Nineteenth-century medical landscapes: John H. Rauch, Frederick Law Olmsted, and the search for salubrity

Bulletin of the History of Medicine

Volumn 74, Issue 4, 2000, Pages 708-734

  Szczygiel, Bonj ^a   Hewitt, Robert ^a  

^a PENNSYLVANIA STATE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ARTICLE; CITY PLANNING; ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH; ENVIRONMENTAL PLANNING; HEALTH; HISTORY; HUMAN; UNITED STATES;

CITY PLANNING; ENVIRONMENT DESIGN; ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH; HISTORY, 19TH CENTURY; HUMANS; UNITED STATES; URBAN HEALTH;

EID: 0034566213     PISSN: 00075140     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/S1522-8649(01)50006-2     Document Type: Article

References (110)

1. For a broader overview of the evolution of medical ideas, including environmental etiology, see John Harley Warner, The Therapeutic Perspective: Medical Practice, Knowledge, and Identity in America, 1820-1885 (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1986); George Rosen, A History of Public Health (New York: MD Publications, 1958); Charles-Edward Amory Winslow, The Conquest of Epidemic Disease: A Chapter in the History of Ideas (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1944).
2. For a broader overview of the evolution of medical ideas, including environmental etiology, see John Harley Warner, The Therapeutic Perspective: Medical Practice, Knowledge, and Identity in America, 1820-1885 (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1986); George Rosen, A History of Public Health (New York: MD Publications, 1958); Charles-Edward Amory Winslow, The Conquest of Epidemic Disease: A Chapter in the History of Ideas (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1944).
3. For a broader overview of the evolution of medical ideas, including environmental etiology, see John Harley Warner, The Therapeutic Perspective: Medical Practice, Knowledge, and Identity in America, 1820-1885 (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1986); George Rosen, A History of Public Health (New York: MD Publications, 1958); Charles-Edward Amory Winslow, The Conquest of Epidemic Disease: A Chapter in the History of Ideas (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1944).
4. Regarding the professionalization of public health officials and their continued reliance on the miasma theory, see John Duffy, The Sanitarians: A History of American Public Health (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1992), pp. 126-37. Edwin Chadwick employed the miasmic theory in his famous report that resulted in Britain's 1848 Public Health Law. For a fresh look at Chadwick, see Sylvia Tesh, "Miasma and 'Social Factors' in Disease Causality: Lessons from the Nineteenth Century," J. Health Polit. Policy & Law, 1995, 20: 1001-24; Christopher Hamlin, "Finding a Function for Public Health: Disease Theory or Political Philosophy?" ibid., pp. 1024-31; John V. Pickstone, "Dearth, Dirt and Fever Epidemics: Rewriting the History of British 'Public Health,' 1780-1850," in Epidemics and Ideas: Essays on the Historical Perception of Pestilence, ed. Terence O. Ranger and Paul Slack (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992), pp. 125-48.
5. Regarding the professionalization of public health officials and their continued reliance on the miasma theory, see John Duffy, The Sanitarians: A History of American Public Health (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1992), pp. 126-37. Edwin Chadwick employed the miasmic theory in his famous report that resulted in Britain's 1848 Public Health Law. For a fresh look at Chadwick, see Sylvia Tesh, "Miasma and 'Social Factors' in Disease Causality: Lessons from the Nineteenth Century," J. Health Polit. Policy & Law, 1995, 20: 1001-24; Christopher Hamlin, "Finding a Function for Public Health: Disease Theory or Political Philosophy?" ibid., pp. 1024-31; John V. Pickstone, "Dearth, Dirt and Fever Epidemics: Rewriting the History of British 'Public Health,' 1780-1850," in Epidemics and Ideas: Essays on the Historical Perception of Pestilence, ed. Terence O. Ranger and Paul Slack (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992), pp. 125-48.
6. Regarding the professionalization of public health officials and their continued reliance on the miasma theory, see John Duffy, The Sanitarians: A History of American Public Health (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1992), pp. 126-37. Edwin Chadwick employed the miasmic theory in his famous report that resulted in Britain's 1848 Public Health Law. For a fresh look at Chadwick, see Sylvia Tesh, "Miasma and 'Social Factors' in Disease Causality: Lessons from the Nineteenth Century," J. Health Polit. Policy & Law, 1995, 20: 1001-24; Christopher Hamlin, "Finding a Function for Public Health: Disease Theory or Political Philosophy?" ibid., pp. 1024-31; John V. Pickstone, "Dearth, Dirt and Fever Epidemics: Rewriting the History of British 'Public Health,' 1780-1850," in Epidemics and Ideas: Essays on the Historical Perception of Pestilence, ed. Terence O. Ranger and Paul Slack (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992), pp. 125-48.
