How are these pictures different? A quantitative comparison of the US State department and amnesty international human rights reports, 1976-1995

Human Rights Quarterly

Volumn 23, Issue 3, 2001, Pages 650-677

  Poe, Steven C ^b   Carey, Sabine C ^b   Vazquez, Tanya C ^b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF NORTH TEXAS   (United States)

^b NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

HUMAN RIGHTS;

EID: 0034849852     PISSN: 02750392     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1353/hrq.2001.0041     Document Type: Article

References (108)

1. UNITED STATES STATE DEPT., COUNTRY REPORTS ON HUMAN RIGHTS PRACTICES (1977-1993).
2. Michael Stohl & David Carleton, The Foreign Policy of Human Rights: Rhetoric and Reality from Jimmy Carter to Ronald Reagan, 7 HUM. RTS. Q. 205-29 (1985); David Carleton & Michael Stohl, The Role of Human Rights in US Foreign Assistance Policy, 31 AM. J. POL. SCI. 1002-18 (1987); Neil J. Mitchell & James M. McCormick, Economic and Political Explanations of Human Rights Violations, 40 WORLD POLITICS 476-98 (1988); DAVID P. FORSYTHE, HUMAN RIGHTS AND WORLD POLITICS (1989); Steven C. Poe, Human Rights and US Foreign Aid: A Review of Quantitative Studies and Suggestions for Future Research, 12 HUM. RTS. Q. 499-512 (1990); Judith Eleanor Innes, Human Rights Reporting as a Policy Tool: An Examination of the State Department Country Reports, in HUMAN RIGHTS AND STATISTICS: GETTING THE RECORD STRAIGHT 235-57 (Thomas B. Jabine & Richard P. Claude 1992); LAWYERS' COMMITTEE FOR HUMAN RIGHTS, CRITIQUE: REVIEW OF THE U.S. DEPARTMENT OF STATE'S COUNTRY REPORTS ON HUMAN RIGHTS PRACTICES 1992 (1993); Steven C. Poe & C. Neal Tate, Repression of Personal Integrity in the 1980s: A Global Analysis, 88 AM. POL. SCI. REV. 853-72 (1994) for discussions of possible biases.
3. Michael Stohl & David Carleton, The Foreign Policy of Human Rights: Rhetoric and Reality from Jimmy Carter to Ronald Reagan, 7 HUM. RTS. Q. 205-29 (1985); David Carleton & Michael Stohl, The Role of Human Rights in US Foreign Assistance Policy, 31 AM. J. POL. SCI. 1002-18 (1987); Neil J. Mitchell & James M. McCormick, Economic and Political Explanations of Human Rights Violations, 40 WORLD POLITICS 476-98 (1988); DAVID P. FORSYTHE, HUMAN RIGHTS AND WORLD POLITICS (1989); Steven C. Poe, Human Rights and US Foreign Aid: A Review of Quantitative Studies and Suggestions for Future Research, 12 HUM. RTS. Q. 499-512 (1990); Judith Eleanor Innes, Human Rights Reporting as a Policy Tool: An Examination of the State Department Country Reports, in HUMAN RIGHTS AND STATISTICS: GETTING THE RECORD STRAIGHT 235-57 (Thomas B. Jabine & Richard P. Claude 1992); LAWYERS' COMMITTEE FOR HUMAN RIGHTS, CRITIQUE: REVIEW OF THE U.S. DEPARTMENT OF STATE'S COUNTRY REPORTS ON HUMAN RIGHTS PRACTICES 1992 (1993); Steven C. Poe & C. Neal Tate, Repression of Personal Integrity in the 1980s: A Global Analysis, 88 AM. POL. SCI. REV. 853-72 (1994) for discussions of possible biases.
4. Michael Stohl & David Carleton, The Foreign Policy of Human Rights: Rhetoric and Reality from Jimmy Carter to Ronald Reagan, 7 HUM. RTS. Q. 205-29 (1985); David Carleton & Michael Stohl, The Role of Human Rights in US Foreign Assistance Policy, 31 AM. J. POL. SCI. 1002-18 (1987); Neil J. Mitchell & James M. McCormick, Economic and Political Explanations of Human Rights Violations, 40 WORLD POLITICS 476-98 (1988); DAVID P. FORSYTHE, HUMAN RIGHTS AND WORLD POLITICS (1989); Steven C. Poe, Human Rights and US Foreign Aid: A Review of Quantitative Studies and Suggestions for Future Research, 12 HUM. RTS. Q. 499-512 (1990); Judith Eleanor Innes, Human Rights Reporting as a Policy Tool: An Examination of the State Department Country Reports, in HUMAN RIGHTS AND STATISTICS: GETTING THE RECORD STRAIGHT 235-57 (Thomas B. Jabine & Richard P. Claude 1992); LAWYERS' COMMITTEE FOR HUMAN RIGHTS, CRITIQUE: REVIEW OF THE U.S. DEPARTMENT OF STATE'S COUNTRY REPORTS ON HUMAN RIGHTS PRACTICES 1992 (1993); Steven C. Poe & C. Neal Tate, Repression of Personal Integrity in the 1980s: A Global Analysis, 88 AM. POL. SCI. REV. 853-72 (1994) for discussions of possible biases.
5. Michael Stohl & David Carleton, The Foreign Policy of Human Rights: Rhetoric and Reality from Jimmy Carter to Ronald Reagan, 7 HUM. RTS. Q. 205-29 (1985); David Carleton & Michael Stohl, The Role of Human Rights in US Foreign Assistance Policy, 31 AM. J. POL. SCI. 1002-18 (1987); Neil J. Mitchell & James M. McCormick, Economic and Political Explanations of Human Rights Violations, 40 WORLD POLITICS 476-98 (1988); DAVID P. FORSYTHE, HUMAN RIGHTS AND WORLD POLITICS (1989); Steven C. Poe, Human Rights and US Foreign Aid: A Review of Quantitative Studies and Suggestions for Future Research, 12 HUM. RTS. Q. 499-512 (1990); Judith Eleanor Innes, Human Rights Reporting as a Policy Tool: An Examination of the State Department Country Reports, in HUMAN RIGHTS AND STATISTICS: GETTING THE RECORD STRAIGHT 235-57 (Thomas B. Jabine & Richard P. Claude 1992); LAWYERS' COMMITTEE FOR HUMAN RIGHTS, CRITIQUE: REVIEW OF THE U.S. DEPARTMENT OF STATE'S COUNTRY REPORTS ON HUMAN RIGHTS PRACTICES 1992 (1993); Steven C. Poe & C. Neal Tate, Repression of Personal Integrity in the 1980s: A Global Analysis, 88 AM. POL. SCI. REV. 853-72 (1994) for discussions of possible biases.
