Reconciling opposition to protected areas management in Europe: The German experience

Environment

Volumn 43, Issue 5, 2001, Pages 32-44

  Stoll Kleemann, Susanne ^a  

^a POTSDAM INSTITUTE FOR CLIMATE IMPACT RESEARCH   (Germany)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

BIODIVERSITY; DEVELOPING COUNTRY; ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT; ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION; EUROPE; GERMANY; LAW; REVIEW;

EID: 0034992385     PISSN: 00139157     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/00139150109605145     Document Type: Review

References (48)

1. In Europe and particularly in Germany, people sometimes live in - not just near - protected areas.
2. A. Gbadegesin and O. Ayileka, "Avoiding the Mistakes of the Past: Towards a Community-Oriented Management Strategy for the Proposed National Park in Abuja-Nigeria, " Land Use Policy 17, no. 2 (2000): 89.
3. K. Brown, "Beyond Consensus and Empowerment: Sustainability in Linking Conservation and Development, " Geographical Journal (forthcoming).
4. N. Salafsky and E. Wollenberg, "Linking Livelihoods and Conservation: A Conceptual Framework and Scale for Assessing the Integration of Human Needs and Biodiversity, " World Development 28, no. 8 (2000): 1421-38; and Brown, note 3 above.
5. N. Salafsky and E. Wollenberg, "Linking Livelihoods and Conservation: A Conceptual Framework and Scale for Assessing the Integration of Human Needs and Biodiversity, " World Development 28, no. 8 (2000): 1421-38; and Brown, note 3 above.
6. A vast amount of literature exists on inclusionary approaches in natural resource and protected area management. The concept was introduced by J. N. Pretty and R. Chambers in Turning a New Leaf: New Professionalism, Institutions and Policies for Agriculture (London: IIED IDS, 1992) and by M. P. Pimbert and J. N. Pretty in Parks, People and Professionals: Putting "Participation" into Protected Area Management (Geneva: UN Research Institute of Social Development, 1995). See also J. Blackburn and J. Holland, eds., Who Changes? Institutionalizing Participation in Development (London: Intermediate Technology Publications, 1998); World Conservation Union (IUCN), Guidelines for Protected Area Management (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press and IUCN, 1994) ; G. Borrini-Feyerabend, Collaborative Management of Protected Areas: Tailoring the Approach to the Context (Gland, Switzerland: IUCN, 1996); T. Barlon and G. Borrini-Feyerabend, Our People, Our Resources: Supporting Rural Communities in Participatory Action Research on Population Dynamics and the Local Environment (Gland, Switzerland: IUCN, 1997); P. C. West and S. R. Brechin, eds., Resident People and National Parks: Social Dilemmas and Strategies in International Conservation (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1991); M. Wells and K. Brandon, People and Parks: Linking Protected Area Management with Local Communities (Washington, D.C.: International Bank for Reconstruction and Development and World Bank, 1992); and M. Batisse, "Biosphere Reserves: A Challenge for Biodiversity Conservation and Regional Development, " Environment, June 1997, 6-15, 31-3.
7. A vast amount of literature exists on inclusionary approaches in natural resource and protected area management. The concept was introduced by J. N. Pretty and R. Chambers in Turning a New Leaf: New Professionalism, Institutions and Policies for Agriculture (London: IIED IDS, 1992) and by M. P. Pimbert and J. N. Pretty in Parks, People and Professionals: Putting "Participation" into Protected Area Management (Geneva: UN Research Institute of Social Development, 1995). See also J. Blackburn and J. Holland, eds., Who Changes? Institutionalizing Participation in Development (London: Intermediate Technology Publications, 1998); World Conservation Union (IUCN), Guidelines for Protected Area Management (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press and IUCN, 1994) ; G. Borrini-Feyerabend, Collaborative Management of Protected Areas: Tailoring the Approach to the Context (Gland, Switzerland: IUCN, 1996); T. Barlon and G. Borrini-Feyerabend, Our People, Our Resources: Supporting Rural Communities in Participatory Action Research on Population Dynamics and the Local Environment (Gland, Switzerland: IUCN, 1997); P. C. West and S. R. Brechin, eds., Resident People and National Parks: Social Dilemmas and Strategies in International Conservation (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1991); M. Wells and K. Brandon, People and Parks: Linking Protected Area Management with Local Communities (Washington, D.C.: International Bank for Reconstruction and Development and World Bank, 1992); and M. Batisse, "Biosphere Reserves: A Challenge for Biodiversity Conservation and Regional Development, " Environment, June 1997, 6-15, 31-3.
