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Volumn 23, Issue 1, 2001, Pages 148-170

Citizenship, rights, and the problem of conflicts and civil wars in Africa

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

CITIZENSHIP; CIVIL WAR; HUMAN RIGHTS; NATION STATE;

EID: 0034966531     PISSN: 02750392     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1353/hrq.2001.0001     Document Type: Article
Times cited : (60)

References (81)
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    • See WORLD BANK, AFRICAN DEVELOPMENT INDICATORS, 1999/2000 (1999); Said Adejumobi, Reconstructing the Future: Africa and the Challenge of Democracy and Good Governance in the 21st Century, 74 DEV. & SOCIO-ECON. PROG. 41-42 (1999).
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    • note
    • Countries like Ethiopia, Sudan, and Somalia, which have been engaged in protracted war, score very poorly in socioeconomic indices. They have a high rate of poverty and low per capita income, which ranks among the lowest in the world.
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    • Afro-pessimism connotes cynicism about Africa's future, which is mostly expressed in the West. Indeed, some have advocated for the recolonization of Africa, with the vile argument that Africa seems incapable of controlling its future. See A. Mazrui/A. Mafeje, Debate on The Recolonization of Africa, CODESRIA BULL. (1995).
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    • See TAISIER M. ALI & ROBERT O. MATTHEWS, CIVIL WARS IN AFRICA: ROOTS AND RESOLUTION (1999); Adedeji, supra note 5; Dani W. Nabudere, African State and Conflicts in Africa, in NETWORKING WITH A VIEW TO PROMOTING PEACE: CONFLICT IN THE HORN OF AFRICA 83 (Henrich Boll ed., 1999); J'Bayo Adekanye, Rwanda/Burundi: 'Uni-Ethnic' Dominance and the Cycle of Armed Ethnic Formations, in 2 SOCIAL IDENTITIES 37 (1996); David A. Lake & Donald Rothchild, Ethnic Fears and Global Engagement: The International Spread of Ethnic Conflict, in THE INTERNATIONAL SPREAD OF ETHNIC CONFLICT (David A. Lake & Donald Rothchild eds., 1996); RAYMOND W. COPSON, AFRICA'S WARS AND PROSPECTS FOR PEACE (1994); TED ROBERT GURR, MINORITIES AT RISK: A GLOBAL VIEW OF ETHNOPOLITICAL CONFLICTS (1993).
    • (1999) Civil Wars in Africa: Roots and Resolution
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    • African State and Conflicts in Africa
    • Henrich Boll ed.
    • See TAISIER M. ALI & ROBERT O. MATTHEWS, CIVIL WARS IN AFRICA: ROOTS AND RESOLUTION (1999); Adedeji, supra note 5; Dani W. Nabudere, African State and Conflicts in Africa, in NETWORKING WITH A VIEW TO PROMOTING PEACE: CONFLICT IN THE HORN OF AFRICA 83 (Henrich Boll ed., 1999); J'Bayo Adekanye, Rwanda/Burundi: 'Uni-Ethnic' Dominance and the Cycle of Armed Ethnic Formations, in 2 SOCIAL IDENTITIES 37 (1996); David A. Lake & Donald Rothchild, Ethnic Fears and Global Engagement: The International Spread of Ethnic Conflict, in THE INTERNATIONAL SPREAD OF ETHNIC CONFLICT (David A. Lake & Donald Rothchild eds., 1996); RAYMOND W. COPSON, AFRICA'S WARS AND PROSPECTS FOR PEACE (1994); TED ROBERT GURR, MINORITIES AT RISK: A GLOBAL VIEW OF ETHNOPOLITICAL CONFLICTS (1993).