6. Michael Stohl & David Carleton, The Foreign Policy of Human Rights: Rhetoric and Reality from Jimmy Carter to Ronald Reagan, 7 HUM. RTS. Q. 205-29 (1985); David Carleton & Michael Stohl, The Role of Human Rights in US Foreign Assistance Policy, 31 AM. J. POL. SCI. 1002-18 (1987); Neil J. Mitchell & James M. McCormick, Economic and Political Explanations of Human Rights Violations, 40 WORLD POLITICS 476-98 (1988); DAVID P. FORSYTHE, HUMAN RIGHTS AND WORLD POLITICS (1989); Steven C. Poe, Human Rights and US Foreign Aid: A Review of Quantitative Studies and Suggestions for Future Research, 12 HUM. RTS. Q. 499-512 (1990); Judith Eleanor Innes, Human Rights Reporting as a Policy Tool: An Examination of the State Department Country Reports, in HUMAN RIGHTS AND STATISTICS: GETTING THE RECORD STRAIGHT 235-57 (Thomas B. Jabine & Richard P. Claude 1992); LAWYERS' COMMITTEE FOR HUMAN RIGHTS, CRITIQUE: REVIEW OF THE U.S. DEPARTMENT OF STATE'S COUNTRY REPORTS ON HUMAN RIGHTS PRACTICES 1992 (1993); Steven C. Poe & C. Neal Tate, Repression of Personal Integrity in the 1980s: A Global Analysis, 88 AM. POL. SCI. REV. 853-72 (1994) for discussions of possible biases.
7. Michael Stohl & David Carleton, The Foreign Policy of Human Rights: Rhetoric and Reality from Jimmy Carter to Ronald Reagan, 7 HUM. RTS. Q. 205-29 (1985); David Carleton & Michael Stohl, The Role of Human Rights in US Foreign Assistance Policy, 31 AM. J. POL. SCI. 1002-18 (1987); Neil J. Mitchell & James M. McCormick, Economic and Political Explanations of Human Rights Violations, 40 WORLD POLITICS 476-98 (1988); DAVID P. FORSYTHE, HUMAN RIGHTS AND WORLD POLITICS (1989); Steven C. Poe, Human Rights and US Foreign Aid: A Review of Quantitative Studies and Suggestions for Future Research, 12 HUM. RTS. Q. 499-512 (1990); Judith Eleanor Innes, Human Rights Reporting as a Policy Tool: An Examination of the State Department Country Reports, in HUMAN RIGHTS AND STATISTICS: GETTING THE RECORD STRAIGHT 235-57 (Thomas B. Jabine & Richard P. Claude 1992); LAWYERS' COMMITTEE FOR HUMAN RIGHTS, CRITIQUE: REVIEW OF THE U.S. DEPARTMENT OF STATE'S COUNTRY REPORTS ON HUMAN RIGHTS PRACTICES 1992 (1993); Steven C. Poe & C. Neal Tate, Repression of Personal Integrity in the 1980s: A Global Analysis, 88 AM. POL. SCI. REV. 853-72 (1994) for discussions of possible biases.
8. Michael Stohl & David Carleton, The Foreign Policy of Human Rights: Rhetoric and Reality from Jimmy Carter to Ronald Reagan, 7 HUM. RTS. Q. 205-29 (1985); David Carleton & Michael Stohl, The Role of Human Rights in US Foreign Assistance Policy, 31 AM. J. POL. SCI. 1002-18 (1987); Neil J. Mitchell & James M. McCormick, Economic and Political Explanations of Human Rights Violations, 40 WORLD POLITICS 476-98 (1988); DAVID P. FORSYTHE, HUMAN RIGHTS AND WORLD POLITICS (1989); Steven C. Poe, Human Rights and US Foreign Aid: A Review of Quantitative Studies and Suggestions for Future Research, 12 HUM. RTS. Q. 499-512 (1990); Judith Eleanor Innes, Human Rights Reporting as a Policy Tool: An Examination of the State Department Country Reports, in HUMAN RIGHTS AND STATISTICS: GETTING THE RECORD STRAIGHT 235-57 (Thomas B. Jabine & Richard P. Claude 1992); LAWYERS' COMMITTEE FOR HUMAN RIGHTS, CRITIQUE: REVIEW OF THE U.S. DEPARTMENT OF STATE'S COUNTRY REPORTS ON HUMAN RIGHTS PRACTICES 1992 (1993); Steven C. Poe & C. Neal Tate, Repression of Personal Integrity in the 1980s: A Global Analysis, 88 AM. POL. SCI. REV. 853-72 (1994) for discussions of possible biases.
9. Michael Stohl & David Carleton, The Foreign Policy of Human Rights: Rhetoric and Reality from Jimmy Carter to Ronald Reagan, 7 HUM. RTS. Q. 205-29 (1985); David Carleton & Michael Stohl, The Role of Human Rights in US Foreign Assistance Policy, 31 AM. J. POL. SCI. 1002-18 (1987); Neil J. Mitchell & James M. McCormick, Economic and Political Explanations of Human Rights Violations, 40 WORLD POLITICS 476-98 (1988); DAVID P. FORSYTHE, HUMAN RIGHTS AND WORLD POLITICS (1989); Steven C. Poe, Human Rights and US Foreign Aid: A Review of Quantitative Studies and Suggestions for Future Research, 12 HUM. RTS. Q. 499-512 (1990); Judith Eleanor Innes, Human Rights Reporting as a Policy Tool: An Examination of the State Department Country Reports, in HUMAN RIGHTS AND STATISTICS: GETTING THE RECORD STRAIGHT 235-57 (Thomas B. Jabine & Richard P. Claude 1992); LAWYERS' COMMITTEE FOR HUMAN RIGHTS, CRITIQUE: REVIEW OF THE U.S. DEPARTMENT OF STATE'S COUNTRY REPORTS ON HUMAN RIGHTS PRACTICES 1992 (1993); Steven C. Poe & C. Neal Tate, Repression of Personal Integrity in the 1980s: A Global Analysis, 88 AM. POL. SCI. REV. 853-72 (1994) for discussions of possible biases.
10. Innes, supra note 2.
11. AMNESTY INTERNATIONAL, AMNESTY INTERNATIONAL REPORTS (1977-1996).
12. David L. Cingranelli & Thomas Pasquarello, Human Rights Practices and the U.S. Distribution of Foreign Aid to Latin American Countries, 29 AM. J. POL. SCI. 539-63 (1985); Poe & Tate, supra note 2.
13. David L. Cingranelli & Thomas Pasquarello, Human Rights Practices and the U.S. Distribution of Foreign Aid to Latin American Countries, 29 AM. J. POL. SCI. 539-63 (1985); Poe & Tate, supra note 2.
14. On foreign aid, see Michael Stohl, David Carleton & Steven E. Johnson, Human Rights and U.S. Foreign Assistance: From Nixon to Carter, 21 J. PEACE RES. 215-26 (1984); Cingranelli & Pasquarello, supra note 5; Stohl & Carleton, supra note 2; Steven C. Poe, Human Rights and Economic Aid under Ronald Reagan and Jimmy Carter, 36 AM. J. POL. SCI. 146-62 (1992); Steven C. Poe & Rangsima Sirirangsi, Human Rights and U.S. Economic Aid During the Reagan Years, 75 SOC. SCI. Q. 494-509 (1994); Steven C. Poe & James Meernik, US Military Aid in the 1980s: A Global Analysis, 32 J. PEACE RES. 399-412 (1995); Shannon Lindsey Blanton, Impact of Human Rights on U.S. Foreign Assistance to Latin America, 19 INT'L INTERACTIONS 339-58 (1994). On immigration policies, see Mark Gibney, Vanessa Dalton & Marc Vockell, USA Refugee Policy: A Human Rights Analysis Update, 5 J. REFUGEE STUD. 33-46 (1992); Mark Gibney & Michael Stohl, Human Rights and U.S. Refugee Policy, in OPEN BORDERS? CLOSED SOCIETIES? THE ETHICAL AND POLITICAL ISSUES (Mark Gibney ed., 1988).
