From the sarcomere to the nucleus: Role of genetics and signaling in structural heart disease

Annual Review of Genomics and Human Genetics

Volumn 1, Issue 2000, 2000, Pages 179-223

  Nicol, R L ^a   Frey, N ^a   Olson, E N ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF TEXAS SOUTHWESTERN MEDICAL CENTER   (United States)

Author keywords

Cardiac hypertrophy; Sarcomere; Signal transduction; Structural cardiomyopathy; Transcription

Indexed keywords

CELL SURFACE RECEPTOR; GUANINE NUCLEOTIDE BINDING PROTEIN; MITOGEN ACTIVATED PROTEIN KINASE; PROTEIN KINASE C;

ANIMAL; APOPTOSIS; CALCIUM SIGNALING; CARDIOMYOPATHY; CELL NUCLEUS; CELL SURVIVAL; CONGESTIVE CARDIOMYOPATHY; FAMILIAL HYPERTROPHIC CARDIOMYOPATHY; GENE EXPRESSION; GENETICS; HUMAN; MOUSE; PATHOPHYSIOLOGY; PHYSIOLOGY; REVIEW; SARCOMERE; SIGNAL TRANSDUCTION;

ANIMALS; APOPTOSIS; CALCIUM SIGNALING; CARDIOMYOPATHIES; CARDIOMYOPATHY, DILATED; CARDIOMYOPATHY, HYPERTROPHIC, FAMILIAL; CELL NUCLEUS; CELL SURVIVAL; GENE EXPRESSION; GTP-BINDING PROTEINS; HUMANS; MICE; MITOGEN-ACTIVATED PROTEIN KINASES; PROTEIN KINASE C; RECEPTORS, CELL SURFACE; SARCOMERES; SIGNAL TRANSDUCTION;

EID: 0034575441     PISSN: 15278204     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book Series    
DOI: 10.1146/annurev.genom.1.1.179     Document Type: Article

References (278)

1. Abbott KL, Friday BB, Thaloor D, Murphy TJ, Pavlath GK. 1998. Activation and cellular localization of the cyclosporine A-sensitive transcription factor NF-AT in skeletal muscle cells. Mol. Biol. Cell 9:2905-16
2. Adams JW, Sakata Y, Davis MG, Sah VP, Wang Y, et al. 1998. Enhanced Galphaq signaling: a common pathway mediates cardiac hypertrophy and apoptotic heart failure. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 95:10140-45
3. Ahmad F, Li DX, Karibe A, Gonzalez O, Tapscott T, et al. 1998. Localization of a gene responsible for arrhythmogenic right ventricular dy splasia to chromosome 3p23. Circulation 98:2791-95
4. Aikawa R, Komuro I, Yamazaki T, Zou Y, Kudoh S, et al. 1999. Rho family small G proteins play critical roles in mechanical stress-induced hypertrophic responses in cardiac myocytes. Circ. Res. 84:458-66
5. Akhter SA, Luttrell LM, Rockman HA, Iaccarino G, Lefkowitz RJ, Koch WJ. 1998. Targeting the receptor-Gq interface to inhibit in vivo pressure overload myocardial hypertrophy. Science 280:574-77
6. Aramburu J, Garcia-Cozar F, Raghavan A, Okamura H, Rao A, Hogan PG. 1998. Selective inhibition of NFAT activation by a peptide spanning the calcineurin targeting site of NFAT. Mol. Cell 1:627-37
7. Aramburu J, Yaffe MB, Lopez-Rodriguez C, Cantley LC, Hogan PG, Rao A. 1999. Affinity-driven peptide selection of an NFAT inhibitor more selective than cyclosporin A. Science 285:2129-33
8. Arber S, Hunter, JJ, Ross J Jr, Hongo M, Sansig G, et al. 1997. MLP-deficient mice exhibit a disruption of cardiac cytoarchitectural organization, dilated cardiomyopathy, and heart failure. Cell 88:393-403
9. Attramadal H, Arriza JL, Aoki C, Dawson TM, Codina J, et al. 1992. Beta-arrestin2, a novel member of the arrestin/beta-arrestin gene family. J. Biol. Chem. 267: 17882-90
10. Badorff C, Lee GH, Lamphear BJ, Martone ME, Campbell KP, et al. 1999. Enteroviral protease 2A cleaves dystrophin: evidence of cytoskeletal disruption in an acquired cardiomyopathy. Nat. Med. 5:320-26
11. Bailey BA, Dipla K, Li S, Houser SR. 1997. Cellular basis of contractile derangements of hypertrophied feline ventricular myocytes. J. Mol. Cell. Cardiol. 29:1823-35
12. Balke CW, Shorofsky SR. 1998. Alterations in calcium handling in cardiac hypertrophy and heart failure. Cardiovasc. Res. 37:290-99
13. Belkin AM, Ornatsky OI, Glukhova MA, Koteliansky VE. 1988. Immunolocalization of meta-vinculin in human smooth and cardiac muscles. J. Cell Biol. 107:545-53
14. Benovic JL, DeBlasi A, Stone WC, Caron MG, Lefkowitz RJ. 1989. Beta-adrenergic receptor kinase: primary structure delineates a multigene family. Science 246:235-40
15. Benovic JL, Strasser RH, Caron MG, Lefkowitz RJ. 1986. Beta-adrenergic receptor kinase: identification of a novel protein kinase that phosphorylates the agonist-occupied form of the receptor. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 83:2797-801
16. Bione S, D'Adamo P, Maestrini E, Gedeon AK, Bolhuis PA, Toniolo D. 1996. A novel X-linked gene, G4.5, is responsible for Barth syndrome. Nat. Genet. 12:385-89
17. Bione S, Maestrini E, Rivella S, Mancini M, Regis et al. 1994. Identification of a novel X-linked gene responsible for Emery-Dreifuss muscular dystrophy. Nat. Genet. 8:323-27
18. Bogoyevitch MA, Andersson MB, Gillespie-Brown J, Clerk A, Glennon PE, et al. 1996. Adrenergic receptor stimulation of the mitogen-activated protein kinase cascade and cardiac hypertrophy. Biochem. J. 314:115-21
19. Bogoyevitch MA, Glennon PE, Andersson MB, Clerk A, Lazou A, et al. 1994. Endothelin-1 and fibroblast growth factors stimulate the mitogen-activated protein kinase signaling cascade in cardiac myocytes. The potential role of the cascade in the integration of two signaling pathways leading to myocyte hypertrophy. J. Biol. Chem. 269:1110-19
20. Bogoyevitch MA, Glennon PE, Sugden PH. 1993. Endothelin-1, phorbol esters and phenylephrine stimulate MAP kinase activities in ventricular cardiomyocytes. FEBS Lett. 317:271-75
21. Bogoyevitch MA, Marshall CJ, Sugden PH. 1995. Hypertrophic agonists stimulate the activities of the protein kinases c-Raf and A-Raf in cultured ventricular myocytes. J. Biol. Chem. 270:26303-10
22. Bolhuis PA, Hensels GW, Hulsebos TJ, Baas F, Barth PG. 1991. Mapping of the locus for X-linked cardioskeletal myopathy with neutropenia and abnormal mitochondria (Barth syndrome) to Xq28. Am. J. Hum. Genet. 48:481-85
23. Bonne G, Carrier L, Bercovici J, Cruaud C, Richard P, et al. 1995. Cardiac myosin binding protein-C gene splice acceptor site mutation is associated with familial hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. Nat. Genet. 11:438-40
24. Bonne G, Di Barletta MR, Varnous S, Becane HM, Hammouda EH, et al. 1999. Mutations in the gene encoding lamin A/C cause autosomal dominant Emery-Dreifuss muscular dystrophy. Nat. Genet. 21:285-88
25. Bowles KR, Gajarski R, PorterP, Goytia V, Bachinski L, et al. 1996. Gene mapping of familial autosomal dominant dilated cardiomyopathy to chromosome 10q21-23. J. Clin. Invest. 98:1355-60
26. 2+-sensitive isoforms in the failing human heart. Circulation 99:384-91
27. Bowman JC, Steinberg SF, JiangT, Geenen DL, Fishman GI, Buttrick PM. 1997. Expression of protein kinase C beta in the heart causes hypertrophy in adult mice and sudden death in neonates. J. Clin. Invest. 100:2189-95
28. Brady RO, Gal AE, Bradley RM, Martensson E, Warshaw AL, Laster L. 1967. Enzymatic defect in Fabry's disease. Ceramidetrihexosidase deficiency. N. Engl. J. Med. 276:1163-67
