Satellite television in Iran: Prohibition, imitation and reform

Middle Eastern Studies

Volumn 37, Issue 3, 2001, Pages 25-48

  Barraclough, Steven ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

MEDIA INDUSTRY; MEDIA ROLE; TELEVISION;

IRAN;

EID: 0034902716     PISSN: 00263206     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/714004410     Document Type: Article

References (103)

1. Afsaneh Najmabadi, 'Iran's Turn to Islam: from Modernism to a Moral Order', The Middle East Journal, Vol.41, No.2 (1987), p.207.
2. 'Emami-Kahsami Condemns Satellite TV Onslaught', FBIS-NES-94-157 Voice of the Islamic Republic of Iran, Tehran, 1030 GMT, 12 Aug. 1994. The reference to economic attacks refers to the sanctions imposed by the United States in 1980 and tightened in 1994.
3. 'Leader Reminds IRIB of its Duty of Confronting Enemy Plots', Islamic Republic News Agency, Tehran, 30, Oct 1995.
4. Ibid.
5. 'Global Arrogance's Cultural Assault Exposed in Exhibition', Tehran Times, 19 Nov. 1995.
6. 'Paper Comments on Khamene'i Message on Press Boundaries', FBIS-NES-96-093 Ettela'at, Tehran, 8 May 1996.
7. For stipulations regarding appropriate norms for the media see 'Leader: People's Massive Turn Out in Election to Guarantee Security of System', and 'People, Officials, and Candidates During Election Campaigns', both published in The Tehran Times, 14 May 1997.
8. 'Paper Comments on Khamene'i Message on Press Boundaries', Ettela'at.
9. 'Nizam Etel'a Rasani Matloub Nist', Iran. 29 Sept. 1996.
10. 'Survey Reveals Radio, TV More Popular Than Papers', FBIS-NES-95-009 IRIB Television First Programme Network, 1030 GMT, 12 Jan. 1995.
11. 'Nizam Etel'a Rasani Matloub Nist', Iran.
12. The literacy rate in Iran was 65 per cent in 1996. With the government's emphasis on basic education, that rate is steadily climbing. Geographical Digest (London, 1996-97), p 14.
13. 'Nizam Etel'a Rasani Matloub Nisi', Iran.
14. As related by journalists M. Behnood and F. Sarkoohi, 'Inside Iran', Index on Censorship, Vol.21, No.3 (1992), pp.12-14.
15. For Ayatollah Khamene'i's statements to this effect, see 'Leader Lauds Role of IRIB in Educating People', Tehran Times, 31 Oct. 1995 , and for Nateq-Nouri's comments see 'Majlis Speaker: Criticism of Officials by the Press serves State', Islamic Republic News Agency (Tehran), 27 April 1995.
16. For Ayatollah Khamene'i's statements to this effect, see 'Leader Lauds Role of IRIB in Educating People', Tehran Times, 31 Oct. 1995 , and for Nateq-Nouri's comments see 'Majlis Speaker: Criticism of Officials by the Press serves State', Islamic Republic News Agency (Tehran), 27 April 1995.
17. 'President Fields Questions from Press Chiefs', Islamic Republic News Agency (Tehran), 9 May 1995.
18. 'Khatami calls for balanced, critical reporting', Vision of the Islamic Republic of Iran Network 1, Tehran, 1030 gmt, 15 Nov. 1998 (BBC Monitoring Middle East).
19. For more details on the factional aspects of Iranian newspapers, see: 'Jahan-e Eslam Closing by Rafsanjani Viewed', FBIS-NES-95-095 Al-Majallah (London). 2 March 1995 , and 'English Daily's Ownership Reportedly Transferred', FBIS-NES-95-207 Iran News, 10 Oct. 1995.
20. For more details on the factional aspects of Iranian newspapers, see: 'Jahan-e Eslam Closing by Rafsanjani Viewed', FBIS-NES-95-095 Al-Majallah (London). 2 March 1995 , and 'English Daily's Ownership Reportedly Transferred', FBIS-NES-95-207 Iran News, 10 Oct. 1995.
21. 'Salam Responds to Allegations of Media Bias', Salam, Reuters, Tehran, 23 Feb. 1997.
22. These observations are based on the author's time in Iran during May 1997.
23. 'Guidance Minister says broadcasting body should apologize to President', Islamic Republic News Agency, Tehran, 17 Jan. 1999 (BBC Monitoring Middle East).
24. A number of film makers have negotiated the government's tight production guidelines with spectacular results. Film-makers like Abbas Kiarostami have made use of children's perspectives in their productions. This ploy not only helps bypass government restrictions, its unique style has endeared Iranian film to international audiences. For more on the Iranian Cinema, see B. Andrews, 'Through a Lens Enchantingly', The Middle East, No.261, Nov. 1996, pp.40-1, and 'Sinema honar-e Salah wa dosti ast', Cinema (Tehran), 14 May 1997.
