Trouble on the Frontier: Dutch-Brooke relations and Iban rebellion in the West Borneo Borderlands (1841-1886)

Modern Asian Studies

Volumn 35, Issue 3, 2001, Pages 623-644

  Wadley, Reed L ^b  

^a Intnl Institute for Asian Studies   (Netherlands)

^b NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

BORDER REGION; COLONIALISM; HISTORICAL GEOGRAPHY; NINETEENTH CENTURY; POPULAR PROTEST;

BORNEO;

EID: 0034938334     PISSN: 0026749X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/S0026749X01003055     Document Type: Article

References (144)

1. Graham Irwin, Nineteenth-Century Borneo: A Study in Diplomatic Rivalry ('s-Gravenhage: Martinus Nijhoff, 1955).
2. A. I. Asiwaju, 'The Conceptual Framework', in A. I. Asiwaju (ed.), Partitioned Africans: Ethnic Relations Across Africa's International Boundaries, 1884-1984 (London: C. Hurst and Co., 1985), pp. 1-18 at pp. 2-3; A. I. Asiwaju, Borderlands Research: A Comparative Perspective. Border Perspectives Paper No. 6 (El Paso: University of Texas, Center for Inter-American and Border Studies, 1983), pp. 2-3; S. Whittemore Boggs, International Boundaries: A Study of Boundary Functions and Problems (New York: Columbia University Press, 1940), pp. 10-11.
3. A. I. Asiwaju, 'The Conceptual Framework', in A. I. Asiwaju (ed.), Partitioned Africans: Ethnic Relations Across Africa's International Boundaries, 1884-1984 (London: C. Hurst and Co., 1985), pp. 1-18 at pp. 2-3; A. I. Asiwaju, Borderlands Research: A Comparative Perspective. Border Perspectives Paper No. 6 (El Paso: University of Texas, Center for Inter-American and Border Studies, 1983), pp. 2-3; S. Whittemore Boggs, International Boundaries: A Study of Boundary Functions and Problems (New York: Columbia University Press, 1940), pp. 10-11.
4. A. I. Asiwaju, 'The Conceptual Framework', in A. I. Asiwaju (ed.), Partitioned Africans: Ethnic Relations Across Africa's International Boundaries, 1884-1984 (London: C. Hurst and Co., 1985), pp. 1-18 at pp. 2-3; A. I. Asiwaju, Borderlands Research: A Comparative Perspective. Border Perspectives Paper No. 6 (El Paso: University of Texas, Center for Inter-American and Border Studies, 1983), pp. 2-3; S. Whittemore Boggs, International Boundaries: A Study of Boundary Functions and Problems (New York: Columbia University Press, 1940), pp. 10-11.
5. I use 'frontier' in its multiple meanings as (1) a zone between states, (2) an area physically separate from state cores, and (3) a zone between settled and unsettled areas (or in this case, pacified and unpacified areas). See Boggs, International Boundaries, p. 22; Oscar J. Martinez, Border People: Life and Society in the U.S.- Mexico Borderlands (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1994), p. 305; J. R. V. Prescott, Boundaries and Frontiers (London: Croom Helm, 1978).
6. I use 'frontier' in its multiple meanings as (1) a zone between states, (2) an area physically separate from state cores, and (3) a zone between settled and unsettled areas (or in this case, pacified and unpacified areas). See Boggs, International Boundaries, p. 22; Oscar J. Martinez, Border People: Life and Society in the U.S.-Mexico Borderlands (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1994), p. 305; J. R. V. Prescott, Boundaries and Frontiers (London: Croom Helm, 1978).
7. I use 'frontier' in its multiple meanings as (1) a zone between states, (2) an area physically separate from state cores, and (3) a zone between settled and unsettled areas (or in this case, pacified and unpacified areas). See Boggs, International Boundaries, p. 22; Oscar J. Martinez, Border People: Life and Society in the U.S.- Mexico Borderlands (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1994), p. 305; J. R. V. Prescott, Boundaries and Frontiers (London: Croom Helm, 1978).
8. John Walker (personal communication) makes the excellent observation that the Brooke state did not fit the model of most colonial powers. Yet it was not entirely indigenous either, and so might occupy a place between colonial and native rule (see below). While recognizing this ambiguity, I continue to refer to Sarawak here as a colonial power.