29. Braun AP, Schulman H. 1995. The multifunctional calcium/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase: from form to function. Annu. Rev. Physiol. 57:417-45
30. Bristow MR, Ginsburg R, Minobe W, Cubicciotti RS, Sageman WS, et al. 1982. Decreased catecholamine sensitivity and beta-adrenergic-receptor density in failing human hearts. N. Engl. J. Med. 307:205-11
31. Burch M, Sharland M, Shinebourne E, Smith G, Patton M, McKenna W. 1993. Cardiologic abnormalities in Noonan syndrome: phenotypic diagnosis and echocardiographic assessment of 118 patients. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 22:1189-92
32. 2+ flux. Cell 83:463-72
33. Candy GP, Skudicky D, Mueller UK, Woodiwiss AJ, Sliwa K, et al. 1999. Association of left ventricular systolic performance and cavity size with angiotensin-converting enzyme genotype in idiopathic dilated cardiomyopathy. Am. J. Cardiol. 83:740-44
34. Charron P, Dubourg O, Desnos M, Isnard R, Hagege A, et al. 1998. Genotype-phenotype correlations in familial hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. A comparison between mutations in the cardiac protein-C and the beta-myosin heavy chain genes. Eur. Heart J. 19:139-45
35. Chien KR. 1999. Stress pathways and heart failure. Cell 98:555-58
36. Chiloeches A, Paterson HF, Marais R, Clerk A, Marshall CJ, Sugden PH. 1999. Regulation of Ras.GTP loading and Ras-Raf association in neonatal rat ventricular myocytes by G protein-coupled receptor agonists and phorbol ester. Activation of the extracellular signal-regulated kinase cascade by phorbol ester is mediated by Ras. J. Biol. Chem. 274: 19762-70
37. Choi DJ, Koch WJ, Hunter JJ, Rockman HA. 1997. Mechanism of beta-adrenergic receptor desensitization in cardiac hypertrophy is increased beta-adrenergic receptor kinase. J. Biol. Chem. 272:17223-29
38. 2-terminal kinases. J. Clin. Invest. 104:391-98
39. Choukroun G, Hajjar R, Kyriakis JM, Bonventre JV, Rosenzweig A, Force T. 1998. Role of the stress-activated protein kinases in endothelin-induced cardiomyocyte hypertrophy. J. Clin. Invest. 102:1311-20
40. Clerk A, Gillespie-Brown J, Fuller SJ, Sugden PH. 1996. Stimulation of phosphatidylinositol hydrolysis, protein kinase C translocation, and mitogen-activated protein kinase activity by bradykinin in rat ventricular myocytes: dissociation from the hypertrophic response. Biochem. J. 317:109-18
41. Clerk A, Michael A, Sugden PH. 1998. Stimulation of the p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase pathway in neonatal rat ventricular myocytes by the G protein-coupled receptor agonists, endothelin-1 and phenylephrine: a role in cardiac myocyte hypertrophy? J. Cell Biol. 142:523-35
42. Coral-Vazquez R, Cohn RD, Moore SA, Hill JA, Weiss RM, et al. 1999. Disruption of the sarcoglycan-sarcospan complex in vascular smooth muscle: a novel mechanism for cardiomyopathy and muscular dystrophy. Cell 98:465-74
43. 2+, calcineurin, and NF-AT. Cell 96: 611-14
44. D'Angelo DD, Sakata Y, Lorenz JN, Boivin GP, Walsh RA, et al. 1997. Transgenic Galphaq overexpression induces cardiac contractile failure in mice. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 94:8121-26
45. Datta SR, Dudek H, Tao X, Masters S, Fu H, et al. 1997. Akt phosphorylation of BAD couples survival signals to the cell-intrinsic death machinery. Cell 91:231-41
46. De Cesare D, Fimia GM, Sassone-Corsi P. 1999. Signaling routes to CREM and CREB: plasticity in transcriptional activation. Trends Biochem. Sci. 24:281-85
47. de la Pompa JL, Timmerman LA, Takimoto H, Yoshida H, Elia AJ, et al. 1998. Role of the NF-ATc transcription factor in morphogenesis of cardiac valves and septum. Nature 392:182-86
48. Ding B, Price RL, Borg TK, Weinberg EO, Halloran PF, Lorell BH. 1999. Pressure overload induces severe hypertrophy in mice treated with cyclosporine, an inhibitor of calcineurin. Circ. Res. 84:729-34
49. Dorn GW II, Souroujon MC, Liron T, Chen CH, Gray MO, et al. 1999. Sustained in vivo cardiac protection by a rationally designed peptide that causes epsilon protein kinase C translocation. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 96:12798-803
50. Dorn GW II, Tepe NM, Lorenz JN, Koch WJ, Liggett SB. 1999. Low-and high-level transgenic expression of beta2-adrenergic receptors differentially affect cardiac hypertrophy and function in Galphaq-overexpressing mice. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 96:6400-5
51. Doughty RN, Sharpe N. 1997. Beta-adrenergic blocking agents in the treatment of congestive heart failure: mechanisms and clinical results. Anna. Rev. Med. 48:103-14
52. Dunnmon PM, Iwaki K, Henderson SA, Sen A, Chien KR. 1990. Phorbol esters induce immediate-early genes and activate cardiac gene transcription in neonatal rat myocardial cells. J. Mol. Cell. Cardiol. 22:901-10
53. Durand JB, Bachinski LL, Bieling LC, Czernuszewicz GZ, Abchee AB, et al. 1995. Localization of a gene responsible for familial dilated cardiomyopathy to chromosome lq32. Circulation 92:3387-89
54. Dzimiri N. 1999. Regulation of beta-adrenoceptor signaling in cardiac function and disease. Pharmacol. Rev. 51:465-501
55. 2+/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase isoforms. Biochim. Biophys. Acta 1221:89-101
56. Fanger GR, Gerwins P, Widmann C, Jarpe MB, Johnson GL. 1997. MEKKs, GCKs, MLKs, PAKs, TAKs, and tpls: upstream regulators of the c-Jun amino-terminal kinases? Curr. Opin. Gener. Dev. 7:67-74
57. Fatkin D, MacRae C, Sasaki T, Wolff MR, Porcu M, et al. 1999. Missense mutations in the rod domain of the lamin A/C gene as causes of dilated cardiomyopathy and conduction-system disease. N. Engl. J. Med. 341:1715-24
58. Fentzke RC, Korcarz CE, Lang RM, Lin H, Leiden JM. 1998. Dilated cardiomyopathy in transgenic mice expressing a dominant-negative CREB transcription factor in the heart. J. Clin. Invest. 101:2415-26
59. Ferrari R. 1999. The role of TNF in cardiovascular disease. Pharmacol. Res. 40:97-105
60. Flavigny J, Richard P, Isnard R, Carrier L, Charron P, et al. 1998. Identification of two novel mutations in the ventricular regulatory myosin light chain gene (MYL2) associated with familial and classical forms of hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. J. Mol. Med. 76:208-14
61. Forissier JF, Carrier L, Farza H, Bonne G, Bercovici J, et al. 1996. Codon 102 of the cardiac troponin T gene is a putative hot spot for mutations in familial hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. Circulation 94:3069-73
62. Franke TF, Kaplan DR, Cantley LC. 1997. PI3K: downstream AKTion blocks apoptosis. Cell 88:435-37
63. Franz WM, Mueller M, Herrmann R, Frey N, Cohn RD, et al. 1998. X-linked dilated cardiomyopathy: Nonsense mutation of dystrophin exon 29 leads to an in-frame deletion of the rod domain disrupting its interaction with the myocardial sarcoglycan complex. Circulation 98:1596 (Abstr.)