15. On foreign aid, see Michael Stohl, David Carleton & Steven E. Johnson, Human Rights and U.S. Foreign Assistance: From Nixon to Carter, 21 J. PEACE RES. 215-26 (1984); Cingranelli & Pasquarello, supra note 5; Stohl & Carleton, supra note 2; Steven C. Poe, Human Rights and Economic Aid under Ronald Reagan and Jimmy Carter, 36 AM. J. POL. SCI. 146-62 (1992); Steven C. Poe & Rangsima Sirirangsi, Human Rights and U.S. Economic Aid During the Reagan Years, 75 SOC. SCI. Q. 494-509 (1994); Steven C. Poe & James Meernik, US Military Aid in the 1980s: A Global Analysis, 32 J. PEACE RES. 399-412 (1995); Shannon Lindsey Blanton, Impact of Human Rights on U.S. Foreign Assistance to Latin America, 19 INT'L INTERACTIONS 339-58 (1994). On immigration policies, see Mark Gibney, Vanessa Dalton & Marc Vockell, USA Refugee Policy: A Human Rights Analysis Update, 5 J. REFUGEE STUD. 33-46 (1992); Mark Gibney & Michael Stohl, Human Rights and U.S. Refugee Policy, in OPEN BORDERS? CLOSED SOCIETIES? THE ETHICAL AND POLITICAL ISSUES (Mark Gibney ed., 1988).
16. On foreign aid, see Michael Stohl, David Carleton & Steven E. Johnson, Human Rights and U.S. Foreign Assistance: From Nixon to Carter, 21 J. PEACE RES. 215-26 (1984); Cingranelli & Pasquarello, supra note 5; Stohl & Carleton, supra note 2; Steven C. Poe, Human Rights and Economic Aid under Ronald Reagan and Jimmy Carter, 36 AM. J. POL. SCI. 146-62 (1992); Steven C. Poe & Rangsima Sirirangsi, Human Rights and U.S. Economic Aid During the Reagan Years, 75 SOC. SCI. Q. 494-509 (1994); Steven C. Poe & James Meernik, US Military Aid in the 1980s: A Global Analysis, 32 J. PEACE RES. 399-412 (1995); Shannon Lindsey Blanton, Impact of Human Rights on U.S. Foreign Assistance to Latin America, 19 INT'L INTERACTIONS 339-58 (1994). On immigration policies, see Mark Gibney, Vanessa Dalton & Marc Vockell, USA Refugee Policy: A Human Rights Analysis Update, 5 J. REFUGEE STUD. 33-46 (1992); Mark Gibney & Michael Stohl, Human Rights and U.S. Refugee Policy, in OPEN BORDERS? CLOSED SOCIETIES? THE ETHICAL AND POLITICAL ISSUES (Mark Gibney ed., 1988).
17. On foreign aid, see Michael Stohl, David Carleton & Steven E. Johnson, Human Rights and U.S. Foreign Assistance: From Nixon to Carter, 21 J. PEACE RES. 215-26 (1984); Cingranelli & Pasquarello, supra note 5; Stohl & Carleton, supra note 2; Steven C. Poe, Human Rights and Economic Aid under Ronald Reagan and Jimmy Carter, 36 AM. J. POL. SCI. 146-62 (1992); Steven C. Poe & Rangsima Sirirangsi, Human Rights and U.S. Economic Aid During the Reagan Years, 75 SOC. SCI. Q. 494-509 (1994); Steven C. Poe & James Meernik, US Military Aid in the 1980s: A Global Analysis, 32 J. PEACE RES. 399-412 (1995); Shannon Lindsey Blanton, Impact of Human Rights on U.S. Foreign Assistance to Latin America, 19 INT'L INTERACTIONS 339-58 (1994). On immigration policies, see Mark Gibney, Vanessa Dalton & Marc Vockell, USA Refugee Policy: A Human Rights Analysis Update, 5 J. REFUGEE STUD. 33-46 (1992); Mark Gibney & Michael Stohl, Human Rights and U.S. Refugee Policy, in OPEN BORDERS? CLOSED SOCIETIES? THE ETHICAL AND POLITICAL ISSUES (Mark Gibney ed., 1988).
18. On foreign aid, see Michael Stohl, David Carleton & Steven E. Johnson, Human Rights and U.S. Foreign Assistance: From Nixon to Carter, 21 J. PEACE RES. 215-26 (1984); Cingranelli & Pasquarello, supra note 5; Stohl & Carleton, supra note 2; Steven C. Poe, Human Rights and Economic Aid under Ronald Reagan and Jimmy Carter, 36 AM. J. POL. SCI. 146-62 (1992); Steven C. Poe & Rangsima Sirirangsi, Human Rights and U.S. Economic Aid During the Reagan Years, 75 SOC. SCI. Q. 494-509 (1994); Steven C. Poe & James Meernik, US Military Aid in the 1980s: A Global Analysis, 32 J. PEACE RES. 399-412 (1995); Shannon Lindsey Blanton, Impact of Human Rights on U.S. Foreign Assistance to Latin America, 19 INT'L INTERACTIONS 339-58 (1994). On immigration policies, see Mark Gibney, Vanessa Dalton & Marc Vockell, USA Refugee Policy: A Human Rights Analysis Update, 5 J. REFUGEE STUD. 33-46 (1992); Mark Gibney & Michael Stohl, Human Rights and U.S. Refugee Policy, in OPEN BORDERS? CLOSED SOCIETIES? THE ETHICAL AND POLITICAL ISSUES (Mark Gibney ed., 1988).
19. On foreign aid, see Michael Stohl, David Carleton & Steven E. Johnson, Human Rights and U.S. Foreign Assistance: From Nixon to Carter, 21 J. PEACE RES. 215-26 (1984); Cingranelli & Pasquarello, supra note 5; Stohl & Carleton, supra note 2; Steven C. Poe, Human Rights and Economic Aid under Ronald Reagan and Jimmy Carter, 36 AM. J. POL. SCI. 146-62 (1992); Steven C. Poe & Rangsima Sirirangsi, Human Rights and U.S. Economic Aid During the Reagan Years, 75 SOC. SCI. Q. 494-509 (1994); Steven C. Poe & James Meernik, US Military Aid in the 1980s: A Global Analysis, 32 J. PEACE RES. 399-412 (1995); Shannon Lindsey Blanton, Impact of Human Rights on U.S. Foreign Assistance to Latin America, 19 INT'L INTERACTIONS 339-58 (1994). On immigration policies, see Mark Gibney, Vanessa Dalton & Marc Vockell, USA Refugee Policy: A Human Rights Analysis Update, 5 J. REFUGEE STUD. 33-46 (1992); Mark Gibney & Michael Stohl, Human Rights and U.S. Refugee Policy, in OPEN BORDERS? CLOSED SOCIETIES? THE ETHICAL AND POLITICAL ISSUES (Mark Gibney ed., 1988).