8. A vast amount of literature exists on inclusionary approaches in natural resource and protected area management. The concept was introduced by J. N. Pretty and R. Chambers in Turning a New Leaf: New Professionalism, Institutions and Policies for Agriculture (London: IIED IDS, 1992) and by M. P. Pimbert and J. N. Pretty in Parks, People and Professionals: Putting "Participation" into Protected Area Management (Geneva: UN Research Institute of Social Development, 1995). See also J. Blackburn and J. Holland, eds., Who Changes? Institutionalizing Participation in Development (London: Intermediate Technology Publications, 1998); World Conservation Union (IUCN), Guidelines for Protected Area Management (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press and IUCN, 1994) ; G. Borrini-Feyerabend, Collaborative Management of Protected Areas: Tailoring the Approach to the Context (Gland, Switzerland: IUCN, 1996); T. Barlon and G. Borrini-Feyerabend, Our People, Our Resources: Supporting Rural Communities in Participatory Action Research on Population Dynamics and the Local Environment (Gland, Switzerland: IUCN, 1997); P. C. West and S. R. Brechin, eds., Resident People and National Parks: Social Dilemmas and Strategies in International Conservation (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1991); M. Wells and K. Brandon, People and Parks: Linking Protected Area Management with Local Communities (Washington, D.C.: International Bank for Reconstruction and Development and World Bank, 1992); and M. Batisse, "Biosphere Reserves: A Challenge for Biodiversity Conservation and Regional Development, " Environment, June 1997, 6-15, 31-3.
9. A vast amount of literature exists on inclusionary approaches in natural resource and protected area management. The concept was introduced by J. N. Pretty and R. Chambers in Turning a New Leaf: New Professionalism, Institutions and Policies for Agriculture (London: IIED IDS, 1992) and by M. P. Pimbert and J. N. Pretty in Parks, People and Professionals: Putting "Participation" into Protected Area Management (Geneva: UN Research Institute of Social Development, 1995). See also J. Blackburn and J. Holland, eds., Who Changes? Institutionalizing Participation in Development (London: Intermediate Technology Publications, 1998); World Conservation Union (IUCN), Guidelines for Protected Area Management (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press and IUCN, 1994) ; G. Borrini-Feyerabend, Collaborative Management of Protected Areas: Tailoring the Approach to the Context (Gland, Switzerland: IUCN, 1996); T. Barlon and G. Borrini-Feyerabend, Our People, Our Resources: Supporting Rural Communities in Participatory Action Research on Population Dynamics and the Local Environment (Gland, Switzerland: IUCN, 1997); P. C. West and S. R. Brechin, eds., Resident People and National Parks: Social Dilemmas and Strategies in International Conservation (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1991); M. Wells and K. Brandon, People and Parks: Linking Protected Area Management with Local Communities (Washington, D.C.: International Bank for Reconstruction and Development and World Bank, 1992); and M. Batisse, "Biosphere Reserves: A Challenge for Biodiversity Conservation and Regional Development, " Environment, June 1997, 6-15, 31-3.