64. Freedman NJ, Lefkowitz RJ. 1996. Desensitization of G protein-coupled receptors. Recent Prog. Horm. Res. 51:319-5153
65. Frey N, Degenhardt M, Lorenzen HP, Katus HA, Franz WM. 1998. Transgenic rats overexpressing a human cardiac Troponin T deletion exhibit diastolic dysfunction in the working heart model. Circulation 98:1626 (Abstr.)
66. Frohlich ED, Apstein C, Chobanian AV, Devereux RB, Dustan HP, et al. 1992. The heart in hypertension. N. Engl. J. Med. 327:998-1008. Erratum. 1992. N. Engl. J. Med. 327(24): 1768
67. Fuster V, Gersh BJ, Giuliani ER, Tajik AJ, Brandenburg RO, Frye RL. 1981. The natural history of idiopathic dilated cardiomyopathy. Am. J. Cardiol. 47:525-31
68. Geisterfer-Lowrance AA, Christe M, Conner DA, Ingwall JS, Schoen FJ, et al. 1996. A mouse model of familial hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. Science 272:731-34
69. Geisterfer-Lowrance AA, Kass S, Tanigawa G, Vosberg HP, McKenna W, et al. 1990. A molecular basis for familial hypertrophic cardiomyopathy: a beta cardiac myosin heavy chain gene missense mutation. Cell 62:999-1006
70. Georgakopoulos D, Christe ME, Giewat M, Seidman CM, Seidman JG, Kass DA. 1999. The pathogenesis of familial hypertrophic cardiomyopathy: early and evolving effects from an alpha-cardiac myosin heavy chain missense mutation. Nat. Med. 5:327-30
71. Gillespie-Brown J, Fuller SJ, Bogoyevitch MA, Cowley S, Sugden PH. 1995. The mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase MEK1 stimulates a pattern of gene expression typical of the hypertrophic phenotype in rat ventricular cardiomyocytes. J. Biol. Chem. 270:28092-96
72. Glennon PE, Kaddoura S, Sale EM, Sale GJ, Fuller SJ, Sugden PH. 1996. Depletion of mitogen-activated protein kinase using an antisense oligodeoxynucleotide approach downregulates the phenylephrine-induced hypertrophic response in rat cardiac myocytes. Circ. Res. 78:954-61
73. Gomez AM, Valdivia HH, Cheng H, Lederer MR, Santana LF, et al. 1997. Defective excitation-contraction coupling in experimental cardiac hypertrophy and heart failure. Science 276:800-6
74. Goto Y, Nonaka I, Horai S. 1991. A new mtDNA mutation associated with mitochondrial myopathy, encephalopathy, lactic acidosis and stroke-like episodes (MELAS). Biochim. Biophys. Acta 1097:238-40
75. Griffith MJ, Carey CM, Byrne JC, Coltart DJ, Jenkins BS, Webb-Peploe MM. 1991. Echocardiographic left ventricular wall thickness: a poor predictor of the severity of aortic valve stenosis. Clin. Cardiol. 14:227-31
76. Grunig E, Tasman JA, Kucherer H, Franz W, Kubler W, Katus HA. 1998. Frequency and phenotypes of familial dilated cardiomyopathy. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 31:186-94
77. 2+ sensitivity in intact and skinned muscles from normal and diseased human myocardium. Circ. Res. 67:744-52
78. Gwathmey JK, Warren SE, Briggs GM, Copelas L, Feldman MD, et al. 1991. Diastolic dysfunction in hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. Effect on active force generation during systole. J. Clin. Invest. 87:1023-31
79. Harding AE. 1981. Friedreich's ataxia: a clinical and genetic study of 90 families with an analysis of early diagnostic criteria and intrafamilial clustering of clinical features. Brain 104:589-620
80. 2+-exchanger protein levels and diastolic function of failing human myocardium. Circulation 99:641-48
81. Haunstetter A, Izumo S. 1998. Apoptosis: basic mechanisms and implications for cardiovascular disease. Circ. Res. 82:1111-29
82. Henrich CJ, Simpson PC. 1988. Differential acute and chronic response of protein kinase C in cultured neonatal rat heart myocytes to alpha 1-adrenergic and phorbol ester stimulation. J. Mol. Cell. Cardiol. 20:1081-85
83. Hines WA, Thorburn J, Thorburn A. 1999. A low-affinity serum response element allows other transcription factors to activate inducible gene expression in cardiac myocytes. Mol. Cell Biol. 19:1841-52
84. Hirota H, Chen J, Betz UA, Rajewsky K, Gu Y, et al. 1999. Loss of a gp130 cardiac muscle cell survival pathway is a critical event in the onset of heart failure during biomechanical stress. Cell 97:189-98
85. Hirota H, Yoshida K, Kishimoto T, Taga T. 1995. Continuous activation of gp130, a signal-transducing receptor component for interleukin 6-related cytokines, causes myocardial hypertrophy in mice. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 92:4862-66
86. 2+/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase in failing and nonfailing human myocardium. Circ. Res. 84:713-21
87. Hoffman EP, Brown RH Jr, Kunkel LM. 1987. Dystrophin: the protein product of the Duchenne muscular dystrophy locus. Cell 51:919-28
88. Hoshijima M, Sah VP, Wang Y, Chien KR, Brown JH. 1998. The low molecular weight GTPase Rho regulates myofibril formation and organization in neonatal rat ventricular myocytes. Involvement of Rho kinase. J. Biol. Chem. 273:7725-30
89. Houser SR, Lakatta EG. 1999. Function of the cardiac myocyte in the conundrum of end-stage, dilated human heart failure. Circulation 99:600-4
90. Hunter JJ, Tanaka N, Rockman HA, Ross J Jr, Chien KR. 1995. Ventricular expression of a MLC-2v-ras fusion gene induces cardiac hypertrophy and selective diastolic dysfunction in transgenic mice. J. Biol. Chem. 270:23173-78
91. Ip YT, Davis RJ. 1998. Signal transduction by the c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) -from inflammation to development. Curr. Opin. Cell Biol. 10:205-19
92. Irons CE, Sei CA, Hidaka H, Glembotski CC. 1992. Protein kinase C and calmodulin kinase are required for endothelin-stimulated atrial natriuretic factor secretion from primary atrial myocytes. J. Biol. Chem. 267:5211-16
93. Ishanov A, Okamoto H, Yoneya K, Watanabe M, Nakagawa I, et al. 1997. Angiotensinogen gene polymorphism in Japanese patients with hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. Am. Heart J. 133:184-89
94. Ishikawa M, Saito Y, Miyamoto Y, Harada M, Kuwahara K, et al. 1999. A heart-specific increase in cardiotrophin-1 gene expression precedes the establishment of ventricular hypertrophy in genetically hypertensive rats. J. Hypertens. 17:807-16
95. Ito H, Hirata Y, Adachi S, Tanaka M, Tsujino M, et al. 1993. Endothelin-1 is an autocrine/paracrine factor in the mechanism of angiotensin II-induced hypertrophy in cultured rat cardiomyocytes. J. Clin. Invest. 92:398-403
96. Iwase M, Bishop SP, Uechi M, Vatner DE, Shannon RP, et al. 1996. Adverse effects of chronic endogenous sympathetic drive induced by cardiac GS alpha overexpression. Circ. Res. 78:517-24
97. Jayaraman T, Brillantes AM, Timerman AP, Fleischer S, Erdjument-Bromage H, et al. 1992. FK506 binding protein associated with the calcium release channel (ryanodine receptor). J. Biol. Chem. 267:9474-77
98. Kadambi VJ, Kranias EG. 1997. Phospholamban: a protein coming of age. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 239:1-5