20. On foreign aid, see Michael Stohl, David Carleton & Steven E. Johnson, Human Rights and U.S. Foreign Assistance: From Nixon to Carter, 21 J. PEACE RES. 215-26 (1984); Cingranelli & Pasquarello, supra note 5; Stohl & Carleton, supra note 2; Steven C. Poe, Human Rights and Economic Aid under Ronald Reagan and Jimmy Carter, 36 AM. J. POL. SCI. 146-62 (1992); Steven C. Poe & Rangsima Sirirangsi, Human Rights and U.S. Economic Aid During the Reagan Years, 75 SOC. SCI. Q. 494-509 (1994); Steven C. Poe & James Meernik, US Military Aid in the 1980s: A Global Analysis, 32 J. PEACE RES. 399-412 (1995); Shannon Lindsey Blanton, Impact of Human Rights on U.S. Foreign Assistance to Latin America, 19 INT'L INTERACTIONS 339-58 (1994). On immigration policies, see Mark Gibney, Vanessa Dalton & Marc Vockell, USA Refugee Policy: A Human Rights Analysis Update, 5 J. REFUGEE STUD. 33-46 (1992); Mark Gibney & Michael Stohl, Human Rights and U.S. Refugee Policy, in OPEN BORDERS? CLOSED SOCIETIES? THE ETHICAL AND POLITICAL ISSUES (Mark Gibney ed., 1988).
21. On foreign aid, see Michael Stohl, David Carleton & Steven E. Johnson, Human Rights and U.S. Foreign Assistance: From Nixon to Carter, 21 J. PEACE RES. 215-26 (1984); Cingranelli & Pasquarello, supra note 5; Stohl & Carleton, supra note 2; Steven C. Poe, Human Rights and Economic Aid under Ronald Reagan and Jimmy Carter, 36 AM. J. POL. SCI. 146-62 (1992); Steven C. Poe & Rangsima Sirirangsi, Human Rights and U.S. Economic Aid During the Reagan Years, 75 SOC. SCI. Q. 494-509 (1994); Steven C. Poe & James Meernik, US Military Aid in the 1980s: A Global Analysis, 32 J. PEACE RES. 399-412 (1995); Shannon Lindsey Blanton, Impact of Human Rights on U.S. Foreign Assistance to Latin America, 19 INT'L INTERACTIONS 339-58 (1994). On immigration policies, see Mark Gibney, Vanessa Dalton & Marc Vockell, USA Refugee Policy: A Human Rights Analysis Update, 5 J. REFUGEE STUD. 33-46 (1992); Mark Gibney & Michael Stohl, Human Rights and U.S. Refugee Policy, in OPEN BORDERS? CLOSED SOCIETIES? THE ETHICAL AND POLITICAL ISSUES (Mark Gibney ed., 1988).
22. On foreign aid, see Michael Stohl, David Carleton & Steven E. Johnson, Human Rights and U.S. Foreign Assistance: From Nixon to Carter, 21 J. PEACE RES. 215-26 (1984); Cingranelli & Pasquarello, supra note 5; Stohl & Carleton, supra note 2; Steven C. Poe, Human Rights and Economic Aid under Ronald Reagan and Jimmy Carter, 36 AM. J. POL. SCI. 146-62 (1992); Steven C. Poe & Rangsima Sirirangsi, Human Rights and U.S. Economic Aid During the Reagan Years, 75 SOC. SCI. Q. 494-509 (1994); Steven C. Poe & James Meernik, US Military Aid in the 1980s: A Global Analysis, 32 J. PEACE RES. 399-412 (1995); Shannon Lindsey Blanton, Impact of Human Rights on U.S. Foreign Assistance to Latin America, 19 INT'L INTERACTIONS 339-58 (1994). On immigration policies, see Mark Gibney, Vanessa Dalton & Marc Vockell, USA Refugee Policy: A Human Rights Analysis Update, 5 J. REFUGEE STUD. 33-46 (1992); Mark Gibney & Michael Stohl, Human Rights and U.S. Refugee Policy, in OPEN BORDERS? CLOSED SOCIETIES? THE ETHICAL AND POLITICAL ISSUES (Mark Gibney ed., 1988).
23. See, e.g, Mitchell & McCormick, supra note 2; Conway Henderson, Conditions Affecting the Use of Political Repression, 35 J. CONFLICT RES. 120-42 (1991); Conway Henderson, Population Pressures and Political Repression, 74 SOC. SCI. Q. 322-33 (1993); Poe & Tate, supra note 2; Helen Fein, More Murder in the Middle: Life Integrity Violations and Democracy in the World, 1987, 17 HUM. RTS. Q. 170-91 (1995); Gerald J. Blasi, & David Louis Cingranelli, Do Constitutions and Institutions Help Protect Human Rights?, in HUMAN RIGHTS AND DEVELOPING COUNTRIES (David L. Cingranelli ed., 1997); David Cingranelli & David Richards, Measuring the Level, Pattern, and Sequence of Government Respect for Physical Integrity Rights, 43 INT'L STUD. Q. 407-19 (1999); Steven C. Poe, C. Neal Tate & Linda Keith, Repression of the Human Right to Personal Integrity Revisited: A Global Crossnational Study Covering the Years 1976-1993, 43 INT'L STUD. Q. 291-315 (1999); David Richards, Perilous Proxy: Human Rights and the Presence of National Elections, 80 SOC. SCI. Q. 648-65 (1999).
24. See, e.g, Mitchell & McCormick, supra note 2; Conway Henderson, Conditions Affecting the Use of Political Repression, 35 J. CONFLICT RES. 120-42 (1991); Conway Henderson, Population Pressures and Political Repression, 74 SOC. SCI. Q. 322-33 (1993); Poe & Tate, supra note 2; Helen Fein, More Murder in the Middle: Life Integrity Violations and Democracy in the World, 1987, 17 HUM. RTS. Q. 170-91 (1995); Gerald J. Blasi, & David Louis Cingranelli, Do Constitutions and Institutions Help Protect Human Rights?, in HUMAN RIGHTS AND DEVELOPING COUNTRIES (David L. Cingranelli ed., 1997); David Cingranelli & David Richards, Measuring the Level, Pattern, and Sequence of Government Respect for Physical Integrity Rights, 43 INT'L STUD. Q. 407-19 (1999); Steven C. Poe, C. Neal Tate & Linda Keith, Repression of the Human Right to Personal Integrity Revisited: A Global Crossnational Study Covering the Years 1976-1993, 43 INT'L STUD. Q. 291-315 (1999); David Richards, Perilous Proxy: Human Rights and the Presence of National Elections, 80 SOC. SCI. Q. 648-65 (1999).