    • (1999) Networking with a View to Promoting Peace: Conflict in the Horn of Africa , pp. 83
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    • See TAISIER M. ALI & ROBERT O. MATTHEWS, CIVIL WARS IN AFRICA: ROOTS AND RESOLUTION (1999); Adedeji, supra note 5; Dani W. Nabudere, African State and Conflicts in Africa, in NETWORKING WITH A VIEW TO PROMOTING PEACE: CONFLICT IN THE HORN OF AFRICA 83 (Henrich Boll ed., 1999); J'Bayo Adekanye, Rwanda/Burundi: 'Uni-Ethnic' Dominance and the Cycle of Armed Ethnic Formations, in 2 SOCIAL IDENTITIES 37 (1996); David A. Lake & Donald Rothchild, Ethnic Fears and Global Engagement: The International Spread of Ethnic Conflict, in THE INTERNATIONAL SPREAD OF ETHNIC CONFLICT (David A. Lake & Donald Rothchild eds., 1996); RAYMOND W. COPSON, AFRICA'S WARS AND PROSPECTS FOR PEACE (1994); TED ROBERT GURR, MINORITIES AT RISK: A GLOBAL VIEW OF ETHNOPOLITICAL CONFLICTS (1993).
    • (1996) Social Identities , vol.2 , pp. 37
    • Adekanye, J.1
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    • Ethnic Fears and Global Engagement: The International Spread of Ethnic Conflict
    • David A. Lake & Donald Rothchild eds.
    • See TAISIER M. ALI & ROBERT O. MATTHEWS, CIVIL WARS IN AFRICA: ROOTS AND RESOLUTION (1999); Adedeji, supra note 5; Dani W. Nabudere, African State and Conflicts in Africa, in NETWORKING WITH A VIEW TO PROMOTING PEACE: CONFLICT IN THE HORN OF AFRICA 83 (Henrich Boll ed., 1999); J'Bayo Adekanye, Rwanda/Burundi: 'Uni-Ethnic' Dominance and the Cycle of Armed Ethnic Formations, in 2 SOCIAL IDENTITIES 37 (1996); David A. Lake & Donald Rothchild, Ethnic Fears and Global Engagement: The International Spread of Ethnic Conflict, in THE INTERNATIONAL SPREAD OF ETHNIC CONFLICT (David A. Lake & Donald Rothchild eds., 1996); RAYMOND W. COPSON, AFRICA'S WARS AND PROSPECTS FOR PEACE (1994); TED ROBERT GURR, MINORITIES AT RISK: A GLOBAL VIEW OF ETHNOPOLITICAL CONFLICTS (1993).
    • (1996) The International Spread of Ethnic Conflict
    • Lake, D.A.1    Rothchild, D.2
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    • See TAISIER M. ALI & ROBERT O. MATTHEWS, CIVIL WARS IN AFRICA: ROOTS AND RESOLUTION (1999); Adedeji, supra note 5; Dani W. Nabudere, African State and Conflicts in Africa, in NETWORKING WITH A VIEW TO PROMOTING PEACE: CONFLICT IN THE HORN OF AFRICA 83 (Henrich Boll ed., 1999); J'Bayo Adekanye, Rwanda/Burundi: 'Uni-Ethnic' Dominance and the Cycle of Armed Ethnic Formations, in 2 SOCIAL IDENTITIES 37 (1996); David A. Lake & Donald Rothchild, Ethnic Fears and Global Engagement: The International Spread of Ethnic Conflict, in THE INTERNATIONAL SPREAD OF ETHNIC CONFLICT (David A. Lake & Donald Rothchild eds., 1996); RAYMOND W. COPSON, AFRICA'S WARS AND PROSPECTS FOR PEACE (1994); TED ROBERT GURR, MINORITIES AT RISK: A GLOBAL VIEW OF ETHNOPOLITICAL CONFLICTS (1993).
    • (1994) Africa's Wars and Prospects for Peace
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  • 15
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    • See TAISIER M. ALI & ROBERT O. MATTHEWS, CIVIL WARS IN AFRICA: ROOTS AND RESOLUTION (1999); Adedeji, supra note 5; Dani W. Nabudere, African State and Conflicts in Africa, in NETWORKING WITH A VIEW TO PROMOTING PEACE: CONFLICT IN THE HORN OF AFRICA 83 (Henrich Boll ed., 1999); J'Bayo Adekanye, Rwanda/Burundi: 'Uni-Ethnic' Dominance and the Cycle of Armed Ethnic Formations, in 2 SOCIAL IDENTITIES 37 (1996); David A. Lake & Donald Rothchild, Ethnic Fears and Global Engagement: The International Spread of Ethnic Conflict, in THE INTERNATIONAL SPREAD OF ETHNIC CONFLICT (David A. Lake & Donald Rothchild eds., 1996); RAYMOND W. COPSON, AFRICA'S WARS AND PROSPECTS FOR PEACE (1994); TED ROBERT GURR, MINORITIES AT RISK: A GLOBAL VIEW OF ETHNOPOLITICAL CONFLICTS (1993).