99. Karns LR, Kariya K, Simpson PC. 1995. M-CAT, CArG, and Sp1 elements are required for alpha 1-adrenergic induction of the skeletal alpha-actin promoter during cardiac myocyte hypertrophy. Transcriptional enhancer factor-1 and protein kinase C as conserved transducers of the fetal program in cardiac growth. J. Biol. Chem. 270:410-17
100. Kass S, MacRae C, Graber HL, Sparks EA, McNamara D, et al. 1994. A gene defect that causes conduction system disease and dilated cardiomyopathy maps to chromosome 1p1-1q1. Nat. Genet. 7:546-51
101. Keck BM, Bennett LE, Fiol BS, Dally OP, Novick RJ, Hosenpud JD. 1996. Worldwide thoracic organ transplantation: a report from the UNOS/ISHLT International Registry for Thoracic Organ Transplantation. Clin. Transpl., pp. 31-45
102. Kimura A, Harada H, Park JE, Nishi H, Satoh M, et al. 1997. Mutations in the cardiac troponin I gene associated with hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. Nat. Genet. 16:379-82
103. 2+/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase in failing and nonfailing human hearts. Cardiovasc. Res. 42:254-61
104. Klee CB, Ren H, Wang X. 1998. Regulation of the calmodulin-stimulated protein phosphatase, calcineurin. J. Biol. Chem. 273:13367-70
105. Koenig M, Hoffman EP, Bertelson CJ, Monaco AP, Feener C, Kunkel LM. 1987. Complete cloning of the Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD) cDNA and preliminary genomic organization of the DMD gene in normal and affected individuals. Cell 50:509-17
106. Komuro I, Kudo S, Yamazaki T, Zou Y, Shiojima I, Yazaki Y. 1996. Mechanical stretch activates the stress-activated protein kinases in cardiac myocytes. FASEB J. 10:631-36
107. Koss KL, Grupp IL, Kranias EG. 1997. The relative phospholamban and SERCA2 ratio: a critical determinant of myocardial contractility. Basic Res. Cardiol. 92(Suppl. 1): 17-24
108. Krajinovic M, Pinamonti B, Sinagra G, Vatta M, Severini GM, et al. 1995. Linkage of familial dilated cardiomyopathy to chromosome 9. Heart Muscle Disease Study Group. Am. J. Hum. Genet. 57:846-52
109. Krell MJ, Kline EM, Bates ER, Hodgson JM, Dilworth LR, et al. 1986. Intermittent, ambulatory dobutamine infusions in patients with severe congestive heart failure. Am. Heart J. 112:787-91
110. Kubota T, McTiernan CF, Frye CS, Slawson SE, Lemster BH, et al. 1997. Dilated cardiomyopathy in transgenic mice with cardiac-specific overexpression of tumor necrosis factor-alpha. Circ. Res. 81:627-35
111. Kudej RK, Iwase M, Uechi M, Vatner DE, Oka N, et al. 1997. Effects of chronic beta-adrenergic receptor stimulation in mice. J. Mol. Cell. Cardiol. 29:2735-46
112. 2-terminal kinase in cultured cardiac myocytes of neonatal rats. Circ. Res. 80:139-46
113. Lai MM, Burnett PE, Wolosker H, Blackshaw S, Snyder SH. 1998. Cain, a novel physiologic protein inhibitor of calcineurin. J. Biol. Chem. 273:18325-31
114. Lankford EB, Epstein ND, Fananapazir L, Sweeney HL. 1995. Abnormal contractile properties of muscle fibers expressing beta-myosin heavy chain gene mutations in patients with hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. J. Clin. Invest. 95:1409-14
115. Lazou A, Sugden PH, Clerk A. 1998. Activation of mitogen-activated protein kinases (p38-MAPKs, SAPKs/JNKs and ERKs) by the G-protein-coupled receptor agonist phenylephrine in the perfused rat heart. Biochem. J. 332:459-65
116. Lechin M, Quinones MA, Omran A, Hill R, Yu QT, et al. 1995. Angiotensin-I converting enzyme genotypes and left ventricular hypertrophy in patients with hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. Circulation 92:1808-12
117. Levine B, Kalman J, Mayer L, Fillit HM, Packer M. 1990. Elevated circulating levels of tumor necrosis factor in severe chronic heart failure. N. Engl. J. Med. 323:236-41
118. Levy D, Garrison RJ, Savage DD, Kannel WB, Castelli WP. 1990. Prognostic implications of echocardiographically determined left ventricular mass in the Framingham Heart Study. N. Engl. J. Med. 322:1561-66
119. Li D, Tapscoft T, Gonzalez O, Burch PE, Quinones MA, et al. 1999. Desmin mutation responsible for idiopathic dilated cardiomyopathy. Circulation 100:461-64
120. Li Q, Li BS, Wang XW, Leri A, Jana KP, et al. 1997. Overexpression of insulin-like growth factor-1 in mice protects from myocyte death after infarction, attenuating ventricular dilation, wall stress, and cardiac hypertrophy. J. Clin. Invest. 100:1991-99
121. Liggett SB, Wagoner LE, Craft LL, Hornung RW, Hoit BD, et al. 1998. The Ile 164 beta2-adrenergic receptor polymorphism adversely affects the outcome of congestive heart failure. J. Clin. Invest. 102:1534-39
122. Lim HW, Molkentin JD. 1999. Calcineurin and human heart failure. Nat. Med. 5:246-47
123. Lim L, Manser E, Leung T, Hall C. 1996. Regulation of phosphorylation pathways by p21 GTPases. The p21 Ras-related Rho subfamily and its role in phosphorylation signalling pathways. Eur. J. Biochem. 242:171-85
124. Lim LE, Campbell KP. 1998. The sarcoglycan complex in limb-girdle muscular dystrophy. Curr. Opin. Neurol. 11:443-52
125. Lin D, Bobkova A, Homsher E, Tobacman LS. 1996. Altered cardiac troponin T in vitro function in the presence of a mutation implicated in familial hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. J. Clin. Invest. 97:2842-48
126. Lindner M, Erdmann E, Beuckelmann DJ. 1998. Calcium content of the sarcoplasmic reticulum in isolated ventricular myocytes from patients with terminal heart failure. J. Mol. Cell. Cardiol. 30:743-19
127. Liu S, Liu PF, Borras A, Chatila T, Speck SH. 1997. Cyclosporin A-sensitive induction of the Epstein-Barr virus lytic switch is mediated via a novel pathway involving a MEF2 family member. EMBO J. 16:143-53
128. 2+/calmodulin kinase type IV/Gr and calcineurin. J. Immunol. 162: 2057-63
129. Loh E, Rebbeck TR, Mahoney PD, DeNofrio D, Swain JL, Holmes EW. 1999. Common variant in AMPDl gene predicts improved clinical outcome in patients with heart failure. Circulation 99:1422-25
130. Lopez-Ilasaca M. 1998. Signaling from G-protein-coupled receptors to mitogen-activated protein (MAP)-kinase cascades. Biochem. Pharmacol. 56:269-77
131. Luo W, Grupp IL, Harrer J, Ponniah S, Grupp G, et al. 1994. Targeted ablation of the phospholamban gene is associated with markedly enhanced myocardial contractility and loss of beta-agonist stimulation. Circ. Res. 75:401-9
132. MacLellan WR, Schneider MD. 1997. Death by design. Programmed cell death in cardiovascular biology and disease. Circ. Res. 81:137-44
133. MacRae CA, Ghaisas N, Kass S, Donnelly S, Basson CT, et al. 1995. Familial hypertrophic cardiomyopathy with Wolff-Parkinson-White syndrome maps to a locus on chromosome 7q3. J. Clin. Invest. 96:1216-20
134. Maeda M, Holder E, Lowes B, Valent S, Bies RD. 1997. Dilated cardiomyopathy associated with deficiency of the cytoskeletal protein metavinculin. Circulation 95:17-20