10. A vast amount of literature exists on inclusionary approaches in natural resource and protected area management. The concept was introduced by J. N. Pretty and R. Chambers in Turning a New Leaf: New Professionalism, Institutions and Policies for Agriculture (London: IIED IDS, 1992) and by M. P. Pimbert and J. N. Pretty in Parks, People and Professionals: Putting "Participation" into Protected Area Management (Geneva: UN Research Institute of Social Development, 1995). See also J. Blackburn and J. Holland, eds., Who Changes? Institutionalizing Participation in Development (London: Intermediate Technology Publications, 1998); World Conservation Union (IUCN), Guidelines for Protected Area Management (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press and IUCN, 1994) ; G. Borrini-Feyerabend, Collaborative Management of Protected Areas: Tailoring the Approach to the Context (Gland, Switzerland: IUCN, 1996); T. Barlon and G. Borrini-Feyerabend, Our People, Our Resources: Supporting Rural Communities in Participatory Action Research on Population Dynamics and the Local Environment (Gland, Switzerland: IUCN, 1997); P. C. West and S. R. Brechin, eds., Resident People and National Parks: Social Dilemmas and Strategies in International Conservation (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1991); M. Wells and K. Brandon, People and Parks: Linking Protected Area Management with Local Communities (Washington, D.C.: International Bank for Reconstruction and Development and World Bank, 1992); and M. Batisse, "Biosphere Reserves: A Challenge for Biodiversity Conservation and Regional Development, " Environment, June 1997, 6-15, 31-3.
11. A vast amount of literature exists on inclusionary approaches in natural resource and protected area management. The concept was introduced by J. N. Pretty and R. Chambers in Turning a New Leaf: New Professionalism, Institutions and Policies for Agriculture (London: IIED IDS, 1992) and by M. P. Pimbert and J. N. Pretty in Parks, People and Professionals: Putting "Participation" into Protected Area Management (Geneva: UN Research Institute of Social Development, 1995). See also J. Blackburn and J. Holland, eds., Who Changes? Institutionalizing Participation in Development (London: Intermediate Technology Publications, 1998); World Conservation Union (IUCN), Guidelines for Protected Area Management (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press and IUCN, 1994) ; G. Borrini-Feyerabend, Collaborative Management of Protected Areas: Tailoring the Approach to the Context (Gland, Switzerland: IUCN, 1996); T. Barlon and G. Borrini-Feyerabend, Our People, Our Resources: Supporting Rural Communities in Participatory Action Research on Population Dynamics and the Local Environment (Gland, Switzerland: IUCN, 1997); P. C. West and S. R. Brechin, eds., Resident People and National Parks: Social Dilemmas and Strategies in International Conservation (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1991); M. Wells and K. Brandon, People and Parks: Linking Protected Area Management with Local Communities (Washington, D.C.: International Bank for Reconstruction and Development and World Bank, 1992); and M. Batisse, "Biosphere Reserves: A Challenge for Biodiversity Conservation and Regional Development, " Environment, June 1997, 6-15, 31-3.
12. A vast amount of literature exists on inclusionary approaches in natural resource and protected area management. The concept was introduced by J. N. Pretty and R. Chambers in Turning a New Leaf: New Professionalism, Institutions and Policies for Agriculture (London: IIED IDS, 1992) and by M. P. Pimbert and J. N. Pretty in Parks, People and Professionals: Putting "Participation" into Protected Area Management (Geneva: UN Research Institute of Social Development, 1995). See also J. Blackburn and J. Holland, eds., Who Changes? Institutionalizing Participation in Development (London: Intermediate Technology Publications, 1998); World Conservation Union (IUCN), Guidelines for Protected Area Management (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press and IUCN, 1994) ; G. Borrini-Feyerabend, Collaborative Management of Protected Areas: Tailoring the Approach to the Context (Gland, Switzerland: IUCN, 1996); T. Barlon and G. Borrini-Feyerabend, Our People, Our Resources: Supporting Rural Communities in Participatory Action Research on Population Dynamics and the Local Environment (Gland, Switzerland: IUCN, 1997); P. C. West and S. R. Brechin, eds., Resident People and National Parks: Social Dilemmas and Strategies in International Conservation (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1991); M. Wells and K. Brandon, People and Parks: Linking Protected Area Management with Local Communities (Washington, D.C.: International Bank for Reconstruction and Development and World Bank, 1992); and M. Batisse, "Biosphere Reserves: A Challenge for Biodiversity Conservation and Regional Development, " Environment, June 1997, 6-15, 31-3.
