noted in Moser, Caroline O N et al (1996), Urban Poverty Research Sourcebook Module II: Indicators of Urban Poverty, Working Paper No.5 UNDP/UNCHS (Habitat)/World Bank, Washington DC, "the poorest households are not necessarily the largest, but specifically those with a large number of young children, no wage earner or only a single wage earner, or only older members with no economically active children living at home. In many ways, the dependency burden is a more useful and sensitive poverty indicator than household size and fertility rate. It is, however, subject to the vagaries of the definition of the term "economically active" and needs to be evaluated alongside measures of unemployment and informal-sector income generation" (page 40). In both the urban cases analysed here, there were no household samples from which to calculate the dependency burden (or the dependency ratio, the ratio of working population to non-working population or "dependants"). As a sample, it also would not permit the disaggregation of the data to intra-urban areas. Consequently, the Potential Dependency Ratio was calculated for both case studies as a proxy to the age structure. This is the ratio of children between 0-14 years old plus the population older than 64 years old to the population between 15-64 years old. In the case of Necochea-Quequén, this indicator shows that every person between 15-64 years old is "potentially" having to support about 5 other persons. In Quequén (part of the same agglomeration, just across the river) this ratio is 6 persons for each potentially working working person. It should be noted that this indicator is used as a proxy for the age structure.
60. In Fernandez, F, A Allen, M Sagua, L Navarro et al. (1997), Habitar Necochea-Quequen. Diagnóstics y propuestas para un desarrollo sustentable, CIAM (Environmental Research Center, Faculty of Architecture, Urbanism and Design, National University of Mar del Plata) and ARRAIGO Programme, Mar del Plata.
61. General information about the potentials and constraints of maps of basic needs drawing on census data can be found in Kartzman, R (1996), "Virtudes y limitaciones de los mapas censales de carencias criticas" in Revista de la CEPAL No 58, Naciones Unidas, Santiago de Chile. A detailed analysis of the ideal indicators for each dimension and the proxy indicators available in each city, with their constraints and potentials is developed in Fernandez, R, L Navarro et al. (1996), Habitar Mar del Plata, CIAM (Environmental Research Center, Faculty of Architecture, Urbanism and Design, National University of Mar del Plata) and ARRAIGO Programme, Mar del Plata for Mar del Plata city. For Necochea-Quequen, see reference 31, Fernandez et al. (1997).
62. General information about the potentials and constraints of maps of basic needs drawing on census data can be found in Kartzman, R (1996), "Virtudes y limitaciones de los mapas censales de carencias criticas" in Revista de la CEPAL No 58, Naciones Unidas, Santiago de Chile. A detailed analysis of the ideal indicators for each dimension and the proxy indicators available in each city, with their constraints and potentials is developed in Fernandez, R, L Navarro et al. (1996), Habitar Mar del Plata, CIAM (Environmental Research Center, Faculty of Architecture, Urbanism and Design, National University of Mar del Plata) and ARRAIGO Programme, Mar del Plata for Mar del Plata city. For Necochea-Quequen, see reference 31, Fernandez et al. (1997).
63. General information about the potentials and constraints of maps of basic needs drawing on census data can be found in Kartzman, R (1996), "Virtudes y limitaciones de los mapas censales de carencias criticas" in Revista de la CEPAL No 58, Naciones Unidas, Santiago de Chile. A detailed analysis of the ideal indicators for each dimension and the proxy indicators available in each city, with their constraints and potentials is developed in Fernandez, R, L Navarro et al. (1996), Habitar Mar del Plata, CIAM (Environmental Research Center, Faculty of Architecture, Urbanism and Design, National University of Mar del Plata) and ARRAIGO Programme, Mar del Plata for Mar del Plata city. For Necochea-Quequen, see reference 31, Fernandez et al. (1997).
64. Used by Di Pace, et al (1994), "Diagnóstico ambiental del municipio de San Fernando", Medio Ambiente y Urbanización No 47-48, IIED-AL, Buenos Aires.
65. Pírez, Pedro (1995), "Actores sociales y gestion de la ciudad", Ciudades, October-December. This was also applicable because a re-evaluation of fiscal land values was recently undertaken by an interdisciplinary commission in both cities that sought to make a more accurate weighting of the different variables involved in land prices.
66. These concepts are developed in Navarro (1999), see reference 21.
67. Villarreal, Juan (1996), La exclusión social, Flacso/Grupo Editorial Norma, Buenos Aires.
68. See Bryant and Bailey (1997), reference 25.
69. It is not the purpose of this paper to either cite or discuss participation in detail. However, much good research and writing exists on this topic which takes into account the potentials and constraints of expanding participation to every stage of any planning process. See, for example, Moser, Caroline O N (1989), "Approaches to community participation in urban development: programmes in Third World cities", Progress in Planning Vol 32, Part 2; also Desai, V (1996), "Access to power and participation", Third World Planning Review Vol 18, No 2, pages 217-242; and Rydin, Y and M Pennington (2000), "Public participation and local environmental planning: the collective action problem and the potential of social capital", Local Environment Vol 5, No 2, pages 153-169
70. It is not the purpose of this paper to either cite or discuss participation in detail. However, much good research and writing exists on this topic which takes into account the potentials and constraints of expanding participation to every stage of any planning process. See, for example, Moser, Caroline O N (1989), "Approaches to community participation in urban development: programmes in Third World cities", Progress in Planning Vol 32, Part 2; also Desai, V (1996), "Access to power and participation", Third World Planning Review Vol 18, No 2, pages 217-242; and Rydin, Y and M Pennington (2000), "Public participation and local environmental planning: the collective action problem and the potential of social capital", Local Environment Vol 5, No 2, pages 153-169
71. It is not the purpose of this paper to either cite or discuss participation in detail. However, much good research and writing exists on this topic which takes into account the potentials and constraints of expanding participation to every stage of any planning process. See, for example, Moser, Caroline O N (1989), "Approaches to community participation in urban development: programmes in Third World cities", Progress in Planning Vol 32, Part 2; also Desai, V (1996), "Access to power and participation", Third World Planning Review Vol 18, No 2, pages 217-242; and Rydin, Y and M Pennington (2000), "Public participation and local environmental planning: the collective action problem and the potential of social capital", Local Environment Vol 5, No 2, pages 153-169
72. One way is to analyze the maps and to discuss the different problems related to poverty conditions in participatory workshops, adding during the process other levels of information that can come only from everyday experiences. The main aim is to trigger interaction between actors in a dialectic construction of the problem and their relationships. These participatory workshops can complement the "external view" of poverty that this methodology gives, adding information including the opinions, perceptions and beliefs of the different actors involved.