135. Mallat Z, Tedgui A, Fontaliran F, Frank R, Durigon M, Fontaine G. 1996. Evidence of apoptosis in arrhythmogenic right ventricular dysplasia. N. Engl. J. Med. 335:1190-96
136. Marian AJ, Yu QT, Mann DL, Graham FL, Roberts R. 1995. Expression of a mutation causing hypertrophic cardiomyopathy disrupts sarcomere assembly in adult feline cardiac myocytes. Circ. Res. 77:98-106
137. Maron BJ, Gardin JM, Flack JM, Gidding SS, Kurosaki TT, Bild DE. 1995. Prevalence of hypertrophic cardiomyopathy in a general population of young adults. Echocardiographic analysis of 4111 subjects in the CARDIA [Coronary Artery Risk Development in (Young) Adults] study. Circulation 92:785-89
138. Mayer P, Mohlig M, Idlibe D, Pfeiffer A. 1995. Novel and uncommon isoforms of the calcium sensing enzyme calcium/calmodulin dependent protein kinase II in heart tissue. Basic Res. Cardiol. 90:372-79
139. McConnell BK, Jones KA, Fatkin D, Arroyo LH, Lee RT, et al. 1999. Dilated cardiomyopathy in homozygous myosin-binding protein-C mutant mice. J. Clin. Invest. 104:1235-44
140. McGraw DW, Donnelly ET, Eason MG, Green SA, Liggett SB. 1998. Role of beta ARK in long-term agonist-promoted desensitisation of the beta 2-adrenergic receptor. Cell. Signal. 10:197-204
141. McKinsey TA, Olson EN. 1999. Cardiac hypertrophy: sorting out the circuitry. Curr. Opin. Genet. Dev. 9:267-74
142. Megeney LA, Kablar B, Perry RL, Ying C, May L, Rudnicki MA. 1999. Severe cardiomyopathy in mice lacking dystrophin and MyoD. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 96:220-25
143. Meguro T, Hong C, Asai K, Takagi G, McKinsey TA, et al. 1999. Cyclosporine attenuates pressure-overload hypertrophy in mice while enhancing susceptibility to decompensation and heart failure. Circ. Res. 84:735-40
144. Melacini P, Fanin M, Duggan DJ, Freda MP, Berardinelli A, et al. 1999. Heart involvement in muscular dystrophies due to sarcoglycan gene mutations. Muscle Nerve 22:473-79
145. Mende U, Kagen A, Cohen A, Aramburu J, Schoen FJ, Neer EJ. 1998. Transient cardiac expression of constitutively active Gaq leads to hypertrophy and dilated cardiomyopathy by calcineurin-dependent and independent pathways. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 95:13893-98
146. Messina DN, Speer MC, Pericak-Vance MA, McNally EM. 1997. Linkage of familial dilated cardiomyopathy with conduction defect and muscular dystrophy to chromosome 6q23. Am. J. Hum. Genet. 61:909-17
147. Meyer M, Schillinger W, Pieske B, Holubarsch C, Heilmann CH, et al. 1995. Alterations of sarcoplasmic reticulum proteins in failing human dilated cardiomyopathy. Circulation 92:778-84
148. Michels VV, Moll PP, Miller FA, Tajik AJ, Chu JS, et al. 1992. The frequency of familial dilated cardiomyopathy in a series of patients with idiopathic dilated cardiomyopathy. N. Engl. J. Med. 326:77-82
149. Minamisawa S, Hoshijima M, Chu G, Ward CA, Frank K, et al. 1999. Chronic phospholamban-sarcoplasmic reticulum calcium ATPase interaction is the critical calcium cycling defect in dilated cardiomyopathy. Cell 99:313-22
150. Miskin JE, Abrams CC, Goatley LC, Dixon LK. 1998. A viral mechanism for inhibition of the cellular phosphatase calcineurin. Science 281:562-65
151. Mogensen J, Klausen IC, Pedersen AK, Egeblad H, Bross P, et al. 1999. Alpha-cardiac actin is a novel disease gene in familial hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. J. Clin. Invest. 103:R39-43
152. Molkentin JD, Lu JR, Antos CL, Markham B, Richardson J, et al. 1998. A calcineurin-dependent transcriptional pathway for cardiac hypertrophy. Cell 93:215-28
153. Molkentin JD, Olson EN. 1997. GATA4: a novel transcriptional regulator of cardiac hypertrophy? Circulation 96:3833-35
154. Montgomery HE, Keeling PJ, Goldman JH, Humphries SE, Talmud PJ, McKenna WJ. 1995. Lack of association between the insertion/deletion polymorphism of the angiotensin-converting enzyme gene and idiopathic dilated cardiomyopathy. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 25:1627-31
155. Moolman JC, Corfield VA, Posen B, Ngumbela K, Seidman C, et al. 1997. Sudden death due to troponin T mutations. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 29:549-55
156. Morgan JP. 1991. Abnormal intracellular modulation of calcium as a major cause of cardiac contractile dysfunction. N. Engl. J. Med. 325:625-32
157. Muntoni F, Cau M, Ganau A, Congiu R, Arvedi G, et al. 1993. Brief report: deletion of the dystrophin muscle-promoter region associated with X-linked dilated cardiomyopathy. N. Engl. J. Med. 329:921-25
158. Muntoni F, Wilson L, Marrosu G, Marrosu MG, Cianchetti C, et al. 1995. A mutation in the dystrophin gene selectively affecting dystrophin expression in the heart. J. Clin. Invest. 96:693-99
159. Muthuchamy M, Grupp IL, Grupp G, O'Toole BA, Kier AB, et al. 1995. Molecular and physiological effects of overexpressing striated muscle beta-tropomyosin in the adult murine heart. J. Biol. Chem. 270:30593-603
160. Nagano A, Koga R, Ogawa M, Kurano Y, Kawada J, et al. 1996. Emerin deficiency at the nuclear membrane in patients with Emery-Dreifuss muscular dystrophy. Nat. Genet. 12:254-59
161. Nakajima-Taniguchi C, Matsui H, Fujio Y, Nagata S, Kishimoto T, Yamauchi-Takihara K. 1997. Novel missense mutation in cardiac troponin T gene found in Japanese patient with hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. J. Mol. Cell. Cardiol. 29:839-43
162. Nemoto S, Sheng Z, Lin A. 1998. Opposing effects of Jun kinase and p38 mitogen-activated protein kinases on cardiomyocyte hypertrophy. Mol. Cell. Biol. 18:3518-26
163. New L, Han J. 1998. The p38 MAP kinase pathway and its biological function. Trends Cardiovasc. Med. 8:220-28
164. Nigro V, Okazaki Y, Belsito A, Piluso G, Matsuda Y, et al. 1997. Identification of the Syrian hamster cardiomyopathy gene. Hum. Mol. Genet. 6:601-7
165. Niimura H, Bachinski LL, Sangwatanaroj S, Watkins H, Chudley AE, et al. 1998. Mutations in the gene for cardiac myosin-binding protein C and late-onset familial hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. N. Engl. J. Med. 338:1248-57
166. Nishigaki K, Minatoguchi S, Seishima M, Asano K, Noda T, et al. 1997. Plasma Fas ligand, an inducer of apoptosis, and plasma soluble Fas, an inhibitor of apoptosis, in patients with chronic congestive heart failure. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 29:1214-20
167. Noguchi S, McNally EM, Ben Othmane K, Hagiwara Y, Mizuno Y, et al. 1995. Mutations in the dystrophin-associated protein gamma-sarcoglycan in chromosome 13 muscular dystrophy. Science 270:819-22
168. Oberst L, Zhao G, Park JT, Brugada R, Michael LH, et al. 1998. Dominant-negative effect of a mutant cardiac troponin T on cardiac structure and function in transgenic mice. J. Clin. Invest. 102:1498-505