9. In order to distinguish the Iban living on either side, I use the indigenous distinction between the Ulu Ai' Iban and the Emperan Iban. The former inhabit the upper Batang Lupar (ulu ai' in Iban), a principal river in Sarawak whose upper course runs parallel to the border, while the latter live in the low hills and flat lands (emperan in Iban) immediately adjacent to the border and north of the extensive Kapuas lakes area within what is now West Kalimantan, Indonesia. Of course there is some arbitrariness to this distinction as both 'groups' are closely related, and there have been many occasions of Ulu Ai' Iban moving to the Emperan and vice versa.
10. Although the Iban are principal actors in these relations, I focus almost exclusively here on the colonial powers. For this reason, I refer to Iban 'rebellion' rather than 'struggle for autonomy', and to the Iban as 'troublesome' or 'recalcitrant' rather than as 'audacious' or 'resistant'. For an Iban perspective on the frontier, see Robert Pringle, Rajahs and Rebels: The Ibans of Sarawak under Brooke rule, 1841-1941 (London: Macmillan, 1970), pp. 209-46; Reed L. Wadley, 'Remembering Punitive Expeditions and Divine Revenge: Iban Oral History and the Process of Creating the Past' unpublished manuscript. For the importance of headhunting in Iban culture, see Julian Davison and Vinson H. Sutlive, 'The Children of Nising: Images of Headhunting and Male Sexuality in Iban Ritual and Oral Literature', in Vinson H. Sutlive (ed.), Female and Male in Borneo (Williamsburg: Borneo Research Council, 1991), pp. 153-230.
11. Although the Iban are principal actors in these relations, I focus almost exclusively here on the colonial powers. For this reason, I refer to Iban 'rebellion' rather than 'struggle for autonomy', and to the Iban as 'troublesome' or 'recalcitrant' rather than as 'audacious' or 'resistant'. For an Iban perspective on the frontier, see Robert Pringle, Rajahs and Rebels: The Ibans of Sarawak under Brooke rule, 1841-1941 (London: Macmillan, 1970), pp. 209-46; Reed L. Wadley, 'Remembering Punitive Expeditions and Divine Revenge: Iban Oral History and the Process of Creating the Past' unpublished manuscript. For the importance of headhunting in Iban culture, see Julian Davison and Vinson H. Sutlive, 'The Children of Nising: Images of Headhunting and Male Sexuality in Iban Ritual and Oral Literature', in Vinson H. Sutlive (ed.), Female and Male in Borneo (Williamsburg: Borneo Research Council, 1991), pp. 153-230.
12. Although the Iban are principal actors in these relations, I focus almost exclusively here on the colonial powers. For this reason, I refer to Iban 'rebellion' rather than 'struggle for autonomy', and to the Iban as 'troublesome' or 'recalcitrant' rather than as 'audacious' or 'resistant'. For an Iban perspective on the frontier, see Robert Pringle, Rajahs and Rebels: The Ibans of Sarawak under Brooke rule, 1841-1941 (London: Macmillan, 1970), pp. 209-46; Reed L. Wadley, 'Remembering Punitive Expeditions and Divine Revenge: Iban Oral History and the Process of Creating the Past' unpublished manuscript. For the importance of headhunting in Iban culture, see Julian Davison and Vinson H. Sutlive, 'The Children of Nising: Images of Headhunting and Male Sexuality in Iban Ritual and Oral Literature', in Vinson H. Sutlive (ed.), Female and Male in Borneo (Williamsburg: Borneo Research Council, 1991), pp. 153-230.
13. See Pringle, Rajahs and Rebels; Victor T. King, 'Some Aspects of Iban-Maloh Contact in West Kalimantan', Indonesia, Vol. 21, 1976, pp. 85-114.
14. See Pringle, Rajahs and Rebels; Victor T. King, 'Some Aspects of Iban-Maloh Contact in West Kalimantan', Indonesia, Vol. 21, 1976, pp. 85-114.
15. Irwin, Nineteenth-Century Borneo, pp. 151-76.
16. See D. J. van den Dungen Gronovius, 'Bijdrage tot de Kennis der Binnenlandsche Rijken van het Westelijk Gedeelte van Borneo', Tijdschrift voor Nederlandsch-Indië, Vol. 11, 1849, pp. 338-56; Kaarten en Tekeningen Nos 154, 155, 157, and 567, Ministerie van Koloniën, Algemeen Rijksarchief (National Archives, The Hague [hereafter ARA]).