25. See, e.g, Mitchell & McCormick, supra note 2; Conway Henderson, Conditions Affecting the Use of Political Repression, 35 J. CONFLICT RES. 120-42 (1991); Conway Henderson, Population Pressures and Political Repression, 74 SOC. SCI. Q. 322-33 (1993); Poe & Tate, supra note 2; Helen Fein, More Murder in the Middle: Life Integrity Violations and Democracy in the World, 1987, 17 HUM. RTS. Q. 170-91 (1995); Gerald J. Blasi, & David Louis Cingranelli, Do Constitutions and Institutions Help Protect Human Rights?, in HUMAN RIGHTS AND DEVELOPING COUNTRIES (David L. Cingranelli ed., 1997); David Cingranelli & David Richards, Measuring the Level, Pattern, and Sequence of Government Respect for Physical Integrity Rights, 43 INT'L STUD. Q. 407-19 (1999); Steven C. Poe, C. Neal Tate & Linda Keith, Repression of the Human Right to Personal Integrity Revisited: A Global Crossnational Study Covering the Years 1976-1993, 43 INT'L STUD. Q. 291-315 (1999); David Richards, Perilous Proxy: Human Rights and the Presence of National Elections, 80 SOC. SCI. Q. 648-65 (1999).
26. See, e.g, Mitchell & McCormick, supra note 2; Conway Henderson, Conditions Affecting the Use of Political Repression, 35 J. CONFLICT RES. 120-42 (1991); Conway Henderson, Population Pressures and Political Repression, 74 SOC. SCI. Q. 322-33 (1993); Poe & Tate, supra note 2; Helen Fein, More Murder in the Middle: Life Integrity Violations and Democracy in the World, 1987, 17 HUM. RTS. Q. 170-91 (1995); Gerald J. Blasi, & David Louis Cingranelli, Do Constitutions and Institutions Help Protect Human Rights?, in HUMAN RIGHTS AND DEVELOPING COUNTRIES (David L. Cingranelli ed., 1997); David Cingranelli & David Richards, Measuring the Level, Pattern, and Sequence of Government Respect for Physical Integrity Rights, 43 INT'L STUD. Q. 407-19 (1999); Steven C. Poe, C. Neal Tate & Linda Keith, Repression of the Human Right to Personal Integrity Revisited: A Global Crossnational Study Covering the Years 1976-1993, 43 INT'L STUD. Q. 291-315 (1999); David Richards, Perilous Proxy: Human Rights and the Presence of National Elections, 80 SOC. SCI. Q. 648-65 (1999).
27. See, e.g, Mitchell & McCormick, supra note 2; Conway Henderson, Conditions Affecting the Use of Political Repression, 35 J. CONFLICT RES. 120-42 (1991); Conway Henderson, Population Pressures and Political Repression, 74 SOC. SCI. Q. 322-33 (1993); Poe & Tate, supra note 2; Helen Fein, More Murder in the Middle: Life Integrity Violations and Democracy in the World, 1987, 17 HUM. RTS. Q. 170-91 (1995); Gerald J. Blasi, & David Louis Cingranelli, Do Constitutions and Institutions Help Protect Human Rights?, in HUMAN RIGHTS AND DEVELOPING COUNTRIES (David L. Cingranelli ed., 1997); David Cingranelli & David Richards, Measuring the Level, Pattern, and Sequence of Government Respect for Physical Integrity Rights, 43 INT'L STUD. Q. 407-19 (1999); Steven C. Poe, C. Neal Tate & Linda Keith, Repression of the Human Right to Personal Integrity Revisited: A Global Crossnational Study Covering the Years 1976-1993, 43 INT'L STUD. Q. 291-315 (1999); David Richards, Perilous Proxy: Human Rights and the Presence of National Elections, 80 SOC. SCI. Q. 648-65 (1999).
28. See, e.g, Mitchell & McCormick, supra note 2; Conway Henderson, Conditions Affecting the Use of Political Repression, 35 J. CONFLICT RES. 120-42 (1991); Conway Henderson, Population Pressures and Political Repression, 74 SOC. SCI. Q. 322-33 (1993); Poe & Tate, supra note 2; Helen Fein, More Murder in the Middle: Life Integrity Violations and Democracy in the World, 1987, 17 HUM. RTS. Q. 170-91 (1995); Gerald J. Blasi, & David Louis Cingranelli, Do Constitutions and Institutions Help Protect Human Rights?, in HUMAN RIGHTS AND DEVELOPING COUNTRIES (David L. Cingranelli ed., 1997); David Cingranelli & David Richards, Measuring the Level, Pattern, and Sequence of Government Respect for Physical Integrity Rights, 43 INT'L STUD. Q. 407-19 (1999); Steven C. Poe, C. Neal Tate & Linda Keith, Repression of the Human Right to Personal Integrity Revisited: A Global Crossnational Study Covering the Years 1976-1993, 43 INT'L STUD. Q. 291-315 (1999); David Richards, Perilous Proxy: Human Rights and the Presence of National Elections, 80 SOC. SCI. Q. 648-65 (1999).
29. See, e.g, Mitchell & McCormick, supra note 2; Conway Henderson, Conditions Affecting the Use of Political Repression, 35 J. CONFLICT RES. 120-42 (1991); Conway Henderson, Population Pressures and Political Repression, 74 SOC. SCI. Q. 322-33 (1993); Poe & Tate, supra note 2; Helen Fein, More Murder in the Middle: Life Integrity Violations and Democracy in the World, 1987, 17 HUM. RTS. Q. 170-91 (1995); Gerald J. Blasi, & David Louis Cingranelli, Do Constitutions and Institutions Help Protect Human Rights?, in HUMAN RIGHTS AND DEVELOPING COUNTRIES (David L. Cingranelli ed., 1997); David Cingranelli & David Richards, Measuring the Level, Pattern, and Sequence of Government Respect for Physical Integrity Rights, 43 INT'L STUD. Q. 407-19 (1999); Steven C. Poe, C. Neal Tate & Linda Keith, Repression of the Human Right to Personal Integrity Revisited: A Global Crossnational Study Covering the Years 1976-1993, 43 INT'L STUD. Q. 291-315 (1999); David Richards, Perilous Proxy: Human Rights and the Presence of National Elections, 80 SOC. SCI. Q. 648-65 (1999).
30. See, e.g, Mitchell & McCormick, supra note 2; Conway Henderson, Conditions Affecting the Use of Political Repression, 35 J. CONFLICT RES. 120-42 (1991); Conway Henderson, Population Pressures and Political Repression, 74 SOC. SCI. Q. 322-33 (1993); Poe & Tate, supra note 2; Helen Fein, More Murder in the Middle: Life Integrity Violations and Democracy in the World, 1987, 17 HUM. RTS. Q. 170-91 (1995); Gerald J. Blasi, & David Louis Cingranelli, Do Constitutions and Institutions Help Protect Human Rights?, in HUMAN RIGHTS AND DEVELOPING COUNTRIES (David L. Cingranelli ed., 1997); David Cingranelli & David Richards, Measuring the Level, Pattern, and Sequence of Government Respect for Physical Integrity Rights, 43 INT'L STUD. Q. 407-19 (1999); Steven C. Poe, C. Neal Tate & Linda Keith, Repression of the Human Right to Personal Integrity Revisited: A Global Crossnational Study Covering the Years 1976-1993, 43 INT'L STUD. Q. 291-315 (1999); David Richards, Perilous Proxy: Human Rights and the Presence of National Elections, 80 SOC. SCI. Q. 648-65 (1999).