169. Olivetti G, Abbi R, Quaini F, Kajstura J, Cheng W, et al. 1997. Apoptosis in the failing human heart. N. Engl. J. Med. 336:1131-41
170. Olson EN, Molkentin JD. 1999. Prevention of cardiac hypertrophy by calcineurin inhibition: hope or hype? Circ. Res. 84:623-32
171. Olson TM, Keating MT. 1996. Mapping a cardiomyopathy locus to chromosome 3p22-p25. J. Clin. Invest. 97:528-32
172. Olson TM, Michels VV, Thibodeau SN, Tai YS, Keating MT. 1998. Actin mutations in dilated cardiomyopathy, a heritable form of heart failure. Science 280: 750-52
173. Osterop AP, Kofflard MJ, Sandkuijl LA, ten Cate FJ, Krams R, et al. 1998. AT1 receptor A/C1166 polymorphism contributes to cardiac hypertrophy in subjects with hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. Hypertension 32:825-30
174. Packer M, Bristow MR, Cohn JN, Colucci WS, Fowler MB, et al. 1996. The effect of carvedilol on morbidity and mortality in patients with chronic heart failure. U.S. Carvedilol Heart Failure Study Group. N. Engl. J. Med. 334:1349-55
175. Packer M, Carver JR, Rodeheffer RJ, Ivanhoe RJ, DiBianco R, et al. 1991. Effect of oral milrinone on mortality in severe chronic heart failure. The PROMISE Study Research Group. N. Engl. J. Med. 325:1468-75
176. Pan J, Fukuda K, Kodama H, Sano M, Takahashi T, et al. 1998. Involvement of gp130-mediated signaling in pressure overload-induced activation of the JAK/STAT pathway in rodent heart. Heart Vessels 13:199-208
177. Pan J, Fukuda K, Saito M, Matsuzaki J, Kodama H, et al. 1999. Mechanical stretch activates the JAK/STAT pathway in rat cardiomyocytes. Circ. Res. 84:1127-36
178. 2+-release channel in cardiac sarcoplasmic reticulum. Am. J. Physiol. Heart Circ. Physiol. 276:H865-72
179. Parrizas M, Saltiel AR, LeRoith D. 1997. Insulin-like growth factor 1 inhibits apoptosis using the phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase and mitogen-activated protein kinase pathways. J. Biol. Chem. 272:154-61
180. Phillips RM, Narayan P, Gomez AM, Dilly K, Jones LR, et al. 1998. Sarcoplasmic reticulum in heart failure: central player or bystander? Cardiovasc. Res. 37:346-51
181. Pieske B, Kretschmann B, Meyer M, Holubarsch C, Weirich J, et al. 1995. Alterations in intracellular calcium handling associated with the inverse force-frequency relation in human dilated cardiomyopathy. Circulation 92:1169-78
182. Poetter K, Jiang H, Hassanzadeh S, Master SR, Chang A, et al. 1996. Mutations in either the essential or regulatory light chains of myosin are associated with a rare myopathy in human heart and skeletal muscle. Nat. Genet. 13:63-69
183. Post GR, Goldstein D, Thuerauf DJ, Glembotski CC, Brown JH. 1996. Dissociation of p44 and p42 mitogen-activated protein kinase activation from receptor-induced hypertrophy in neonatal rat ventricular myocytes. J. Biol. Chem. 271:8452-57
184. Post SR, Hammond HK, Insel PA. 1999. Beta-adrenergic receptors and receptor signaling in heart failure. Annu. Rev. Pharmacol. Toxicol. 39:343-60
185. Pracyk JB, Tanaka K, Hegland DD, Kim KS, Sethi R, et al. 1998. A requirement for the rac1 GTPase in the signal transduction pathway leading to cardiac myocyte hypertrophy. J. Clin. Invest. 102:929-37
186. Qiu RG, Chen J, McCormick F, Symons M. 1995. A role for Rho in Ras transformation. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 92:11781-85
187. Qiu Y, Ravi L, Kung HJ. 1998. Requirement of ErbB2 for signalling by interleukin-6 in prostate carcinoma cells. Nature 393:83-85
188. Ramirez MT, Sah VP, Zhao XL, Hunter JJ, Chien KR, Brown JH. 1997. The MEKK-JNK pathway is stimulated by alpha1-adrenergic receptor and ras activation and is associated with in vitro and in vivo cardiac hypertrophy. J. Biol. Chem. 272:14057-61
189. 2+/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase II regulates atrial natriuretic factor gene expression in ventricular myocytes. J. Biol. Chem. 272:31203-8
190. Rampazzo A, Nava A, Danieli GA, Buja G, Daliento L, et al. 1994. The gene for arrhythmogenic right ventricular cardiomyopathy maps to chromosome 14q23-q24. Hum. Mol. Genet. 3:959-62
191. Rampazzo A, Nava A, Erne P, Eberhard M, Vian E, et al. 1995. A new locus for arrhythmogenic right ventricular cardiomyopathy (ARVD2) maps to chromosome 1q42-q43. Hum. Mol. Genet. 4:2151-54
192. Rampazzo A, Nava A, Miorin M, Fonderico P, Pope B, et al. 1997. ARVD4, a new locus for arrhythmogenic right ventricular cardiomyopathy, maps to chromosome 2 long arm. Genomics 45:259-63
193. Ranger AM, Grusby MJ, Hodge MR, Gravallese EM, de la Brousse FC, et al. 1998. The transcription factor NF-ATc is essential for cardiac valve formation. Nature 392:186-90
194. Rao A, Luo C, Hogan PG. 1997. Transcription factors of the NFAT family: regulation and function. Annu. Rev. Immunol. 15:707-47
195. Raynolds MV, Bristow MR, Bush EW, Abraham WT, Lowes BD, et al. 1993. Angiotensin-converting enzyme DD genotype in patients with ischaemic or idiopathic dilated cardiomyopathy. Lancet 342:1073-75
196. Ridley AJ, Paterson HF, Johnston CL, Diekmann D, Hall A. 1992. The small GTP-binding protein rac regulates growth factor-induced membrane ruffling. Cell 70:401-10
197. Robinson MJ, Cobb MH. 1997. Mitogen-activated protein kinase pathways. Curr. Opin. Cell Biol. 9:180-86
198. Rockman HA, Chien KR, Choi DJ, Iaccarino G, Hunter JJ, et al. 1998. Expression of a beta-adrenergic receptor kinase 1 inhibitor prevents the development of myocardial failure in gene-targeted mice. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 95:7000-5
199. Rodriguez-Viciana P, Warne PH, Khwaja A, Marte BM, Pappin D, et al. 1997. Role of phosphoinositide 3-OH kinase in cell transformation and control of the actin cytoskeleton by Ras. Cell 89:457-67
200. Rogers JH, Tamirisa P, Kovacs A, Weinheimer C, Courtois M, et al. 1999. RGS4 causes increased mortality and reduced cardiac hypertrophy in response to pressure overload. J. Clin. Invest. 104:567-76
201. 2+-dependent signaling. Circ. Res. 76:1-15
202. Sah VP, Hoshijima M, Chien KR, Brown JH. 1996. Rho is required for Galphaq and α1-adrenergic receptor signaling in cardiomyocytes. Dissociation of Ras and Rho pathways. J. Biol. Chem. 271:31185-90
203. Sah VP, Minamisawa S, Tam SP, Wu TH, Dorn GW II, et al. 1999. Cardiac-specific overexpression of RhoA results in sinus and atrioventricular nodal dysfunction and contractile failure. J. Clin. Invest. 103:1627-34
204. Sakamoto A, Ono K, Abe M, Jasmin G, Eki T, et al. 1997. Both hypertrophic and dilated cardiomyopathies are caused by mutation of the same gene, delta-sarcoglycan, in hamster: an animal model of disrupted dystrophin-associated glycoprotein complex. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 94:13873-78