17. Openbaar Verbaal, 21 March 1865 No. 14, ARA.
18. J. J. K. Enthoven, Bijdragen tot de Geographie van Borneo's Wester-afdeeling (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1903), pp. 159-61.
19. Geheim Verbaal, 28 September 1847 No. 335, ARA.
20. See C. Kater, 'Iets over de Batang Loepar Dajakhs in de "Westerafdeeling van Borneo"', Indische Gids, Vol. 5, 1883, pp. 1-14; E. B. Kielstra, 'Bijdragen tot de Geschiedenis van Borneo's Westerafdeeling', Indische Gids, 12 (1), 1890, pp. 1090- 112 and 12 (2), 1890, pp. 1482-501
21. See C. Kater, 'Iets over de Batang Loepar Dajakhs in de "Westerafdeeling van Borneo"', Indische Gids, Vol. 5, 1883, pp. 1-14; E. B. Kielstra, 'Bijdragen tot de Geschiedenis van Borneo's Westerafdeeling', Indische Gids, 12 (1), 1890, pp. 1090-112 and 12 (2), 1890, pp. 1482-501
22. See C. Kater, 'Iets over de Batang Loepar Dajakhs in de "Westerafdeeling van Borneo"', Indische Gids, Vol. 5, 1883, pp. 1-14; E. B. Kielstra, 'Bijdragen tot de Geschiedenis van Borneo's Westerafdeeling', Indische Gids, 12 (1), 1890, pp. 1090- 112 and 12 (2), 1890, pp. 1482-501
23. Openbaar Verbaal, 16 March 1859 No. 30, ARA; Openbaar Verbaal, 22 May 1862 No. 38, ARA.
24. Openbaar Verbaal, 16 March 1859 No. 30, ARA; Openbaar Verbaal, 22 May 1862 No. 38, ARA.
25. Geheim Verbaal, 30 January 1847 No. 49, ARA; Geheim Verbaal, 17 July 1847 No. 255/D1, ARA; Geheim Verbaal, 28 September 1847 No. 335, ARA.
26. Geheim Verbaal, 30 January 1847 No. 49, ARA; Geheim Verbaal, 17 July 1847 No. 255/D1, ARA; Geheim Verbaal, 28 September 1847 No. 335, ARA.
27. Geheim Verbaal, 30 January 1847 No. 49, ARA; Geheim Verbaal, 17 July 1847 No. 255/D1, ARA; Geheim Verbaal, 28 September 1847 No. 335, ARA.
28. Kielstra, 'Bijdragen', 12 (2), 1890, pp. 1484-5.
29. H. A. A. Niclou, 'Batang-Loepars - Verdelgings-Oorlog. Europeesch-Dajaksche Sneltocht', Tijdchrift voor Nederlandsch Indië, Vol. I, 1887, pp. 29-67 at pp. 41-2.
30. Kielstra, 'Bijdragen', 12(1), 1890, p. 1106. Not all was competition, however, as James Brooke in desperation for financial backing approached the Dutch in 1859 for protectorate status, but nothing came of it. See Irwin, Nineteenth-Century Borneo, p. 185.
31. Kielstra, 'Bijdragen', 12(1), 1890, p. 1106. Not all was competition, however, as James Brooke in desperation for financial backing approached the Dutch in 1859 for protectorate status, but nothing came of it. See Irwin, Nineteenth-Century Borneo, p. 185.
32. Kielstra, 'Bijdragen', 12(2), 1890, pp. 1483-5. The reasons for salt being more expensive in the Kapuas deserves further investigation, but there might be several explanations. For example, production techniques may have been different, such as extraction from salt beds as opposed to burning nipah palms as was being done in Sarawak. The Brooke taxation regime may have encouraged a lower price, while the numerous rulers along the Kapuas might have imposed their own import or transit taxes as salt passed into their hands [see Niclou, 'Batang-Loepars', p. 35].
