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4
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0001651867
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T. M. Williams, W. A. Friedl, J. E. Haun, N. K. Chun, Symp. Zool. Soc. London 66, 383 (1993).
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Symp. Zool. Soc. London
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Williams, T.M.1
Friedl, W.A.2
Haun, J.E.3
Chun, N.K.4
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5
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0026610765
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T. M. Williams et al., Nature 355, 821 (1992).
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Nature
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Williams, T.M.1
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8
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0342811842
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thesis, University of California at Santa Cruz
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P. M. Webb, thesis, University of California at Santa Cruz (1999).
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(1999)
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Webb, P.M.1
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14
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0026751264
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_, Experientia 48, 570 (1992).
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(1992)
Experientia
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15
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0030871470
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Y. Hadrich et al., Nature 388, 64 (1997).
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(1997)
Nature
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Hadrich, Y.1
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17
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0342811841
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note
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The experimental setup and instrumentation for Weddell seals are described in (35). Similar instrumentation was deployed on an elephant seal captured at Ano Nuevo Point, CA, and released offshore in Monterey Bay. After release, the seals returned to instrumentation sites where the data and videos were retrieved.
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18
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0342811840
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note
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The experimental setup and instrumentation for the dolphin studies are described in (25). The instrument pack was neutrally buoyant and weighed 8 kg in air. Twenty experimental dives from 50 to 110 m were conducted in open water.
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19
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0342376937
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Blue whale studies used CRITTERCAM instrumentation (36) attached with a low-profile silicon suction cup (22 cm diameter). The cup released after a predetermined interval through the dissolution of a corrosible magnesium plug. The blue whale (length = 22 to 25 m) had been individually identified photographically during 1990-98 along the California coast. It was considered an adult of at least 10 years in age.
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20
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0342376936
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note
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Gliding was defined as periods exceeding 3 to 12 s in which no locomotor movements occurred and flippers or flukes were aligned along the body axis. Deployments involving forward-facing cameras on Weddell seals also used a tail-mounted ± 2-g, single-axis accelerometer (Ultramarine Instruments, Galveston, TX) to assess stroking activity. Head movements of the blue whale were considered indicative of stroke activity because of counter movements of the head and tail in swimming cetaceans (25, 37). Videotapes were reviewed at normal speed, except for the blue whale; cycling rate was increased sevenfold to facilitate analyses of the exceptionally slow movements of the whale.
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25
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0033212742
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R. C. Skrovan, T. M. Williams, P. S. Berry, P. W. Moore, R. W. Davis, J. Exp. Biol. 202, 2749 (1999).
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J. Exp. Biol.
, vol.202
, pp. 2749
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Skrovan, R.C.1
Williams, T.M.2
Berry, P.S.3
Moore, P.W.4
Davis, R.W.5
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26
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0032143894
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P. M. Webb, D. E. Crocker, S. B. Blackwell, D. P. Costa, B. J. Le Boeuf, J. Exp. Biol. 201, 2349 (1998).
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(1998)
J. Exp. Biol.
, vol.201
, pp. 2349
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Webb, P.M.1
Crocker, D.E.2
Blackwell, S.B.3
Costa, D.P.4
Le Boeuf, B.J.5
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30
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0343246488
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note
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Because seals exhale before diving, the relative contribution of lung compression to changes in buoyancy during diving is unknown for pinnipeds. The large, incompressible blubber layer of pinnipeds is less dense than seawater and may represent a significant component of the upward buoyant force (26).
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34
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0343682140
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Stroking dives, as determined from accelerometer data, were characterized by the absence of prolonged (> 10 s) gliding periods and stroke-and-glide or continuous flipper movements. Gliding dives incorporated prolonged periods of gliding that ranged from 10.7 to 52.2% (mean = 36.0 ± 4.8%, n = 9; 58 to 803 s) of total dive duration.
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35
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0033548224
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R. W. Davis et al., Science 283, 993 (1999).
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(1999)
Science
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, pp. 993
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Davis, R.W.1
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38
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0343682138
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note
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Supported by Office of Naval Research (ONR) grant N00014-95-1-1023 and NSF Polar Programs grant OPP-9618384 to T.M.W., and ONR grant N00014-99-1-0192 to D.A.C. Blue whale research was supported through National Geographic Television. We thank G. Marshall for development of CRITTERCAM used in the blue whale study and W. Hagey for instrumentation used in the seal and dolphin studies. We also thank E. Roscow and T. Tinker for assistance with the illustrations. Animal studies were approved by individual institutional Animal Use Committees using NIH guidelines.
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