205. Sanbe A, Fewell JG, Gulick J, Osinska H, Lorenz J, et al. 1999. Abnormal cardiac structure and function in mice expressing nonphosphorylatable cardiac regulatory myosin light chain 2. J. Biol. Chem. 274:21085-94
206. 2+-ATPase activity and phosphorylation level of phospholamban. Am. J. Physiol. Heart Circ. Physiol. 277:H474-80
207. Schunkert H. 1997. Polymorphism of the angiotensin-converting enzyme gene and cardiovascular disease. J. Mol. Med. 75:867-75
208. 2+-ATPase activity of cardiac sarcoplasmic reticulum from dilated cardiomyopathy patients compared with patients with nonfailing hearts. Circulation 92:3220-28
209. 2+-sensitivity of SERCA 2a in failing human myocardium due to reduced serin-16 phospholamban phosphorylation. J. Mol. Cell. Cardiol. 31:479-91
210. 2+/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase II. Differential expression in rat brain and aorta. J. Biol. Chem. 268:14443-49
211. Seasholtz TM, Majumdar M, Brown JH. 1999. Rho as a mediator of G protein-coupled receptor signaling. Mol. Pharmacol. 55:949-56
212. Severini GM, Krajinovic M, Pinamonti B, Sinagra G, Fioretti P, et al. 1996. A new locus for arrhythmogenic right ventricular dysplasia on the long arm of chromosome 14. Genomics 31:193-200
213. Sheng Z, Knowlton K, Chen J, Hoshijima M, Brown JH, Chien KR. 1997. Cardiotrophin 1 (CT-1) inhibition of cardiac myocyte apoptosis via a mitogen-activated protein kinase-dependent pathway. Divergence from downstream CT-1 signals for myocardial cell hypertrophy. J. Biol. Chem. 272:5783-91
214. Sheng Z, Pennica D, Wood WI, Chien KR. 1996. Cardiotrophin-1 displays early expression in the murine heart tube and promotes cardiac myocyte survival. Development 122:419-28
215. Shenolikar S. 1994. Protein serine/ threonine phosphatases-new avenues for cell regulation. Annu. Rev. Cell Biol. 10:55-86
216. Lys mutation. Cell 61:931-37
217. Shubeita HE, McDonough PM, Harris AN, Knowlton KU, Glembotski CC, et al. 1990. Endothelin induction of inositol phospholipid hydrolysis, sarcomere assembly, and cardiac gene expression in ventricular myocytes. A paracrine mechanism for myocardial cell hypertrophy. J. Biol. Chem. 265:20555-62
218. Simpson P. 1983. Norepinephrine-stimulated hypertrophy of cultured rat myocardial cells is an alpha-1 adrenergic response. J. Clin. Invest. 72:732-38
219. Simpson PC. 1999. Beta-protein kinase C and hypertrophic signaling in human heart failure. Circulation 99:334-37
220. Siu BL, Niimura H, Osborne JA, Fatkin D, MacRae C, et al. 1999. Familial dilated cardiomyopathy locus maps to chromosome 2q31. Circulation 99:1022-26
221. Slamon D, Leyland-Jones B, Shak S, Paton V, Bajamonde A, et al. 1998. Proc. Am. Soc. Clin. Oncol. 17:98a
222. Smith SC, Allen PM. 1992. Neutralization of endogenous tumor necrosis factor ameliorates the severity of myosin-induced myocarditis. Circ. Res. 70:856-63
223. Sotiropoulos A, Gineitis D, Copeland J, Treisman R. 1999. Signal-regulated activation of serum response factor is mediated by changes in actin dynamics. Cell 98:159-69
224. Spirito P, Maron BJ, Bonow RO, Epstein SE. 1987. Occurrence and significance of progressive left ventricular wall thinning and relative cavity dilatation in hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. Am. J. Cardiol. 60:123-29
225. Sprenkle AB, Murray SF, Glembotski CC. 1995. Involvement of multiple cis elements in basal-and alpha-adrenergic agonist-inducible atrial natriuretic factor transcription. Roles for serum response elements and an SP-1-like element. Circ. Res. 77:1060-69
226. Straub V, Ettinger AJ, Durbeej M, Venzke DP, Cutshall S, et al. 1999. Epsilon-sarcoglycan replaces alpha-sarcoglycan in smooth muscle to form a unique dystrophin-glycoprotein complex. J. Biol. Chem. 274:27989-96
227. Sugden PH. 1999. Signaling in myocardial hypertrophy: life after calcineurin? Circ. Res. 84:633-46
228. Sugden PH, Clerk A. 1998. Cellular mechanisms of cardiac hypertrophy. J. Mol. Med. 76:725-46
229. Sugden PH, Clerk A. 1998. Regulation of mitogen-activated protein kinase cascades in the heart. Adv. Enzyme Regul. 38:87-98
230. Sugden PH, Clerk A. 1997. Regulation of the ERK subgroup of MAP kinase cascades through G protein-coupled receptors. Cell. Signal. 9:337-51
231. Sugden PH, Clerk A. 1998. "Stress-responsive" mitogen-activated protein kinases (c-Jun N-terminal kinases and p38 mitogen-activated protein kinases) in the myocardium. Circ. Res. 83:345-52
232. Sun L, Youn HD, Loh C, Stolow M, He W, Liu JO. 1998. Cabin 1, a negative regulator for calcineurin signaling in T lymphocytes. Immunity 8:703-11
233. Sussman MA, Lim HW, Gude N, Taigen T, Olson EN, et al. 1998. Prevention of cardiac hypertrophy in mice by calcineurin inhibition. Science 281:1690-93
234. Sussman MA, Welch S, Cambon N, Klevitsky R, Hewett TE, et al. 1998. Myofibril degeneration caused by tropomodulin overexpression leads to dilated cardiomyopathy in juvenile mice. J. Clin. Invest. 101:51-61
235. Sweeney HL, Feng HS, Yang Z, Watkins H. 1998. Functional analyses of troponin T mutations that cause hypertrophic cardiomyopathy: insights into disease pathogenesis and troponin function. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 95:14406-10
236. Sweeney HL, Straceski AJ, Leinwand LA, Tikunov BA, Faust L. 1994. Heterologous expression of a cardiomyopathic myosin that is defective in its actin interaction. J. Biol. Chem. 269:1603-5
237. Tada M, Toyofuku T. 1998. Molecular regulation of phospholamban function and expression. Trends Cardiovasc. Med. 8:330-40
238. Tardiff JC, Factor SM, Tompkins BD, Hewett TE, Palmer BM, et al. 1998. A truncated cardiac troponin T molecule in transgenic mice suggests multiple cellular mechanisms for familial hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. J. Clin. Invest. 101:2800-11
239. Tesson F, Dufour C, Moolman JC, Carrier L, al-Mahdawi S, et al. 1997. The influence of the angiotensin I converting enzyme genotype in familial hypertrophic cardiomyopathy varies with the disease gene mutation. J. Mol. Cell. Cardiol. 29:831-38
240. Thiene G, Basso C, Danieli G, Rampazzo A, Corrado D, Nava A. 1997. Arrhythmogenic right ventricular cardio-myopathy. Trends Cardiovasc. Med. 7: 84-90
241. Thierfelder L, Watkins H, MacRae C, Lamas R, McKenna W, et al. 1994. Alpha-tropomyosin and cardiac troponin T mutations cause familial hypertrophic cardiomyopathy: a disease of the sarcomere. Cell 77:701-12
242. Thorburn A. 1994. Ras activity is required for phenylephrine-induced activation of mitogen-activated protein kinase in cardiac muscle cells. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 205:1417-22
243. Thorburn A, Thorburn J, Chen SY, Powers S, Shubeita HE, et al. 1993. HRas-dependent pathways can activate morphological and genetic markers of cardiac muscle cell hypertrophy. J. Biol. Chem. 268:2244-49. Erratum. 1993. J. Biol. Chem. 268(21): 16082