13. A vast amount of literature exists on inclusionary approaches in natural resource and protected area management. The concept was introduced by J. N. Pretty and R. Chambers in Turning a New Leaf: New Professionalism, Institutions and Policies for Agriculture (London: IIED IDS, 1992) and by M. P. Pimbert and J. N. Pretty in Parks, People and Professionals: Putting "Participation" into Protected Area Management (Geneva: UN Research Institute of Social Development, 1995). See also J. Blackburn and J. Holland, eds., Who Changes? Institutionalizing Participation in Development (London: Intermediate Technology Publications, 1998); World Conservation Union (IUCN), Guidelines for Protected Area Management (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press and IUCN, 1994) ; G. Borrini-Feyerabend, Collaborative Management of Protected Areas: Tailoring the Approach to the Context (Gland, Switzerland: IUCN, 1996); T. Barlon and G. Borrini-Feyerabend, Our People, Our Resources: Supporting Rural Communities in Participatory Action Research on Population Dynamics and the Local Environment (Gland, Switzerland: IUCN, 1997); P. C. West and S. R. Brechin, eds., Resident People and National Parks: Social Dilemmas and Strategies in International Conservation (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1991); M. Wells and K. Brandon, People and Parks: Linking Protected Area Management with Local Communities (Washington, D.C.: International Bank for Reconstruction and Development and World Bank, 1992); and M. Batisse, "Biosphere Reserves: A Challenge for Biodiversity Conservation and Regional Development, " Environment, June 1997, 6-15, 31-3.
14. A vast amount of literature exists on inclusionary approaches in natural resource and protected area management. The concept was introduced by J. N. Pretty and R. Chambers in Turning a New Leaf: New Professionalism, Institutions and Policies for Agriculture (London: IIED IDS, 1992) and by M. P. Pimbert and J. N. Pretty in Parks, People and Professionals: Putting "Participation" into Protected Area Management (Geneva: UN Research Institute of Social Development, 1995). See also J. Blackburn and J. Holland, eds., Who Changes? Institutionalizing Participation in Development (London: Intermediate Technology Publications, 1998); World Conservation Union (IUCN), Guidelines for Protected Area Management (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press and IUCN, 1994) ; G. Borrini-Feyerabend, Collaborative Management of Protected Areas: Tailoring the Approach to the Context (Gland, Switzerland: IUCN, 1996); T. Barlon and G. Borrini-Feyerabend, Our People, Our Resources: Supporting Rural Communities in Participatory Action Research on Population Dynamics and the Local Environment (Gland, Switzerland: IUCN, 1997); P. C. West and S. R. Brechin, eds., Resident People and National Parks: Social Dilemmas and Strategies in International Conservation (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1991); M. Wells and K. Brandon, People and Parks: Linking Protected Area Management with Local Communities (Washington, D.C.: International Bank for Reconstruction and Development and World Bank, 1992); and M. Batisse, "Biosphere Reserves: A Challenge for Biodiversity Conservation and Regional Development, " Environment, June 1997, 6-15, 31-3.
15. The author conducted 19 interviews with agency officials, including 12 in Germany, 2 in Austria, 3 in the United Kingdom, and 2 with senior managers representing multinational organizations. The officials interviewed were from the following agencies: the Federal Agency for Nature Conservation, the Ministry of Nature Conservation and Environment Brandenburg, the Agency for Protected Areas Brandenburg, the Bavarian State Forest Administration, the Bavarian State Institute of Forestry, the Wildlife Society Munich, the National Park Administration Carinthia (Austria), the Bundesministerium für wirtschaftliche Zusammenarbeit und Entwicklung (BMZ) (Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development), the Deutscher Entwicklungsdienst (DED) (German Development Service), the Deutsche Gesellschaft für Technische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ), English Nature, World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) International, and WWF Europe.