31. See, e.g, Mitchell & McCormick, supra note 2; Conway Henderson, Conditions Affecting the Use of Political Repression, 35 J. CONFLICT RES. 120-42 (1991); Conway Henderson, Population Pressures and Political Repression, 74 SOC. SCI. Q. 322-33 (1993); Poe & Tate, supra note 2; Helen Fein, More Murder in the Middle: Life Integrity Violations and Democracy in the World, 1987, 17 HUM. RTS. Q. 170-91 (1995); Gerald J. Blasi, & David Louis Cingranelli, Do Constitutions and Institutions Help Protect Human Rights?, in HUMAN RIGHTS AND DEVELOPING COUNTRIES (David L. Cingranelli ed., 1997); David Cingranelli & David Richards, Measuring the Level, Pattern, and Sequence of Government Respect for Physical Integrity Rights, 43 INT'L STUD. Q. 407-19 (1999); Steven C. Poe, C. Neal Tate & Linda Keith, Repression of the Human Right to Personal Integrity Revisited: A Global Crossnational Study Covering the Years 1976-1993, 43 INT'L STUD. Q. 291-315 (1999); David Richards, Perilous Proxy: Human Rights and the Presence of National Elections, 80 SOC. SCI. Q. 648-65 (1999).
32. Examples of studies using only the State Department Reports include Cingranelli & Pasquarello, supra note 5;
33. Henderson, supra note 7.
34. Several studies have used data gathered from Amnesty International reports and the State Department reports in separate parallel analysis, to keep in check biases that might be evident in either of the reports (e.g., Stohl, Carleton, and Johnson, supra note 6;
35. Carleton & Stohl 1987, supra note 2;
36. Poe & Tate 1994, supra note 2;
37. Gibney & Stohl 1988, supra note 6;
38. Gibney, Dalton, Vockell 1992, supra note 6;
39. Poe, Tate & Keith, supra note 7.
40. Other studies, focusing on the allocation of US foreign aid have used both of these sources in order to generate variables designed to approximate the information available to decisionmakers (e.g., Poe 1992, supra note 6;
41. Poe & Sirirangsi supra note 6;
42. Poe & Meernik 1995, supra note 6).
43. FORSYTHE, supra note 2, at 114-15.
44. James Meernik, Eric Krueger & Steven C. Poe, Testing Models of State Behavior: United States Foreign Policy During and After the Cold War, 60 J. OF POL., 63-85 (1998).
45. Innes, supra note 2.
46. Id. at 237. This was originally stated in the International Development and Food Assistance Act of 1974, which would later become section 116 of the Foreign Assistance Act, PL 94-116.
47. Bureau of Democracy Human Rights and Labor, U.S. Department of State, available at 〈http://www.state.gov/www/global/human_rights/99hrp_index.html〉.
48. Bureau of Democracy Human Rights and Labor, U.S. Department of State, Preface to the Country Reports on Human Rights Practices for 1997, available at 〈http://www.state.gov/ www/global/human_rights/1997_hrp_report/preface.html〉.
49. Amnesty International, available at 〈http://www.amnesty.org/aboutai/factfigr.htm#1〉 (visited 11 Mar. 1999).
50. Id.
51. Amnesty International, Searching for the Truth: How Amnesty International Does its Research (Mar. 1998), available at 〈http://www.amnesty.org/aboutai/sftt.htm〉.
52. Amnesty International, available at http://www.amnesty.org/aboutai/factfigr.htm.
53. Amnesty International, available at 〈http://www.amnesty.org/aboutai/sftt.htm〉.
54. Id.
55. Personal interview with David Cingranelli, who has conducted personal interviews with several US government officials in conjunction with his writing on human rights and foreign aid (e.g., Cingranelli & Pasquarello, supra note 5) (18 Mar. 1998).
56. Michael Stohl, David Carleton, George Lopez, & Stephen Samuels, State Violations of Human Rights: Issues and Problems of Measurement, 8 HUM. RTS. Q. 592-606 (1986); George Lopez & Michael Stohl, Problems of Concept and Measurement in the Study of Human Rights, in HUMAS RIGHTS AND STATISTICS, supra note 2.
57. Michael Stohl, David Carleton, George Lopez, & Stephen Samuels, State Violations of Human Rights: Issues and Problems of Measurement, 8 HUM. RTS. Q. 592-606 (1986); George Lopez & Michael Stohl, Problems of Concept and Measurement in the Study of Human Rights, in HUMAS RIGHTS AND STATISTICS, supra note 2.
58. See e.g., Stohl, Carleton & Johnson 1984, supra note 6; Stohl & Carleton 1985, supra note 2; Patrick M. Regan, U.S. Economic Aid and Political Repression: An Empirical Evaluation of U.S. Foreign Policy, 48 POL. RES. Q. 613-28 (1995); Mitchell & McCormick 1988, supra note 2; Cingranelli & Richards 1999, supra note 7, Poe, Tate & Keith 1999, supra note 7.
59. See e.g., Stohl, Carleton & Johnson 1984, supra note 6; Stohl & Carleton 1985, supra note 2; Patrick M. Regan, U.S. Economic Aid and Political Repression: An Empirical Evaluation of U.S. Foreign Policy, 48 POL. RES. Q. 613-28 (1995); Mitchell & McCormick 1988, supra note 2; Cingranelli & Richards 1999, supra note 7, Poe, Tate & Keith 1999, supra note 7.
60. See e.g., Stohl, Carleton & Johnson 1984, supra note 6; Stohl & Carleton 1985, supra note 2; Patrick M. Regan, U.S. Economic Aid and Political Repression: An Empirical Evaluation of U.S. Foreign Policy, 48 POL. RES. Q. 613-28 (1995); Mitchell & McCormick 1988, supra note 2; Cingranelli & Richards 1999, supra note 7, Poe, Tate & Keith 1999, supra note 7.
61. See e.g., Stohl, Carleton & Johnson 1984, supra note 6; Stohl & Carleton 1985, supra note 2; Patrick M. Regan, U.S. Economic Aid and Political Repression: An Empirical Evaluation of U.S. Foreign Policy, 48 POL. RES. Q. 613-28 (1995); Mitchell & McCormick 1988, supra note 2; Cingranelli & Richards 1999, supra note 7, Poe, Tate & Keith 1999, supra note 7.
62. See e.g., Stohl, Carleton & Johnson 1984, supra note 6; Stohl & Carleton 1985, supra note 2; Patrick M. Regan, U.S. Economic Aid and Political Repression: An Empirical Evaluation of U.S. Foreign Policy, 48 POL. RES. Q. 613-28 (1995); Mitchell & McCormick 1988, supra note 2; Cingranelli & Richards 1999, supra note 7, Poe, Tate & Keith 1999, supra note 7.