7. Regarding the professionalization of public health officials and their continued reliance on the miasma theory, see John Duffy, The Sanitarians: A History of American Public Health (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1992), pp. 126-37. Edwin Chadwick employed the miasmic theory in his famous report that resulted in Britain's 1848 Public Health Law. For a fresh look at Chadwick, see Sylvia Tesh, "Miasma and 'Social Factors' in Disease Causality: Lessons from the Nineteenth Century," J. Health Polit. Policy & Law, 1995, 20: 1001-24; Christopher Hamlin, "Finding a Function for Public Health: Disease Theory or Political Philosophy?" ibid., pp. 1024-31; John V. Pickstone, "Dearth, Dirt and Fever Epidemics: Rewriting the History of British 'Public Health,' 1780-1850," in Epidemics and Ideas: Essays on the Historical Perception of Pestilence, ed. Terence O. Ranger and Paul Slack (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992), pp. 125-48.
8. While there is tremendous breadth on the topic of environmental links to health, there is also considerable variation regarding the topic's perceived significance. For general urban development, see Cities in American History, ed. Kenneth T. Jackson and Stanley K. Schultz (New York: Knopf, 1972); Howard Chudacoff, The Evolution of American Urban Society (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1981). For representative works concerning the influence of medical thought on the development of urban social structure, see David Ward, Poverty, Ethnicity, and the American City, 1840-1923: Changing Conceptions of the Slum and the Ghetto (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989); John F. Bodnar, Steeltown: Immigration and Industrialization, 1870-1940 (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1990); Elizabeth Hafkin Pleck, Black Migration and Poverty, Boston, 1865-1900 (New York: Academic Press, 1979). While often very narrow in scope, worthwhile economic and political interpretations concerning medical influences on urban development include John S. Garner, The Model Company Town: Urban Design through Private Enterprise in Nineteenth-Century New England (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1984); Richard E. Foglesong, Planning the Capitalist City: The Colonial Era to the 1920s (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1986); Martin V. Melosi, Pollution and Reform in American Cities, 1870-1930 (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1980); Roy Lubove, The Progressives and the Slums: Tenement House Reform in New York City: 1890-1917 (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1963). For representative offerings concerning the development of medically influenced architectural types, see John Burnett, A Social History of Housing, 1815-1985 (London: Methuen, 1986); Richard Plunz, A History of Housing in New York City: DwellingType and Social Change in the American Metropolis (New York: Columbia University Press, 1990).
9. While there is tremendous breadth on the topic of environmental links to health, there is also considerable variation regarding the topic's perceived significance. For general urban development, see Cities in American History, ed. Kenneth T. Jackson and Stanley K. Schultz (New York: Knopf, 1972); Howard Chudacoff, The Evolution of American Urban Society (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1981). For representative works concerning the influence of medical thought on the development of urban social structure, see David Ward, Poverty, Ethnicity, and the American City, 1840-1923: Changing Conceptions of the Slum and the Ghetto (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989); John F. Bodnar, Steeltown: Immigration and Industrialization, 1870-1940 (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1990); Elizabeth Hafkin Pleck, Black Migration and Poverty, Boston, 1865-1900 (New York: Academic Press, 1979). While often very narrow in scope, worthwhile economic and political interpretations concerning medical influences on urban development include John S. Garner, The Model Company Town: Urban Design through Private Enterprise in Nineteenth-Century New England (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1984); Richard E. Foglesong, Planning the Capitalist City: The Colonial Era to the 1920s (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1986); Martin V. Melosi, Pollution and Reform in American Cities, 1870-1930 (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1980); Roy Lubove, The Progressives and the Slums: Tenement House Reform in New York City: 1890-1917 (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1963). For representative offerings concerning the development of medically influenced architectural types, see John Burnett, A Social History of Housing, 1815-1985 (London: Methuen, 1986); Richard Plunz, A History of Housing in New York City: DwellingType and Social Change in the American Metropolis (New York: Columbia University Press, 1990).