33. Kielstra, 'Bijdragen', 12(2), 1890, pp. 1483-5. The reasons for salt being more expensive in the Kapuas deserves further investigation, but there might be several explanations. For example, production techniques may have been different, such as extraction from salt beds as opposed to burning nipah palms as was being done in Sarawak. The Brooke taxation regime may have encouraged a lower price, while the numerous rulers along the Kapuas might have imposed their own import or transit taxes as salt passed into their hands [see Niclou, 'Batang-Loepars', p. 35].
34. The Dutch called the Emperan Iban, 'Batang Lupar Dayaks' and the Emperan area, 'the Batang Lupar lands'.
35. Openbaar Verbaal, 22 September 1857 No. 9, ARA.
36. See Pringle, Rajahs and Rebels, pp. 213-14; Reed L. Wadley, 'The History of Population Displacement and Forced Settlement in and around Danau Sentarum Wildlife Reserve, West Kalimantan, Indonesia: Implications for Co-Management', paper presented at the 'Displacement, Forced Settlement and Conservation' conference, 9-11 September 1999, Refugee Studies Programme, University of Oxford.
37. See Pringle, Rajahs and Rebels, pp. 213-14; Reed L. Wadley, 'The History of Population Displacement and Forced Settlement in and around Danau Sentarum Wildlife Reserve, West Kalimantan, Indonesia: Implications for Co-Management', paper presented at the 'Displacement, Forced Settlement and Conservation' conference, 9-11 September 1999, Refugee Studies Programme, University of Oxford.
38. Kielstra, 'Bijdragen', 12(1), 1890, p. 1112.
39. Niclou, 'Batang-Loepars', p. 43.
40. See Kater, 'Iets'; Niclou, 'Batang-Loepars'. Both James Brooke and his successor, Charles, routinely used large numbers of Iban auxiliaries in their expeditions. I discuss this in more detail below.
41. Charles Brooke, Ten Years in Sarawak, Vol. 2 [Reprint of 1866 edition] (Singapore: Oxford University Press, 1990), pp. 163-4. As the Iban had been settling their own disputes for centuries (although with occasional Malay mediation), this was largely a European concern. Yet the Iban came to make frequent use of colonially-established courts [see Pringle, Rajahs and Rebels, pp. 190-3].
42. Charles Brooke, Ten Years in Sarawak, Vol. 2 [Reprint of 1866 edition] (Singapore: Oxford University Press, 1990), pp. 163-4. As the Iban had been settling their own disputes for centuries (although with occasional Malay mediation), this was largely a European concern. Yet the Iban came to make frequent use of colonially-established courts [see Pringle, Rajahs and Rebels, pp. 190-3].
43. Mailrapport 1880 No. 1030, ARA.
44. Openbaar Verbaal, 20 September 1872 No. 27, ARA.
45. Pringle, Rajahs and Rebels, p. 216.
46. Charles Brooke, 'Appendix: The Journal of Charles Brooke, September 1866-July 1868', in Charles Brooke, Ten Years in Sarawak, pp. 345-74 at pp. 370-4.
47. Charles Brooke, 'Appendix: The Journal of Charles Brooke, September 1866- July 1868', in Charles Brooke, Ten Years in Sarawak, pp. 345-74 at pp. 370-4.
48. Mailrapport 1871 No. 649, ARA.
49. Kater, 'Iets', pp. 9-10.
50. Mailrapport 1879 No. 771, ARA.
51. Pringle, Rajahs and Rebels, p. 217.
52. Brooke forces had also attacked this same community in 1868. At that time, however, it was located on the Sarawak side of the border.
53. Mailrapport 1880 No. 1030, ARA.
54. Mailrapport 1880 No. 246, ARA.
55. Mailrapport 1874 Nos 420 and 576; Mailrapport 1877 Nos 43, 47 and 65; Mailrapport 1878 Nos 219 and 360; Mailrapport 1879 No. 224, ARA.
56. Mailrapport 1874 Nos 420 and 576; Mailrapport 1877 Nos 43, 47 and 65; Mailrapport 1878 Nos 219 and 360; Mailrapport 1879 No. 224, ARA.
57. Mailrapport 1874 Nos 420 and 576; Mailrapport 1877 Nos 43, 47 and 65; Mailrapport 1878 Nos 219 and 360; Mailrapport 1879 No. 224, ARA.
58. Mailrapport 1874 Nos 420 and 576; Mailrapport 1877 Nos 43, 47 and 65; Mailrapport 1878 Nos 219 and 360; Mailrapport 1879 No. 224, ARA.