63. See e.g., Stohl, Carleton & Johnson 1984, supra note 6; Stohl & Carleton 1985, supra note 2; Patrick M. Regan, U.S. Economic Aid and Political Repression: An Empirical Evaluation of U.S. Foreign Policy, 48 POL. RES. Q. 613-28 (1995); Mitchell & McCormick 1988, supra note 2; Cingranelli & Richards 1999, supra note 7, Poe, Tate & Keith 1999, supra note 7.
64. See, e.g., Stohl & Carleton 1985 supra note 2; Mark Gibney & Matthew Dalton, The Political Terror Scale, in HUMAN RIGHTS AND DEVELOPING COUTRIES (David L. Cingranelli ed., 1997).
65. See, e.g., Stohl & Carleton 1985 supra note 2; Mark Gibney & Matthew Dalton, The Political Terror Scale, in HUMAN RIGHTS AND DEVELOPING COUTRIES (David L. Cingranelli ed., 1997).
66. Mitchell & McCormick 1988, supra note 2; Regan, supra note 23.
67. Mitchell & McCormick 1988, supra note 2; Regan, supra note 23.
68. Cingranelli & Richards 1999, supra note 7.
69. RAYMOND D. GASTIL, FREEDOM IN THE WORLD: POLITICAL RIGHTS AND CIVIL LIBERTIES, 1980 (1980), quoted in Stohl & Carleton 1985, supra note 2.
70. RAYMOND D. GASTIL, FREEDOM IN THE WORLD: POLITICAL RIGHTS AND CIVIL LIBERTIES, 1980 (1980), quoted in Stohl & Carleton 1985, supra note 2.
71. See Poe & Tate 1994, supra note 2.
72. See Poe, Tate & Keith 1999, supra note 7.
73. Innes, supra note 2; LAWYERS' COMMITTEE 1993, supra note 2;
74. Innes, supra note 2; LAWYERS' COMMITTEE 1993, supra note 2;
75. and the anecdotal information provided by FORSYTHE, supra note 2.
76. We also ran the correlations between the two scales across time. The correlations do show a slight upward trend over time, from .75 for 1976, to a high of .88 in 1989 and 1990, and then trailing off to .83 in both 1994 and 1995.
77. Though another way to proceed would be able to "triangulate" using reports from other countries or organizations, the Political Terror Scales are available for only the two sources, making this impracticable. Further, alternative reports, such as those of HUMAN RIGHTS WATCH, HUMAN RIGHTS WATCH WORLD REPORT 1992 (1991) and the government of Norway (Kathleen Pritchard, Human Rights Reporting in Two Nations: A Comparison of the United States and Norway, in HUMAN RIGHTS AND STATISTICS, supra note 2, at 235-57 that could be coded do not provide data on nearly as many countries or years as the two reports we chose to use. Finally, the expense of coding the PTS for these data currently is prohibitive.
78. Though another way to proceed would be able to "triangulate" using reports from other countries or organizations, the Political Terror Scales are available for only the two sources, making this impracticable. Further, alternative reports, such as those of HUMAN RIGHTS WATCH, HUMAN RIGHTS WATCH WORLD REPORT 1992 (1991) and the government of Norway (Kathleen Pritchard, Human Rights Reporting in Two Nations: A Comparison of the United States and Norway, in HUMAN RIGHTS AND STATISTICS, supra note 2, at 235-57 that could be coded do not provide data on nearly as many countries or years as the two reports we chose to use. Finally, the expense of coding the PTS for these data currently is prohibitive.
79. The Sources of Soviet Conduct, 25 FOREIGN AFFAIRS 566-82 (1947).
80. Jeane Kirkpatrick, Dictatorship and Double Standards, 68 Commentary 34-45 (1979).
81. We find anecdotal evidence for these lines of arguments in critiques of the Country Reports. For example, in the case of Cuba, the Lawyers Committee, supra note 2, concludes that prior to 1989, at least, those reports suffered from "exaggeration and . . . undocumented conclusions," id. at 78. Similarly, in the case of El Salvador, a military regime, that critique argues that the reports of the State Department were "extremely politicized" in the 1980s, Lawyers Committee 1993, id. at 102.
82. We find anecdotal evidence for these lines of arguments in critiques of the Country Reports. For example, in the case of Cuba, the Lawyers Committee, supra note 2, concludes that prior to 1989, at least, those reports suffered from "exaggeration and . . . undocumented conclusions," id. at 78. Similarly, in the case of El Salvador, a military regime, that critique argues that the reports of the State Department were "extremely politicized" in the 1980s, Lawyers Committee 1993, id. at 102.
83. Poe & Tate, supra note 2; Poe, Tate & Keith, supra note 7.
84. Poe & Tate, supra note 2; Poe, Tate & Keith, supra note 7.
85. Hamed Madani, Socioeconomic Development and Military Policy Consequences of Third World Military and Civilian Regimes, 1965-1985. Ph.D. dissertation, University of North Texas 61 (1992) (on file with author); R.D. McKinlay & A.S. Cohan, A Comparative Analysis of the Political and Economic Performance of Military and Civilian Regimes, 7 COMPARATIVE POLITICS 1-30 (1975); Poe & Tate 1994, supra note 2, at 858.
86. Hamed Madani, Socioeconomic Development and Military Policy Consequences of Third World Military and Civilian Regimes, 1965-1985. Ph.D. dissertation, University of North Texas 61 (1992) (on file with author); R.D. McKinlay & A.S. Cohan, A Comparative Analysis of the Political and Economic Performance of Military and Civilian Regimes, 7 COMPARATIVE POLITICS 1-30 (1975); Poe & Tate 1994, supra note 2, at 858.
87. Hamed Madani, Socioeconomic Development and Military Policy Consequences of Third World Military and Civilian Regimes, 1965-1985. Ph.D. dissertation, University of North Texas 61 (1992) (on file with author); R.D. McKinlay & A.S. Cohan, A Comparative Analysis of the Political and Economic Performance of Military and Civilian Regimes, 7 COMPARATIVE POLITICS 1-30 (1975); Poe & Tate 1994, supra note 2, at 858.
88. Some data used to test this were taken from Poe & Tate 1994, supra note 2. Sources used to update these data were ARTHUR S. BANKS, ALAN J. DAY, & THOMAS C. MULLER, POLITICAL HANDBOOK OF THE WORLD (1997); EUROPA PUBLICATIONS, THE EUROPA WORLD YEAR BOOK (1997).
89. Some data used to test this were taken from Poe & Tate 1994, supra note 2. Sources used to update these data were ARTHUR S. BANKS, ALAN J. DAY, & THOMAS C. MULLER, POLITICAL HANDBOOK OF THE WORLD (1997); EUROPA PUBLICATIONS, THE EUROPA WORLD YEAR BOOK (1997).
90. Some data used to test this were taken from Poe & Tate 1994, supra note 2. Sources used to update these data were ARTHUR S. BANKS, ALAN J. DAY, & THOMAS C. MULLER, POLITICAL HANDBOOK OF THE WORLD (1997); EUROPA PUBLICATIONS, THE EUROPA WORLD YEAR BOOK (1997).