16. A. Inamdar, H. de Jode, K. Lindsay, and S. Cobb, "Capitalizing on Nature: Protected Area Management, " Science 283, no. 5409 (1999): 1856-7.
17. See note 5 above.
18. For a review of the Convention on Biological Diversity and the biodiversity problem, see K. Raustiala and D. G. Victor, "Biodiversity Since Rio: The Future of the Convention on Biological Diversity, " Environment, May 1996, 16-20, 307-45.
19. The Länder in Germany are similar to U.S. states.
20. See the case study research on protected areas in Europe in B. Solberg and S. Miina, eds., Conflict Management and Public Participation in Land Management (Joensuu, Finland: European Forest Institute Proceedings, no. 14, 1997) and in I. Eisto et al., eds., Local Involvement and Economic Dimensions in Biosphere Reserve Activities (Helsinki: Edita, 1999).
21. See the case study research on protected areas in Europe in B. Solberg and S. Miina, eds., Conflict Management and Public Participation in Land Management (Joensuu, Finland: European Forest Institute Proceedings, no. 14, 1997) and in I. Eisto et al., eds., Local Involvement and Economic Dimensions in Biosphere Reserve Activities (Helsinki: Edita, 1999).
22. J. Trittin, "Rede von Bundesumweltminister Jürgen Trittin anlässlich des BMU-Fachsymposiums 'Herausforderung Naturschutz'" (Speech of the Federal Environmental Minister Jürgen Trittin at the Conference "Challenge Nature Conservation"), 12 October 1999 in Bonn, page 7.
23. Commission of the European Communities (CEC), Council Regulation on Support for Rural Development Arising from the Agricultural and Guaranteed Guidance Fund (EAGGF) on Amending and Repealing Certain Regulations, 1257/1999 (Brussels: CEC, 1999).
24. W. Fuchs, "Naturschutz im Abseits" (Nature Conservation Offside), Natur und Recht (Nature and Law), no. 8 (1999): 448.
25. For a more complete analysis, see S. Stoll-Kleemann, "Opposition to the Designation of Protected Areas in Germany, " Journal of Environmental Planning and Management 44, no. 1 (2001): 109-28.
26. Rat von Sachverständigen für Umweltfragen (SRU) (German Council of Environmental Advisors at the Ministry for Environment, Nature Conservation, and Nuclear Safety of the Federal Republic of Germany), Sondergutachten Konzepte einer dauerhaft-umweltgerechten Nutzung ländlicher Räume (Special Report on Concepts for a Sustainable Use of Rural Areas) (Bonn: Bundestagsdrucksache 13/4109, 1996), 59.
27. It is important to note that the difficulties in incorporating public participation in nature conservation policy and management is a peculiarity of the political and social psychological factors described in this article. Germany has successfully incorporated a cooperative and inclusive approach in implementing other environmental policies, such as its policy on sustainably managing water resources.
28. A further analysis of this psychological reactance theory can be found in J. W. Brehm, A Theory of Psychological Reactance (New York: Academic Press, 1966). The theory, first introduced by Brehm, provides a comprehensive explanation for opposition.
29. See the discussion in M. A. Hogg and G. M. Vaughan, Social Psychology (Hertfordshire, England: Prentice Hall Europe, 1995).
30. A. Maass, "Minoritäten" (Minorities), in D. Frey and S. Greif, eds., Sozialpsychologie: Ein Handbuch in Schlüsselbegriffen (Social Psychology: A Handbook in Key Terms) (Weinheim: PVU, 1987).
31. Between the summer of 1995 and winter of 1997, the author conducted 59 qualitative, problem-centered interviews that focused on the problems in managing seven protected areas in Germany. The interviewees were selected from the various groups involved in and concerned about protected areas. Some individuals interviewed worked for the authorities responsible for establishing protected areas or were otherwise engaged in nature conservation. Others interviewed included planners, nongovernmental organization (NGO) representatives, scientists, land users and managers, and residents who have been directly affected by nature conservation measures. The interviews were recorded and the tapes transcribed. A number of those interviewed participated in discussions of the research results. The Deutsche Bundesstiftung Umwelt (German Federal Foundation of the Environment) provided the funding for this research project. See S. Stoll, Akzeptanzprobleme bei der Ausweisung von Grossschutzgebieten (Problems of Acceptance during the Process of Designating Protected Areas) (Berlin: Lang, 1999).