59. S. Baring-Gould and C. A. Bamfylde, A History of Sarawak under its Two White Rajahs, 1839-1908 [Reprint of 1909 edition] (Singapore: Oxford University Press, 1989), pp. 383-4; Mailrapport 1882 No. 720, ARA.
60. S. Baring-Gould and C. A. Bamfylde, A History of Sarawak under its Two White Rajahs, 1839-1908 [Reprint of 1909 edition] (Singapore: Oxford University Press, 1989), pp. 383-4; Mailrapport 1882 No. 720, ARA.
61. Kater, 'Iets', pp. 9-13.
62. Mailrapport 1880 No. 1059; Mailrapport 1882 Nos 407 and 720, ARA.
63. Mailrapport 1880 No. 1059; Mailrapport 1882 Nos 407 and 720, ARA.
64. Pringle, Rajahs and Rebels, pp. 217-18; Baring-Gould and Bampfylde, A History of Sarawak, p. 380.
65. Pringle, Rajahs and Rebels, pp. 217-18; Baring-Gould and Bampfylde, A History of Sarawak, p. 380.
66. Mailrapport 1882 No. 851, ARA.
67. Curiously enough, a Dutch resident cites the article in a letter about Brooke's alleged failure to understand the border, even though the article actually contradicts the resident's claims [Mailrapport 1882 No. 407, ARA].
68. Mailrapport 1882 No. 1066, ARA.
69. Mailrapport 1882 No. 720, ARA.
70. Mailrapport 1885 No. 664, ARA.
71. Mailrapport 1885 No. 664, ARA.
72. Mailrapport 1885 No. 736, ARA.
73. See Niclou, 'Batang-Loepars', pp. 60-6; Baring-Gould and Bampfylde, A History of Sarawak, p. 384; Pringle, Rajahs and Rebels, p. 219.
74. See Niclou, 'Batang-Loepars', pp. 60-6; Baring-Gould and Bampfylde, A History of Sarawak, p. 384; Pringle, Rajahs and Rebels, p. 219.
75. See Niclou, 'Batang-Loepars', pp. 60-6; Baring-Gould and Bampfylde, A History of Sarawak, p. 384; Pringle, Rajahs and Rebels, p. 219.
76. I suspect, but cannot yet prove, that this delay in receiving news of the expedition was deliberate on the part of Brooke. The Sarawak government certainly could have notified their Dutch counterparts in West Borneo much earlier, but Brooke was concerned about keeping his plans secret. See Niclou, 'Batang-Loepars', p. 61. Although the letters from Brooke and Deshon might have reached their destinations in sufficient time had they been sent promptly, it is possible that the letters were sent at such late dates in the hopes that the Dutch would not have time to tip off area residents with troop movements.
77. Thirteen is the most commonly cited figure in English-language scholarship on the expedition, stemming from Burgemeestre's report [J. E. L. Burgemeestre, 'Onze Verhouding tot Serawak en de Batang Loepar-Bevolking: Nota van den Gezag-hebber van Semitau', in J. E. L. Bugemeestre, Memorie van Overgave van den Gezaghebber van Semitau, 2 Maart 1930-14 September 1934 (KIT 999, ARA, 1934), pp. 12-13], but the figure varies from 13 to 17. In one letter during the incident, Resident Gijsberts even refers to 39 friendly longhouses having been attacked [Mailrapport 1886 No. 293, ARA]. Obviously at the time initial reports were prone to exaggeration.
78. Thirteen is the most commonly cited figure in English-language scholarship on the expedition, stemming from Burgemeestre's report [J. E. L. Burgemeestre, 'Onze Verhouding tot Serawak en de Batang Loepar-Bevolking: Nota van den Gezag- hebber van Semitau', in J. E. L. Bugemeestre, Memorie van Overgave van den Gezaghebber van Semitau, 2 Maart 1930-14 September 1934 (KIT 999, ARA, 1934), pp. 12-13], but the figure varies from 13 to 17. In one letter during the incident, Resident Gijsberts even refers to 39 friendly longhouses having been attacked [Mailrapport 1886 No. 293, ARA]. Obviously at the time initial reports were prone to exaggeration.