91. See, e.g., Poe & Tate 1994, supra note 2.
92. Agency International Development, US Overseas Grants and Loans and Aid from International Organizations 1977-1997.
93. See e.g., David A. Baldwin, Neoliberalism, Neorealism and World Politics, in NEOREALISM AND NEOLIBERALISM: THE CONTEMPORARY DEBATE 7 (David A. Baldwin ed., 1993).
94. Innes, supra note 2; LAWYERS' COMMITTEE 1993, supra note 30.
95. Innes, supra note 2; LAWYERS' COMMITTEE 1993, supra note 30.
96. CHARLES W. OSTROM, TIME SERIES ANALYSIS: REGRESSION TECHNIQUES: SAGE UNIVERSITY PAPERS ON QUANTITATIVE APPLICATIONS IN THE SOCIAL SCIENCES (2d ed. 1990); James A. Stimson, Regression in Space and Time: A Statistical Essay, 29, AM. J. POL. SCI. 914-47 (1985).
97. CHARLES W. OSTROM, TIME SERIES ANALYSIS: REGRESSION TECHNIQUES: SAGE UNIVERSITY PAPERS ON QUANTITATIVE APPLICATIONS IN THE SOCIAL SCIENCES (2d ed. 1990); James A. Stimson, Regression in Space and Time: A Statistical Essay, 29, AM. J. POL. SCI. 914-47 (1985).
98. To test whether heteroskedasticity is a hindrance, we conducted both with standard OLS regression and with OLS regression with Panel Robust Errors, Nathaniel Beck & Jonathan N. Katz, What to Do (and Not to Do) with Time-Series - Cross-Section Data in Comparative Politics, 89 AM. POL. SCI. REV. 634-47 (1995).
99. From our results we concluded that this difficulty does not affect our conclusions, because the results we gained from the more sophisticated panel corrected techniques are nearly identical to those obtained with standard OLS regression. Consistent with the argument of Halbert White, Heteroskedasticity Consistent Covariane Marix Estimator and a Direct Test for Heteroskedasticity, 48 ECONOMETRICA 817-38 (1980), who originated the robust standard errors techniques, we can conclude that heteroskedasticity is not a problem since the results of this technique do not differ much from those obtained with OLS regression. Further, Dubin-Watson statistics and results yielded by the Price-Winsten technique indicated that autocorrelation was not a serious difficulty once the series of yearly dummy variable was entered. The original, untransformed Durbin-Watson statistics was 1.78 for the model without the dummies, putting it in a questionable range, but it was 2.006 once the dummies were added, indicating no evidence of first order autocorrelation at the .05 confidence level. Further, there were no differences in the statistical significance of variables when we ran a Prais-Winsten regression version of Model 2, which included the yearly dummies. The only difference in the Prais-Winsten version of Model 1 was that the military control variable narrowly missed statistical significance at the .05 level (t = 1.56, p < .06). We also ran a Generalized Least Squares (GLS) model, assuming an AR(1) process, and found the results to be similar, the only difference, again, being that the military control variable did not achieve statistical significance in Model 1. The AR(1) coefficient without the yearly dummies was not the great, at .28, but with them included that coefficient was quite tolerable, at .15.
100. One of the assumptions of O.L.S. regression is that the independent variables are no related to one another. Results of a Klein test, whereby the researcher checks whe he there are linear relationships between the independent variables, indicate that multicollinearity should not pose much of a problem to our interpretation of these results The tolerance statistics yielded by SPSSX are analogous to the results of the Klein test with the R-squares resulting from regressing a particular independent variable on all others being subtracted from one, so that high tolerance statistics represent that multicollinearity is not a problem. The smallest tolerance statistic of any variable in the model was .54, for the dummy variable indicating 1990. The variables that we included to test hypotheses concerning State Department biases each had tolerance statistics of above .67. Since none of these tolerance statistics approached zero, we can conclude that multicollinearity is not a substantial hindrance here.
101. We also ran a model where only the yearly dummy variables were included, and the substantive variables (e.g., leftist regime, allies) were excluded. The findings and conclusions that we would reach from these findings are the same as those reached in our multivariate analyses, discussed in the text.
102. See, e.g., LAWYERS' COMMITTEE 1984, 1987, 1991, 1993, 1995, 1996; Innes, supra note 2.
103. LAWYERS' COMMITTEE 1995, quoted in LAWYERS' COMMITTEE 1996, at v.
104. BENJAMIN A. MOST & HARVEY STARR, INQUIRY, LOGIC AND INTERNATIONAL POLITICS (1989).
105. We investigated the possibility that the ideology of Amnesty International may have varied over time. We could find no evidence of such variation in our examination of the reports. An e-mail correspondence with an Amnesty International representative at the US headquarters further allayed our concerns, stating that "while the organization has grown larger and the reports have increased in length over the past 20 years, Amnesty s mandate has remained consistent for 35 years." (Betsy Ross, of Amnesty International USA, e-mail correspondence to Tanya C. Vazquez, Tues., 17 Feb. 1998 22:53:28 and Wed., 18 Feb. 1998 15:19:00). By way of contrast, a reading of presidential speeches, and the introductions of various State Department Reports clearly show us that ideological orientations of US administrations have varied. Thus we believe that Amnesty International can probably be used as a baseline from which to judge differences in the State Department Reports, by presidential administration.
106. For another study that follows this practice, see Clair Apodaca & Michael Stohl, United States Human Rights Policy and Foreign Assistance, 43 INT'L STUD. Q. 185-98 (1999).
107. To gauge changes in the effect of the leftist variable throughout time, the baseline model with yearly dummy variables was used, and an interaction term of the left variable times a year counter variable was entered. The coefficient of the interaction between left and the year counter was .018, with a t-score of 2.22 (p < .05), while the coefficient of the left variable was -.51 (t-score = -5.49). Thus the effect of the leftist variable dissipated as the years went on. As suggested in the text, we also experimented with other interactive terms to check the results that were presented. We found that if an interactive term of left with the first Reagan administration is added, the coefficient of the interaction was -.30, with a t-score of -3.39 (p < .01). However if both the left x year counter interaction, and the Reagan 1 x left interaction were entered, the year counter interaction, though positive, was no longer statistically significant. We attribute this to the high multicollinearity between the interaction terms and the left variable. Unfortunately many of our efforts to examine interaction effects (i.e., trade with time and the post-Cold War period, ally with time) were plagued by multicollinearity and therefore we judged them not sufficiently interesting to warrant presentation here.
108. Although some of the Durbin-Watson d statistics fell between the lower and upper limit, the significance of the results yielded by applying the Prais-Winsten technique, which controls the effects of autocorrelation, are nearly identical to the results presented in the Table 2 for each administration. We also conducted parallel analyses with the applicable annual dummy variables included and found no substantial differences in results. We do not present those results here because of our interest in assessing the degree to which the alleged State Department biases have dissipated across time. The addition of dummy variables confuses our efforts to assess the explanatory power of alleged State Department biases by comparing R-squares.