25. A number of film makers have negotiated the government's tight production guidelines with spectacular results. Film-makers like Abbas Kiarostami have made use of children's perspectives in their productions. This ploy not only helps bypass government restrictions, its unique style has endeared Iranian film to international audiences. For more on the Iranian Cinema, see B. Andrews, 'Through a Lens Enchantingly', The Middle East, No.261, Nov. 1996, pp.40-1, and 'Sinema honar-e Salah wa dosti ast', Cinema (Tehran), 14 May 1997.
26. For more on this period see: A. Sreberny-Mohammadi and A. Mohammadi, 'Hegemony and Resistance: Media Politics in the Islamic Republic of Iran', Quarterly Review of Film and Video. Vol. 12, No.4 (1991), p.42.
27. Ibid. pp.40-57.
28. A. Sreberny-Mohammadi, and A. Mohammadi, Small Media Big Revolution (Minneapolis, 1994), p. 186.
29. 'Containing Cultural Contamination', US-Iran Review, Jan. 1995, p.5. and S. Haeri, 'A Fate Worse than Saudi', Index on Censorship, Vol.23, No.5/6 (1994), p.49. In late 1996 another observer put the number at around 900,000. See: 'Iran; Time for Cautious Change?', Middle East Satellite Today, Vol.2, No.6 (1996), p.23.
30. 'Containing Cultural Contamination', US-Iran Review, Jan. 1995, p.5. and S. Haeri, 'A Fate Worse than Saudi', Index on Censorship, Vol.23, No.5/6 (1994), p.49. In late 1996 another observer put the number at around 900,000. See: 'Iran; Time for Cautious Change?', Middle East Satellite Today, Vol.2, No.6 (1996), p.23.
31. 'Containing Cultural Contamination', US-Iran Review, Jan. 1995, p.5. and S. Haeri, 'A Fate Worse than Saudi', Index on Censorship, Vol.23, No.5/6 (1994), p.49. In late 1996 another observer put the number at around 900,000. See: 'Iran; Time for Cautious Change?', Middle East Satellite Today, Vol.2, No.6 (1996), p.23.
32. 'Containing Cutlural Contamination', Ibid.
33. The Mujihadeen's broadcasts are hopelessly encumbered with praise of the organization's leaders. Interview with Sadeq Saba of the BBC World Service (Persian), London, 15 July 1997.
34. For more on BBC radio's role in the Iranian revolution, see M. Tehranian, 'Communication and Revolution in Iran', Iranian Studies, Vol.13 (1980), pp. 1-14; for its enduring popularity, A. Sreberny-Mohammadi, and A. Mohammadi, 'Hegemony and Resistance: Media Politics in the Islamic Republic of Iran', p.53.
35. For more on BBC radio's role in the Iranian revolution, see M. Tehranian, 'Communication and Revolution in Iran', Iranian Studies, Vol.13 (1980), pp. 1-14; for its enduring popularity, A. Sreberny-Mohammadi, and A. Mohammadi, 'Hegemony and Resistance: Media Politics in the Islamic Republic of Iran', p.53.
36. Sreberny-Mohammadi and Mohammadi refer to this kind of practice as 'cultural cussedness'; see 'Hegemony and Resistance: Media Politics in the Islamic Republic of Iran', p.49.
37. 'President Hashemi-Ratsanjani Discusses Situation', FBIS-NES-94-166 IRIB Television First Programme Network, Tehran, 1727 GMT 23 Aug. 1994.
38. 'Khamene'i on Importance of Culture in Islamic Society', FBIS-NES-96-103 Iran News (Tehran), 21 May 1996.
39. 'Emami-Kashani Condemns Satellite TV Onslaught', FBIS -NES-94-2157 Voice of the Islamic Republic of Iran (Tehran), 12 Aug. 1994.
40. 'Iran prohibits Satellite Dishes to Bar U.S. TV', New York Times, 27 Dec. 1994.
41. 'Emami-Kashani Condemns Satellite TV Onslaught'.
42. Ibid.
43. 'Paper Discusses Need to Ban Satellite Dishes', FBIS-NES-94-152 Kayhan (Tehran), 27 July 1994.
44. Ibid.
45. S. Haeri, 'A Fate Worse than Saudi', p.50.
46. Ibid. p.50.
47. 'Salam Reports on Nation's activities in 1994', FBIS-NES-94-150 Salam (Tehran), 19 March 1995.
48. 'Daily says Debate on Satellite Issue Should Continue', Islamic Republic News Agency (Tehran), 14 April 1995.
49. S. Haeri, 'A Fate Worse than Saudi', p.50.
50. Ibid. p.51.
51. IRNA (Tehran), 25 Aug. 1996.
52. S. Haeri, 'A Fate Worse than Saudi', p.50.
53. 'RESALAT Reports on Majlis Sessions', FBIS-NES-94-203-S Resalat (Tehran), 19 Sept. 1994.
54. 'Containing Cultural Contamination'.
55. 'Satellite Dishes in Tehran to be Removed', FBIS-NES-95-077 Islamic Republic News Agency (Tehran), 1348 GMT 20 April 1995.
56. 'Public Resisting Antenna Collections', FBIS-NES-95-055 Kayhan (London), 12 Jan. 1995. The London Kayhan is not associated with the similarly named publication in Tehran.