79. Mailrapport 1886 Nos 293 and 342, ARA.
80. Mailrapport 1886 No. 342, ARA.
81. Mailrapport 1886 No. 733, ARA.
82. Pringle, Rajahs and Rebels, p. 219; Mailrapport 1886 No. 364, ARA.
83. Pringle, Rajahs and Rebels, p. 219; Mailrapport 1886 No. 364, ARA.
84. Mailrapport 1886 No. 293, ARA.
85. Mailrapport 1886 No. 293, ARA.
86. See Kater, 'Iets'; Niclou, 'Batang-Loepars'.
87. See Kater, 'Iets'; Niclou, 'Batang-Loepars'.
88. Brooke, Ten Years in Sarawak, Vol. 2, pp. 297-8; Brooke, 'Appendix', in Ten Years in Sarawak, p. 371.
89. Brooke, Ten Years in Sarawak, Vol. 2, pp. 297-8; Brooke, 'Appendix', in Ten Years in Sarawak, p. 371.
90. Brooke, Ten Years in Sarawak, Vol. 1, p. 188; Pringle, Rajahs and Rebels, p. 237.
91. Brooke, Ten Years in Sarawak, Vol. 1, p. 188; Pringle, Rajahs and Rebels, p. 237.
92. Pringle, Rajahs and Rebels, pp. 132 and 240.
93. John H. Walker, 'Rajahs, Rebels, and Ritual: The Ibans and the Early Brooke State, 1841-1868', in Vinson Sutlive (ed.), An Encyclopedia of Iban Studies, forthcoming.
94. John H. Walker, 'Rajahs, Rebels, and Ritual: The Ibans and the Early Brooke State, 1841-1868', in Vinson Sutlive (ed.), An Encyclopedia of Iban Studies, forthcoming.
95. Pringle, Rajahs and Rebels, pp. 131 and 138.
96. Pringle, Rajahs and Rebels, pp. 242-3.
97. Pringle, Rajahs and Rebels, pp. 240-2; King, 'Some Aspects', p. 102.
98. Pringle, Rajahs and Rebels, pp. 240-2; King, 'Some Aspects', p. 102.
99. Pringle, Rajahs and Rebels, pp. 241-2.
100. For example, Mailrapport 1878 No. 219, ARA.
101. Pringle, Rajahs and Rebels, p. 189.
102. See Walker, 'Rajahs, Rebels, and Ritual'; J. H. Walker, 'James Brooke and the Bidayuh: Some Ritual Dimensions of Dependency and Resistance in Nineteenth- Century Sarawak', Modern Asian Studies, 32(1), 1998, pp. 91-115; O. W. Wolters, History, Culture, and Region in Southeast Asian Perspectives (Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, 1982).
103. See Walker, 'Rajahs, Rebels, and Ritual'; J. H. Walker, 'James Brooke and the Bidayuh: Some Ritual Dimensions of Dependency and Resistance in Nineteenth-Century Sarawak', Modern Asian Studies, 32(1), 1998, pp. 91-115; O. W. Wolters, History, Culture, and Region in Southeast Asian Perspectives (Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, 1982).
104. See Walker, 'Rajahs, Rebels, and Ritual'; J. H. Walker, 'James Brooke and the Bidayuh: Some Ritual Dimensions of Dependency and Resistance in Nineteenth- Century Sarawak', Modern Asian Studies, 32(1), 1998, pp. 91-115; O. W. Wolters, History, Culture, and Region in Southeast Asian Perspectives (Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, 1982).
105. For example, Mailrapport 1877 No. 182, ARA.
106. 'Convention between Great Britain and the Netherlands, Defining Boundaries in Borneo, 1891', in Sir William George Maxwell and William Sumner Gibson (eds), Treaties and Engagements Affecting the Malay States and Borneo (Suffolk Lane, E. C.: Jas. Truscott and Son, 1924), pp. 215-17.
107. Staatsblad van Nederlandsch-Indië, Vol. 1930, No. 375, pp. 1-9 (Batavia: Landsdrukkerij, 1931).
108. Mailrapport 1891 No. 410; Geheim Kabinetsverbaal, 13 February 1894 (H2) No. 7, ARA.
109. Mailrapport 1891 No. 410; Geheim Kabinetsverbaal, 13 February 1894 (H2) No. 7, ARA.
110. Mailrapport 1891 No. 353.
111. Pringle, Rajahs and Rebels, pp. 276-7.
112. Mailrapport 1891 No. 602, ARA.
113. See Walker, 'James Brooke' and 'Rajahs, Rebels and Ritual'; Pringle, Rajahs and Rebels, p. 71.
114. See Walker, 'James Brooke' and 'Rajahs, Rebels and Ritual'; Pringle, Rajahs and Rebels, p. 71.
115. Of course, my archival sources are almost entirely Dutch, save for some Sarawak letters contained therein. A more thorough investigation of Sarawak archives would no doubt sharpen this contrast.