10. While there is tremendous breadth on the topic of environmental links to health, there is also considerable variation regarding the topic's perceived significance. For general urban development, see Cities in American History, ed. Kenneth T. Jackson and Stanley K. Schultz (New York: Knopf, 1972); Howard Chudacoff, The Evolution of American Urban Society (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1981). For representative works concerning the influence of medical thought on the development of urban social structure, see David Ward, Poverty, Ethnicity, and the American City, 1840-1923: Changing Conceptions of the Slum and the Ghetto (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989); John F. Bodnar, Steeltown: Immigration and Industrialization, 1870-1940 (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1990); Elizabeth Hafkin Pleck, Black Migration and Poverty, Boston, 1865-1900 (New York: Academic Press, 1979). While often very narrow in scope, worthwhile economic and political interpretations concerning medical influences on urban development include John S. Garner, The Model Company Town: Urban Design through Private Enterprise in Nineteenth-Century New England (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1984); Richard E. Foglesong, Planning the Capitalist City: The Colonial Era to the 1920s (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1986); Martin V. Melosi, Pollution and Reform in American Cities, 1870-1930 (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1980); Roy Lubove, The Progressives and the Slums: Tenement House Reform in New York City: 1890-1917 (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1963). For representative offerings concerning the development of medically influenced architectural types, see John Burnett, A Social History of Housing, 1815-1985 (London: Methuen, 1986); Richard Plunz, A History of Housing in New York City: DwellingType and Social Change in the American Metropolis (New York: Columbia University Press, 1990).
11. While there is tremendous breadth on the topic of environmental links to health, there is also considerable variation regarding the topic's perceived significance. For general urban development, see Cities in American History, ed. Kenneth T. Jackson and Stanley K. Schultz (New York: Knopf, 1972); Howard Chudacoff, The Evolution of American Urban Society (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1981). For representative works concerning the influence of medical thought on the development of urban social structure, see David Ward, Poverty, Ethnicity, and the American City, 1840-1923: Changing Conceptions of the Slum and the Ghetto (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989); John F. Bodnar, Steeltown: Immigration and Industrialization, 1870-1940 (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1990); Elizabeth Hafkin Pleck, Black Migration and Poverty, Boston, 1865-1900 (New York: Academic Press, 1979). While often very narrow in scope, worthwhile economic and political interpretations concerning medical influences on urban development include John S. Garner, The Model Company Town: Urban Design through Private Enterprise in Nineteenth-Century New England (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1984); Richard E. Foglesong, Planning the Capitalist City: The Colonial Era to the 1920s (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1986); Martin V. Melosi, Pollution and Reform in American Cities, 1870-1930 (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1980); Roy Lubove, The Progressives and the Slums: Tenement House Reform in New York City: 1890-1917 (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1963). For representative offerings concerning the development of medically influenced architectural types, see John Burnett, A Social History of Housing, 1815-1985 (London: Methuen, 1986); Richard Plunz, A History of Housing in New York City: DwellingType and Social Change in the American Metropolis (New York: Columbia University Press, 1990).
12. While there is tremendous breadth on the topic of environmental links to health, there is also considerable variation regarding the topic's perceived significance. For general urban development, see Cities in American History, ed. Kenneth T. Jackson and Stanley K. Schultz (New York: Knopf, 1972); Howard Chudacoff, The Evolution of American Urban Society (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1981). For representative works concerning the influence of medical thought on the development of urban social structure, see David Ward, Poverty, Ethnicity, and the American City, 1840-1923: Changing Conceptions of the Slum and the Ghetto (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989); John F. Bodnar, Steeltown: Immigration and Industrialization, 1870-1940 (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1990); Elizabeth Hafkin Pleck, Black Migration and Poverty, Boston, 1865-1900 (New York: Academic Press, 1979). While often very narrow in scope, worthwhile economic and political interpretations concerning medical influences on urban development include John S. Garner, The Model Company Town: Urban Design through Private Enterprise in Nineteenth-Century New England (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1984); Richard E. Foglesong, Planning the Capitalist City: The Colonial Era to the 1920s (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1986); Martin V. Melosi, Pollution and Reform in American Cities, 1870-1930 (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1980); Roy Lubove, The Progressives and the Slums: Tenement House Reform in New York City: 1890-1917 (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1963). For representative offerings concerning the development of medically influenced architectural types, see John Burnett, A Social History of Housing, 1815-1985 (London: Methuen, 1986); Richard Plunz, A History of Housing in New York City: DwellingType and Social Change in the American Metropolis (New York: Columbia University Press, 1990).