    • (1993) Minorities at Risk: A Global View of Ethnopolitical Conflicts
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    • Structural Adjustment, Demoralization and Rising Ethnic Tensions in Africa
    • See J'Bayo Adekanye, Structural Adjustment, Demoralization and Rising Ethnic Tensions in Africa, 26 DEV. & CHANCE 355 (1995); J'Bayo Adekanye, Debts, Arms Expenditure and Structural Adjustment in Africa: Theoretical Linkages Mimeograph, INTERNATIONAL PEACE RESEARCH INSTITUTE (PRIO), Oslo, Norway (1997).
    • (1995) Dev. & Chance , vol.26 , pp. 355
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    • Debts, Arms Expenditure and Structural Adjustment in Africa: Theoretical Linkages Mimeograph
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    • See J'Bayo Adekanye, Structural Adjustment, Demoralization and Rising Ethnic Tensions in Africa, 26 DEV. & CHANCE 355 (1995); J'Bayo Adekanye, Debts, Arms Expenditure and Structural Adjustment in Africa: Theoretical Linkages Mimeograph, INTERNATIONAL PEACE RESEARCH INSTITUTE (PRIO), Oslo, Norway (1997).
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  • 18
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    • ARISTOTLE, POLITICS, quoted in ROGERS BRUBAKER, CITIZENSHIP AND NATIONHOOD IN FRANCE AND GERMANY, at ix (1992).
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    • See BRUBAKER, supra note 12, at ix
    • See BRUBAKER, supra note 12, at ix.
  • 22
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    • Anh Nga Longva, Citizenship, Identity and the Question of Supreme Loyalty: The Case of Kuwait, 2 F. FOR DEV. STUD. 197, 201 (1995).
    • (1995) F. for Dev. Stud. , vol.2 , pp. 197
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  • 26
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    • See id.
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    • See id.
  • 29
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    • See T.H. MARSHALL, CLASS, CITIZENSHIP AND SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT, at x (1965); Charles Tilly, Citizenship, Identity and Social History, in CITIZENSHIP, IDENTITY AND SOCIAL HISTORY 1, 8 (Charles Tilly ed., 1996).
    • (1965) Class, Citizenship and Social Development
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    • See T.H. MARSHALL, CLASS, CITIZENSHIP AND SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT, at x (1965); Charles Tilly, Citizenship, Identity and Social History, in CITIZENSHIP, IDENTITY AND SOCIAL HISTORY 1, 8 (Charles Tilly ed., 1996).
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    • The Meanings of Citizenship
    • Dec. OOMEN, supra note 13
    • See Marshall, supra note 22; Tilly, supra note 22; MICHAEL WALZER, OBLIGATIONS: ESSAYS ON DISOBEDIENCE, WAR, AND CITIZENSHIP (1970); Linda K. Kerber, The Meanings of Citizenship, J. AM. HIST. 833, 834 (Dec. 1997); OOMEN, supra note 13.
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  • 34
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    • See MARSHALL, supra note 22
    • See MARSHALL, supra note 22.
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    • See Tilly, supra note 22, at 8.
  • 36
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    • Id.
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    • See Kerber, supra note 23, at 834.
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    • note
    • The terms active/passive, thick/thin, oppressed, alienated/pluralistic citizens are used to describe the level of participation of the citizen in the affairs of state. See Tilly, supra note 22, at 8. The active, thick or pluralistic citizens have a high level of participation or involvement in state affairs, while the passive, oppressed, and alienated citizens participate less in state affairs. The matrix is a continuum between the very active and the passive. However, the conditions that generate passiveness differ according to place and time.