116. Baring-Gould and Bampfylde, A History of Sarawak, pp. 383-5.
117. Niclou, 'Batang-Loepars'; Burgemeestre, 'Onze Verhouding'; E. B. Kielstra, 'Bijdragen tot de Geschiedenis van Borneo's Westerafdeeling', Indische Gids, 15 (2), 1893, pp. 2090-104.
118. Niclou, 'Batang-Loepars'; Burgemeestre, 'Onze Verhouding'; E. B. Kielstra, 'Bijdragen tot de Geschiedenis van Borneo's Westerafdeeling', Indische Gids, 15 (2), 1893, pp. 2090-104.
119. Niclou, 'Batang-Loepars'; Burgemeestre, 'Onze Verhouding'; E. B. Kielstra, 'Bijdragen tot de Geschiedenis van Borneo's Westerafdeeling', Indische Gids, 15 (2), 1893, pp. 2090-104.
120. To my knowledge, there has been no modern Dutch-language scholarship on this subject.
121. Pringle, Rajahs and Rebels, p. 220; King, 'Some Aspects', p. 102; Colin N. Crisswell, Rajah Charles Brooke: Monarch of All He Surveyed (Kuala Lumpur: Oxford University Press, 1978), p. 128.
122. Pringle, Rajahs and Rebels, p. 220; King, 'Some Aspects', p. 102; Colin N. Crisswell, Rajah Charles Brooke: Monarch of All He Surveyed (Kuala Lumpur: Oxford University Press, 1978), p. 128.
123. Pringle, Rajahs and Rebels, p. 220; King, 'Some Aspects', p. 102; Colin N. Crisswell, Rajah Charles Brooke: Monarch of All He Surveyed (Kuala Lumpur: Oxford University Press, 1978), p. 128.
124. Niclou, 'Batang-Loepars', pp. 48, 50-2, 58-60, and 66-7.
125. The Arsip Nasional Republik Indonesia in Jakarta has some memories from the early- and mid-19th century, but I have not yet been able to consult them.
126. The memorie of M. A. Bouman might also be included here, but the only copy appears to be in Sintang and I have not seen it yet, if it still exists. Victor King is the only scholar I know who has read it. However, as King does not cite it regarding the Kedang Expedition, it does not appear to be important for the events covered here.
127. J. E. L. Burgemeestre, 'Adat Gebruiken by de Ladang Aanleg by de Iban Bevolking in de Onderafdeeling Semitau (14 April 1932)', in W. H. E. Scheuer, Algemeene Memorie der Afdeeling Sintang, 18 Juli 1932 (KIT 997, ARA, 1932).
128. Burgemeestre, 'Onze Verhouding', pp. 12-15.
129. A further caution to dealing with Burgemeestre's history: He makes the curious mistake of equating a famous Sarawak rebel with an Emperan leader, both called by the same praise name - Rentap [Burgemeestre, 'Onze Verhouding', p. 5]. These two men have no known connection to each other. The first, named Libau, led a long resistance to James Brooke from the upper Skrang river in Sarawak. See Pringle, Rajahs and Rebels; Brooke, Ten Years in Sarawak, Vol. 1 and 2. The second, named Jemat, was the Dutch-appointed temenggong or principal leader of the Emperan Iban, succeeding his father, Runggah, in the late 1860s [Kater, 'Iets', p. 8]. He too proved a difficult subject, and the Dutch had to send several expeditions against him. Burgemeestre had obvious access to official reports and letters (not to mention Kater's 1883 article) that would have spelled out clearly the ancestry of the second Rentap, and he had an interest in Iban matters [see Burgemeestre, 'Adat Gebruiken']. It is thus puzzling that he would make this mistake, and this should alert future scholars to treat his account with more scepticism.