13. While there is tremendous breadth on the topic of environmental links to health, there is also considerable variation regarding the topic's perceived significance. For general urban development, see Cities in American History, ed. Kenneth T. Jackson and Stanley K. Schultz (New York: Knopf, 1972); Howard Chudacoff, The Evolution of American Urban Society (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1981). For representative works concerning the influence of medical thought on the development of urban social structure, see David Ward, Poverty, Ethnicity, and the American City, 1840-1923: Changing Conceptions of the Slum and the Ghetto (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989); John F. Bodnar, Steeltown: Immigration and Industrialization, 1870-1940 (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1990); Elizabeth Hafkin Pleck, Black Migration and Poverty, Boston, 1865-1900 (New York: Academic Press, 1979). While often very narrow in scope, worthwhile economic and political interpretations concerning medical influences on urban development include John S. Garner, The Model Company Town: Urban Design through Private Enterprise in Nineteenth-Century New England (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1984); Richard E. Foglesong, Planning the Capitalist City: The Colonial Era to the 1920s (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1986); Martin V. Melosi, Pollution and Reform in American Cities, 1870-1930 (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1980); Roy Lubove, The Progressives and the Slums: Tenement House Reform in New York City: 1890-1917 (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1963). For representative offerings concerning the development of medically influenced architectural types, see John Burnett, A Social History of Housing, 1815-1985 (London: Methuen, 1986); Richard Plunz, A History of Housing in New York City: DwellingType and Social Change in the American Metropolis (New York: Columbia University Press, 1990).
14. While there is tremendous breadth on the topic of environmental links to health, there is also considerable variation regarding the topic's perceived significance. For general urban development, see Cities in American History, ed. Kenneth T. Jackson and Stanley K. Schultz (New York: Knopf, 1972); Howard Chudacoff, The Evolution of American Urban Society (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1981). For representative works concerning the influence of medical thought on the development of urban social structure, see David Ward, Poverty, Ethnicity, and the American City, 1840-1923: Changing Conceptions of the Slum and the Ghetto (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989); John F. Bodnar, Steeltown: Immigration and Industrialization, 1870-1940 (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1990); Elizabeth Hafkin Pleck, Black Migration and Poverty, Boston, 1865-1900 (New York: Academic Press, 1979). While often very narrow in scope, worthwhile economic and political interpretations concerning medical influences on urban development include John S. Garner, The Model Company Town: Urban Design through Private Enterprise in Nineteenth-Century New England (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1984); Richard E. Foglesong, Planning the Capitalist City: The Colonial Era to the 1920s (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1986); Martin V. Melosi, Pollution and Reform in American Cities, 1870-1930 (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1980); Roy Lubove, The Progressives and the Slums: Tenement House Reform in New York City: 1890-1917 (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1963). For representative offerings concerning the development of medically influenced architectural types, see John Burnett, A Social History of Housing, 1815-1985 (London: Methuen, 1986); Richard Plunz, A History of Housing in New York City: DwellingType and Social Change in the American Metropolis (New York: Columbia University Press, 1990).
15. While there is tremendous breadth on the topic of environmental links to health, there is also considerable variation regarding the topic's perceived significance. For general urban development, see Cities in American History, ed. Kenneth T. Jackson and Stanley K. Schultz (New York: Knopf, 1972); Howard Chudacoff, The Evolution of American Urban Society (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1981). For representative works concerning the influence of medical thought on the development of urban social structure, see David Ward, Poverty, Ethnicity, and the American City, 1840-1923: Changing Conceptions of the Slum and the Ghetto (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989); John F. Bodnar, Steeltown: Immigration and Industrialization, 1870-1940 (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1990); Elizabeth Hafkin Pleck, Black Migration and Poverty, Boston, 1865-1900 (New York: Academic Press, 1979). While often very narrow in scope, worthwhile economic and political interpretations concerning medical influences on urban development include John S. Garner, The Model Company Town: Urban Design through Private Enterprise in Nineteenth-Century New England (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1984); Richard E. Foglesong, Planning the Capitalist City: The Colonial Era to the 1920s (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1986); Martin V. Melosi, Pollution and Reform in American Cities, 1870-1930 (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1980); Roy Lubove, The Progressives and the Slums: Tenement House Reform in New York City: 1890-1917 (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1963). For representative offerings concerning the development of medically influenced architectural types, see John Burnett, A Social History of Housing, 1815-1985 (London: Methuen, 1986); Richard Plunz, A History of Housing in New York City: DwellingType and Social Change in the American Metropolis (New York: Columbia University Press, 1990).