32. Germany's only national citizen initiative, Bundesverband der Nationalparkbetroffenen (Federal Association of Persons Concerned by National Parks), was established in September 1997 and unites about 40 different regional associations that are opposed to establishing protected areas that convert local landscapes into wilderness. This group is comprised of interested parties, such as farmer representatives, anglers, yachtsmen and other sports hobbyists, landowners, forest owners, hunters and foresters, representatives of the hotel and tourist industry, and representatives of the local communities concerned.
33. See note 6 above.
34. Professionalized management science refers to the application of scientific principles as accepted by the applied science professionals that are put into effect by responsible management organizations.
35. Trittin, note 12 above.
36. "Protected Areas in the Forest, " editorial, Magnatur, Das Naturmagazin für Beruf, Studium und Freizeit (Magnatur, The Nature Magazine for Profession, Studies and Leisure), January 1997, 1.
37. A large amount of literature exists on policy networks and communities. For example, see D. Marsh and R. Rhodes, eds., Policy Networks in British Government (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1992); J. M. W. Kickert, E. H. Klign, and J. F. M. Koppenhan, eds., Managing Complex Networks: Strategies for the Public Sector (London: Sage Publications, 1997); and P. A. Sabatier and H. C. Jenkins-Smith, Policy Change and Learning: An Advocacy Coalition Approach (Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 1993).
38. A large amount of literature exists on policy networks and communities. For example, see D. Marsh and R. Rhodes, eds., Policy Networks in British Government (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1992); J. M. W. Kickert, E. H. Klign, and J. F. M. Koppenhan, eds., Managing Complex Networks: Strategies for the Public Sector (London: Sage Publications, 1997); and P. A. Sabatier and H. C. Jenkins-Smith, Policy Change and Learning: An Advocacy Coalition Approach (Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 1993).
39. A large amount of literature exists on policy networks and communities. For example, see D. Marsh and R. Rhodes, eds., Policy Networks in British Government (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1992); J. M. W. Kickert, E. H. Klign, and J. F. M. Koppenhan, eds., Managing Complex Networks: Strategies for the Public Sector (London: Sage Publications, 1997); and P. A. Sabatier and H. C. Jenkins-Smith, Policy Change and Learning: An Advocacy Coalition Approach (Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 1993).
40. rd revised edition (Eschborn, Germany: May 2000).
41. See note 5 above.
42. GTZ, Participatory and Self-Help Approaches in Natural Resources Management (Eschborn, Germany: GTZ, 1994), 45.
43. Hamburg Institute for Economic Research, Germany's System of Evaluating Development Co-operation (Hamburg: HWWA, 1997).
44. Ibid.
45. GTZ, Process Monitoring: Work Document for Project Staff (Eschborn, Germany: GTZ, 1998).
46. World Conservation Union (IUCN) World Commission on Protected Areas (WCPA) and the Commission of the European Communities (CEC), eds., Parks for Biodiversity - Policy Guidance Based on Experience in ACP Countries (Gland, Switzerland: IUCN, 1999).
47. T. Holmes and I. Scoones, Participatory Environmental Policy Processes: Experiences for North and South (Brighton, U.K.: Institute for Development Studies, 1999).
48. Wissenschaftlicher Beirat der Bundesregierung Globale Umweltveränderungen (WBGU) (German Advisory Council on Global Change), Welt im Wandel: Erhaltung und nachhaltige Nutzung der Biosphäre, Jahresgutachten 1999 (World in Transition: Conservation and Sustainable Use of the Biosphere, Annual Report 1999) (Berlin, Heidelberg, and New York: Springer, 2000), 413.