130. A further caution to dealing with Burgemeestre's history: He makes the curious mistake of equating a famous Sarawak rebel with an Emperan leader, both called by the same praise name - Rentap [Burgemeestre, 'Onze Verhouding', p. 5]. These two men have no known connection to each other. The first, named Libau, led a long resistance to James Brooke from the upper Skrang river in Sarawak. See Pringle, Rajahs and Rebels; Brooke, Ten Years in Sarawak, Vol. 1 and 2. The second, named Jemat, was the Dutch-appointed temenggong or principal leader of the Emperan Iban, succeeding his father, Runggah, in the late 1860s [Kater, 'Iets', p. 8]. He too proved a difficult subject, and the Dutch had to send several expeditions against him. Burgemeestre had obvious access to official reports and letters (not to mention Kater's 1883 article) that would have spelled out clearly the ancestry of the second Rentap, and he had an interest in Iban matters [see Burgemeestre, 'Adat Gebruiken']. It is thus puzzling that he would make this mistake, and this should alert future scholars to treat his account with more scepticism.
131. A further caution to dealing with Burgemeestre's history: He makes the curious mistake of equating a famous Sarawak rebel with an Emperan leader, both called by the same praise name - Rentap [Burgemeestre, 'Onze Verhouding', p. 5]. These two men have no known connection to each other. The first, named Libau, led a long resistance to James Brooke from the upper Skrang river in Sarawak. See Pringle, Rajahs and Rebels; Brooke, Ten Years in Sarawak, Vol. 1 and 2. The second, named Jemat, was the Dutch-appointed temenggong or principal leader of the Emperan Iban, succeeding his father, Runggah, in the late 1860s [Kater, 'Iets', p. 8]. He too proved a difficult subject, and the Dutch had to send several expeditions against him. Burgemeestre had obvious access to official reports and letters (not to mention Kater's 1883 article) that would have spelled out clearly the ancestry of the second Rentap, and he had an interest in Iban matters [see Burgemeestre, 'Adat Gebruiken']. It is thus puzzling that he would make this mistake, and this should alert future scholars to treat his account with more scepticism.
132. A further caution to dealing with Burgemeestre's history: He makes the curious mistake of equating a famous Sarawak rebel with an Emperan leader, both called by the same praise name - Rentap [Burgemeestre, 'Onze Verhouding', p. 5]. These two men have no known connection to each other. The first, named Libau, led a long resistance to James Brooke from the upper Skrang river in Sarawak. See Pringle, Rajahs and Rebels; Brooke, Ten Years in Sarawak, Vol. 1 and 2. The second, named Jemat, was the Dutch-appointed temenggong or principal leader of the Emperan Iban, succeeding his father, Runggah, in the late 1860s [Kater, 'Iets', p. 8]. He too proved a difficult subject, and the Dutch had to send several expeditions against him. Burgemeestre had obvious access to official reports and letters (not to mention Kater's 1883 article) that would have spelled out clearly the ancestry of the second Rentap, and he had an interest in Iban matters [see Burgemeestre, 'Adat Gebruiken']. It is thus puzzling that he would make this mistake, and this should alert future scholars to treat his account with more scepticism.
133. Mailrapport 1886 No. 293, ARA.
134. Kielstra, 'Bijdragen', 15 (2), 1893, p. 2102.
135. Mailrapport 1886 No. 342, ARA.
136. Mailrapport 1886 No. 377, ARA.
137. Politiek Verslag, 26 August 1906 No. 39, ARA;
138. Pringle, Rajahs and Rebels, p. 230.
139. In 1894, a Dutch resident commented that his government had been in continual difficulty with Sarawak only in the Iban-inhabited border area [Openbaar Verbaal, 6 June 1895 No. 12, ARA].
140. See, for example, Benedict Anderson, Imagined Communities: Refections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism (London: Verso, 1991), pp. 164-78.
141. Mailrapport 1880 No. 275; Mailrapport 1889 No. 467, ARA; King, 'Some Aspects', pp. 107-11.
142. Mailrapport 1880 No. 275; Mailrapport 1889 No. 467, ARA; King, 'Some Aspects', pp. 107-11.
143. Mailrapport 1880 No. 275; Mailrapport 1889 No. 467, ARA; King, 'Some Aspects', pp. 107-11.
144. Pringle, Rajahs and Rebels, pp. 283-319.