57. Interview by the author in English with Mohamed Reza Kashani (Tehran), 13 May 1997. Mr Kashani has spent most of his career working for IRIB in different capacities, including being the managing director of channel 1 for two years, and dean of the college of IRIB. Since his current position as Managing Director for Soroush Multimedia means that he is no longer officially in the employment or IRIB, Mr Kashani emphasized during the interview that the views expressed were his personal opinions and did not represent an official IRIB viewpoint.
58. 'Iran Launches New Clampdown on Television Dishes', Reuters, 15 Nov. 1996.
59. Ibid.
60. 'Compromise reported on name of new US Persian-language radio service', The Voice of America, Washington, 1730 GMT 25 April 1998 (found through the BBC Summary of Middle East Broadcasts).
61. 'Opposition TV Broadcasting to Iran', Agence France Press, 13 Feb. 1997; and R. Curtiss, 'Iran's New Revolutionaries Watch, Wait and Work', The Washington Report on Middle East Affairs (Jan./Feb. 1997) p.54.
62. H. Naficy, The Making of Exile Culture: Iranian Television in Los Angeles (Minneapolis, 1993), p.71.
63. 'Nateq-Nuri: Hostile Propaganda Strengthens Tehran', FBIS-NES-95-030 Voice of the Islamic Republic of Iran First Program Network, Tehran, 1030 CMT 12 Feb. 1995.
64. Interview in English by the author with Abulghassem Zadeh. Vice President of IRIB's International Affairs (Tehran), 19 May 1997.
65. The other constitutional alterations included: a lowering in the clerical qualification for the Faqih from Marja to Mujtahid so that Khamene'i could qualify for the position; and the elimination of the post of Prime Minister and the creation of a stronger Presidency.
66. Interview with Mohamed Reza Kashani.
67. J. Wyllie, 'Iran - the Edge of the Precipice', Jane's Intelligence Review (April 1994) p. 176.
68. 'Iran', Index on Censorship, Vol.23, May/June 1994, p.241.
69. Interview with Abulghassem Zadeh.
70. A. Sreberny-Mohammadi, and A. Mohammadi, 'Hegemony and Resistance: Media Politics in the Islamic Republic of Iran', p.52.
71. Interview with Mohamed Kashani.
72. 'IRIB Official Quoted on Expansion Plans', FBIS-NES-96-096 Hamshahri (Tehran), 11 May 1996.
73. 'IRIB to launch channel 5', Islamic Republic News Agency, Tehran, 11 May 1995.
74. IRIB (Prospectus) (Tehran), Oct. 1995.
75. 'Satellite TV Stations Establish Operations', FBIS-NES-94-168 IRIB Televison Network One. Tehran, 1430 GMT, 29 Aug. 1994.
76. 'Iran to Launch Project to Build Satellites', Reuters, 27 Feb. 1997.
77. Interview with Abulghassem Zadeh.
78. Interview with Mohamed Kashani.
79. Interview with Abulghassem Zadeh.
80. IRIB (Prospectus).
81. Interview with Abulghassem Zadeh.
82. Iran News, 12 Oct. 1996.
83. Interview with Abulghassem Zadeh.
84. Interview with Mohamed Kashani.
85. Ibid.
86. Interview with Abulghassem Zadeh.
87. Interview by the author in English with Film Producer Saeed Naderi (Tehran), 12 May 1997.
88. Interview with Abulghassem Zadeh.
89. Ibid.
90. Ta'refe Paksh Peeamahi Baz Ragan (Tehran, 1996).
91. Interview with Abulghassem Zadeh.
92. 'Leader Lauds Role of IRIB in Educating People', Tehran Times (Tehran), 31 Oct. 1995.
93. From discussions held with retailers of satellite equipment in Dubai, 24 May 1997. Dubai is a major port for shipping contraband goods to Iran.
94. Interview with Abulghassem Zadeh.
95. Interview with Mohamed Kashani.
96. Interview with Abulghassem Zadeh.
97. 'Khatami Talks to University Students', Tehran Times, 8 May 1997.
98. 'Iran's MPs Question FM over Americans' Visits', Xinhua (Tehran), 2 June 1998.
99. 'Iranian Press Finds New Freedom', Reuters, 22 April 1998.
100. 'Committee calls for TV officials to be disciplined for controversial programme', Vision of the Islamic Republic of Iran, Network One, Tehran, 1030 gmt, 19 Jan. 1999 (from BBC Monitoring Summary of World Broadcasts).
101. 'Daily calls for television to be privatized', Islamic Republic News Agency (Tehran), 20 Jan. 1999.
102. Vision of the Islamic Republic of Iran Network One, Tehran, 1030 gmt, 15 Nov. 1998 (from BBC Monitoring Summary of World Broadcasts, Middle East).
103. A style of programming common on satellite television since it is relatively cheap to produce and controversial.