  • 40
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    • David Cesarani & Mary Fulbrook eds.
    • For a discourse on citizenship and the European Union, see CITIZENSHIP, NATIONALITY AND MIGRATION IN EUROPE (David Cesarani & Mary Fulbrook eds., 1996); Rey Koslowski, IntraEU Migration, Citizenship and Political Union, 32 J. COMMON MARKET STUD. 369 (Sep. 1994), at 369.
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    • See CLAUDE AKE, A POLITICAL ECONOMY OF AFRICA (1981); BADE ONIMODE, A POLITICAL ECONOMY OF AFRICAN CRISIS (1988); J.F. Ade Ajayi, Peace, Stability and Legitimacy in Africa: The Factor of Colonialism and Neo-Colonialism, in THE FALL OF GREAT POWERS: PEACE, STABILITY AND LEGITIMACY 215 (C. Lundestad ed., 1994).
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    • See CLAUDE AKE, A POLITICAL ECONOMY OF AFRICA (1981); BADE ONIMODE, A POLITICAL ECONOMY OF AFRICAN CRISIS (1988); J.F. Ade Ajayi, Peace, Stability and Legitimacy in Africa: The Factor of Colonialism and Neo-Colonialism, in THE FALL OF GREAT POWERS: PEACE, STABILITY AND LEGITIMACY 215 (C. Lundestad ed., 1994).
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    • note
    • In countries like Tanzania and Mozambique where centralist socialist policies were adopted in the immediate post-independence era, traditional authorities were abolished and replaced with state agents. However, this did not promote the democratization of the local structures, but only substituted a decentralized, with a centralized form of despotism.
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    • note
    • The federal character principle is a provision in the Nigerian Constitution that seeks to provide for state, ethnic and regional balancing in public appointments opportunities at the federal level. It is meant to give equal access to all groups in the country through equal representation of states in federal public appointments. The objective is to prevent the marginalization and domination of one group over the other.
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    • Germany was in control of Rwanda between 1885-1919, but after the First World War, Rwanda was taken over by Belgium as a trusteeship territory, and controlled by Belgium between 1919-1962.
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    • The Twa constitute about 3 percent of the population in Rwanda. They do not feature prominently in identity group politics in the country.
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    • See Herbert C. Kelman, The Place of Ethnic Identity in The Development of Personal Identity: A Challenge for the Jewish Family, in COPING WITH LIFE AND DEATH: JEWISH FAMILIES IN THE 20TH CENTURY 3, 7 (Peter Meddling ed., 1998).
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    • See PRUNIER, supra note 54, at 27.
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    • note
    • In Nigeria, the preference of the British colonial regime with regard to the transfer of power in the decolonization era was the Hausa-Fulani aristocracy, who have a conservative political outlook, with little or no agitation for the political independence of Nigeria. Indeed, when Anthony Enahoro raised the motion of self-Government at the Federal House of Representatives in 1953, the Hausa-Fulani political elite opposed this. They argued that they were unprepared for independence. Also, the same thing occurred in the Sudan, where the preference of the British colonial authorities was for the Northern political elite, with a conservative bent.
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    • See PRUNIER, supra note 54, at 52.
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    • See id. at 53.
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    • See J' Bayo Adekanye, Rwanda/Burundi: 'Uni-Ethnic' Dominance and the Cycle of Armed Ethnic Formations, 2 SOCLAL IDENTITIES 37 (1996).
    • (1996) Soclal Identities , vol.2 , pp. 37
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    • PRUNIER, supra note 54, at 80.
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    • Rikay Omar & Alex de Waal, 1995, cited in Kukah, supra note 65, at 17-18.
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    • Contested Citizenship: The Dynamics of Racial Identity and Social Movements
    • supra note 22
    • Anthony W. Marx, Contested Citizenship: The Dynamics of Racial Identity and Social Movements, in CITIZENSHIP, IDENTITY AND SOCIAL HISTORY, supra note 22, at 159, 163.
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