244. Thorburn J, Carlson M, Mansour SJ, Chien KR, Ahn NG, Thorburn A. 1995. Inhibition of a signaling pathway in cardiac muscle cells by active mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase. Mol. Biol. Cell 6:1479-90
245. Thorburn J, Frost JA, Thorburn A. 1994. Mitogen-activated protein kinases mediate changes in gene expression, but not cytoskeletal organization associated with cardiac muscle cell hypertrophy. J. Cell Biol. 126:1565-72
246. Thorburn J, Xu S, Thorburn A. 1997. MAP kinase-and Rho-dependent signals interact to regulate gene expression but not actin morphology in cardiac muscle cells. EMBO J. 16:1888-900
247. Thuerauf DJ, Arnold ND, Zechner D, Hanford DS, DeMartin KM, et al. 1998. p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase mediates the transcriptional induction of the atrial natriuretic factor gene through a serum response element. A potential role for the transcription factor ATF6. J. Biol. Chem. 273:20636-43
248. Tobimatsu T, Fujisawa H. 1989. Tissue-specific expression of four types of rat calmodulin-dependent protein kinase II mRNAs. J. Biol. Chem. 264:17907-12
249. Torre-Amione G, Kapadia S, Lee J, Durand JB, Bies RD, et al. 1996. Tumor necrosis factor-alpha and tumor necrosis factor receptors in the failing human heart. Circulation 93:704-11
250. Towbin JA. 1998. The role of cytoskeletal proteins in cardiomyopathies. Curr. Opin. Cell Biol. 10:131-39
251. Towbin JA, Hejtmancik JF, Brink P, Gelb B, Zhu XM, et al. 1993. X-linked dilated cardiomyopathy. Molecular genetic evidence of linkage to the Duchenne muscular dystrophy (dystrophin) gene at the Xp21 locus. Circulation 87:1854-65
252. 2+/calmodulin dependent protein kinase cascade in the hog heart. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 249:355-60
253. Ungerer M, Parruti G, Bohm M, Puzicha M, DeBlasi A, et al. 1994. Expression of beta-arrestins and beta-adrenergic receptor kinases in the failing human heart. Circ. Res. 74:206-13
254. Van Aelst L, D'Souza-Schorey C. 1997. Rho GTPases and signaling networks. Genes Dev. 11:2295-322
255. Varnava A, Baboonian C, Davison F, de Cruz L, Elliott PM, et al. 1999. A new mutation of the cardiac troponin T gene causing familial hypertrophic cardiomyopathy without left ventricular hypertrophy. Heart 82:621-24
256. Venema RC, Kuo JF. 1993. Protein kinase C-mediated phosphorylation of troponin I and C-protein in isolated myocardial cells is associated with inhibition of myofibrillar actomyosin MgATPase. J. Biol. Chem. 268:2705-11
257. Vikstrom KL, Factor SM, Leinwand LA. 1996. Mice expressing mutant myosin heavy chains are a model for familial hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. Mol. Med. 2:556-67
258. von Harsdorf R, Edwards JG, Shen YT, Kudej RK, Dietz R, et al. 1997. Identification of a cis-acting regulatory element conferring inducibility of the atrial natriuretic factor gene in acute pressure overload. J. Clin. Invest. 100:1294-304
259. Wakasaki H, Koya D, Schoen FJ, Jirousek MR, Ways DK, et al. 1997. Targeted overexpression of protein kinase C beta2 isoform in myocardium causes cardiomyopathy. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 94:9320-25
260. Walker CA, Spinale FG. 1999. The structure and function of the cardiac myocyte: a review of fundamental concepts. J. Thorac. Cardiovasc. Surg. 118:375-82
261. 2+-induced apoptosis through calcineurin dephosphorylation of BAD. Science 284:339-43
262. Wang HG, Reed JC. 1998. Bcl-2, Raf-1 and mitochondrial regulation of apoptosis. Biofactors 8:13-16
263. Wang YB, Huang SA, Sah VP, Ross J Jr, Brown JH, et al. 1998. Cardiac muscle cell hypertrophy and apoptosis induced by distinct members of the p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase family. J. Biol. Chem. 273:2161-68
264. 2-terminal kinase in ventricular muscle cells. J. Biol. Chem. 273:5423-26
265. Watkins H, Conner D, Thierfelder L, Jarcho JA, MacRae C, et al. 1995. Mutations in the cardiac myosin binding protein-C gene on chromosome 11 cause familial hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. Nat. Genet. 11:434-37
266. Watkins H, McKenna WJ, Thierfelder L, Suk HJ, Anan R, et al. 1995. Mutations in the genes for cardiac troponin T and alpha-tropomyosin in hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. N. Engl. J. Med. 332:1058-64
267. Watkins H, Rosenzweig A, Hwang DS, Levi T, McKenna W, et al. 1992. Characteristics and prognostic implications of myosin missense mutations in familial hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. N. Engl. J. Med. 326:1108-14
268. Whittaker P, Kloner RA, Przyklenk K. 1996. Intramyocardial injections and protection against myocardial ischemia. An attempt to examine the cardioprotective actions of adenosine. Circulation 93:2043-57
269. Wilkinson MG, Millar JB. 1998. SAPKs and transcription factors do the nucleo-cytoplasmic tango. Genes Dev. 12:1391-97
270. Wollert KC, TagaT, Saito M, Narazaki M, Kishimoto T, et al. 1996. Cardiotrophin-1 activates a distinct form of cardiac muscle cell hypertrophy. Assembly of sarcomeric units in series VIA gp130/leukemia inhibitory factor receptor-dependent pathways. J. Biol. Chem. 271:9535-45
271. Yamazaki T, Komuro T, Kudoh S, Zou Y, Shiojima I, et al. 1995. Mechanical stress activates protein kinase cascade of phosphorylation in neonatal rat cardiac myocytes. J. Clin. Invest. 96:438-46
272. 2+ sensitization and potentiation of the maximum level of myofibrillar ATPase activity caused by mutations of troponin T found in familial hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. J. Biol. Chem. 274:8806-12
273. Yang Q, Sanbe A, Osinska H, Hewett TE, Klevitsky R, Robbins J. 1999. In vivo modeling of myosin binding protein C familial hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. Circ. Res. 85:841-47
274. Yang Q, Sanbe A, Osinska H, Hewett TE, Klevitsky R, Robbins J. 1998. A mouse model of myosin binding protein C human familial hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. J. Clin. Invest 102:1292-300
275. Yoneya K, Okamoto H, Machida M, Onozuka H, Noguchi M, et al. 1995. Angiotensin-converting enzyme gene polymorphism in Japanese patients with hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. Am. Heart J. 130:1089-93
276. Zechner D, Thuerauf DJ, Hanford DS, McDonough PM, Glembotski CC. 1997. A role for the p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase pathway in myocardial cell growth, sarcomeric organization, and cardiac-specific gene expression. J Cell Biol. 139:115-27
277. Zhang BW, Zimmer G, Chen J, Ladd D, Li E, et al. 1996. T cell responses in calcineurin A alpha-deficient mice. J. Exp. Med. 183:413-20
278. Zhang W, Kowal RC, Rusnak F, Sikkink RA, Olson EN, Victor RG. 1999. Failure of calcineurin inhibitors to prevent pressure-overload left ventricular hypertrophy in rats. Circ. Res. 84:722-28