16. While there is tremendous breadth on the topic of environmental links to health, there is also considerable variation regarding the topic's perceived significance. For general urban development, see Cities in American History, ed. Kenneth T. Jackson and Stanley K. Schultz (New York: Knopf, 1972); Howard Chudacoff, The Evolution of American Urban Society (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1981). For representative works concerning the influence of medical thought on the development of urban social structure, see David Ward, Poverty, Ethnicity, and the American City, 1840-1923: Changing Conceptions of the Slum and the Ghetto (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989); John F. Bodnar, Steeltown: Immigration and Industrialization, 1870-1940 (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1990); Elizabeth Hafkin Pleck, Black Migration and Poverty, Boston, 1865-1900 (New York: Academic Press, 1979). While often very narrow in scope, worthwhile economic and political interpretations concerning medical influences on urban development include John S. Garner, The Model Company Town: Urban Design through Private Enterprise in Nineteenth-Century New England (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1984); Richard E. Foglesong, Planning the Capitalist City: The Colonial Era to the 1920s (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1986); Martin V. Melosi, Pollution and Reform in American Cities, 1870-1930 (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1980); Roy Lubove, The Progressives and the Slums: Tenement House Reform in New York City: 1890-1917 (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1963). For representative offerings concerning the development of medically influenced architectural types, see John Burnett, A Social History of Housing, 1815-1985 (London: Methuen, 1986); Richard Plunz, A History of Housing in New York City: DwellingType and Social Change in the American Metropolis (New York: Columbia University Press, 1990).
17. While there is tremendous breadth on the topic of environmental links to health, there is also considerable variation regarding the topic's perceived significance. For general urban development, see Cities in American History, ed. Kenneth T. Jackson and Stanley K. Schultz (New York: Knopf, 1972); Howard Chudacoff, The Evolution of American Urban Society (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1981). For representative works concerning the influence of medical thought on the development of urban social structure, see David Ward, Poverty, Ethnicity, and the American City, 1840-1923: Changing Conceptions of the Slum and the Ghetto (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989); John F. Bodnar, Steeltown: Immigration and Industrialization, 1870-1940 (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1990); Elizabeth Hafkin Pleck, Black Migration and Poverty, Boston, 1865-1900 (New York: Academic Press, 1979). While often very narrow in scope, worthwhile economic and political interpretations concerning medical influences on urban development include John S. Garner, The Model Company Town: Urban Design through Private Enterprise in Nineteenth-Century New England (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1984); Richard E. Foglesong, Planning the Capitalist City: The Colonial Era to the 1920s (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1986); Martin V. Melosi, Pollution and Reform in American Cities, 1870-1930 (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1980); Roy Lubove, The Progressives and the Slums: Tenement House Reform in New York City: 1890-1917 (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1963). For representative offerings concerning the development of medically influenced architectural types, see John Burnett, A Social History of Housing, 1815-1985 (London: Methuen, 1986); Richard Plunz, A History of Housing in New York City: DwellingType and Social Change in the American Metropolis (New York: Columbia University Press, 1990).
18. While there is tremendous breadth on the topic of environmental links to health, there is also considerable variation regarding the topic's perceived significance. For general urban development, see Cities in American History, ed. Kenneth T. Jackson and Stanley K. Schultz (New York: Knopf, 1972); Howard Chudacoff, The Evolution of American Urban Society (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1981). For representative works concerning the influence of medical thought on the development of urban social structure, see David Ward, Poverty, Ethnicity, and the American City, 1840-1923: Changing Conceptions of the Slum and the Ghetto (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989); John F. Bodnar, Steeltown: Immigration and Industrialization, 1870-1940 (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1990); Elizabeth Hafkin Pleck, Black Migration and Poverty, Boston, 1865-1900 (New York: Academic Press, 1979). While often very narrow in scope, worthwhile economic and political interpretations concerning medical influences on urban development include John S. Garner, The Model Company Town: Urban Design through Private Enterprise in Nineteenth-Century New England (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1984); Richard E. Foglesong, Planning the Capitalist City: The Colonial Era to the 1920s (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1986); Martin V. Melosi, Pollution and Reform in American Cities, 1870-1930 (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1980); Roy Lubove, The Progressives and the Slums: Tenement House Reform in New York City: 1890-1917 (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1963). For representative offerings concerning the development of medically influenced architectural types, see John Burnett, A Social History of Housing, 1815-1985 (London: Methuen, 1986); Richard Plunz, A History of Housing in New York City: DwellingType and Social Change in the American Metropolis (New York: Columbia University Press, 1990).
19. Works concerning period sanitation and street engineering necessarily tend to treat the influence of medical thought on urban development with greater emphasis. Two worthwhile studies of sanitary infrastructure and street improvement are Ann Durkin Keating, Invisible Networks: Exploring the History of Local Utilities and Public Works (Malabar, Fla.: Krieger, 1994); Stanley Clay Schultz and Clay McShane, "To Engineer the Metropolis: Sewers, Sanitation, and City Planning in Late-Nineteenth-Century America," J. Amer. Hist., 1978, 65: 389-411. While numerous authors address suburban development, the influence of medical thought on that development is consistently of secondary or passing concern; see Henry C. Binford, The First Suburbs: Residential Communities in the Boston Periphery, 1815-1860 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1985); Sam Bass Warner, Jr., Streetcar Suburbs: The Process of Growth in Boston, 1870-1900 (New York: Atheneum, 1973). Works addressing the various aspects of the reform movement are more varied in their consideration of medical issues; representative examples include Norris A. Magnuson, Salvation in the Slums: Evangelical Social Work, 1865-1920 (Metuchen, N.J.: Scarecrow Press, 1977); Sarah S. Elkind, "Building a Better Jungle: Anti-Urban Sentiment, Public Works, and Political Reform in American Cities, 1880-1930," J. Urban Hist., November 1997, 24: 53-77. Significant studies of the rural cemetery and urban park movements include Blanche Linden-Ward, Silent City on a Hill: landscapes of Memory and Boston's Mount Auburn Cemetery (Columbus: Ohio State University Press, 1989); Kenneth T. Jackson, Silent Cities: The Evolution of the American Cemetery (New York: Princeton Architectural Press, 1989); David Schuyler, The New Urban Landscape: The Redefinition of City Form in Nineteenth-Century America (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1986).
20. Works concerning period sanitation and street engineering necessarily tend to treat the influence of medical thought on urban development with greater emphasis. Two worthwhile studies of sanitary infrastructure and street improvement are Ann Durkin Keating, Invisible Networks: Exploring the History of Local Utilities and Public Works (Malabar, Fla.: Krieger, 1994); Stanley Clay Schultz and Clay McShane, "To Engineer the Metropolis: Sewers, Sanitation, and City Planning in Late-Nineteenth-Century America," J. Amer. Hist., 1978, 65: 389-411. While numerous authors address suburban development, the influence of medical thought on that development is consistently of secondary or passing concern; see Henry C. Binford, The First Suburbs: Residential Communities in the Boston Periphery, 1815-1860 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1985); Sam Bass Warner, Jr., Streetcar Suburbs: The Process of Growth in Boston, 1870-1900 (New York: Atheneum, 1973). Works addressing the various aspects of the reform movement are more varied in their consideration of medical issues; representative examples include Norris A. Magnuson, Salvation in the Slums: Evangelical Social Work, 1865-1920 (Metuchen, N.J.: Scarecrow Press, 1977); Sarah S. Elkind, "Building a Better Jungle: Anti-Urban Sentiment, Public Works, and Political Reform in American Cities, 1880-1930," J. Urban Hist., November 1997, 24: 53-77. Significant studies of the rural cemetery and urban park movements include Blanche Linden-Ward, Silent City on a Hill: landscapes of Memory and Boston's Mount Auburn Cemetery (Columbus: Ohio State University Press, 1989); Kenneth T. Jackson, Silent Cities: The Evolution of the American Cemetery (New York: Princeton Architectural Press, 1989); David Schuyler, The New Urban Landscape: The Redefinition of City Form in Nineteenth-Century America (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1986).
21. Works concerning period sanitation and street engineering necessarily tend to treat the influence of medical thought on urban development with greater emphasis. Two worthwhile studies of sanitary infrastructure and street improvement are Ann Durkin Keating, Invisible Networks: Exploring the History of Local Utilities and Public Works (Malabar, Fla.: Krieger, 1994); Stanley Clay Schultz and Clay McShane, "To Engineer the Metropolis: Sewers, Sanitation, and City Planning in Late-Nineteenth-Century America," J. Amer. Hist., 1978, 65: 389-411. While numerous authors address suburban development, the influence of medical thought on that development is consistently of secondary or passing concern; see Henry C. Binford, The First Suburbs: Residential Communities in the Boston Periphery, 1815-1860 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1985); Sam Bass Warner, Jr., Streetcar Suburbs: The Process of Growth in Boston, 1870-1900 (New York: Atheneum, 1973). Works addressing the various aspects of the reform movement are more varied in their consideration of medical issues; representative examples include Norris A. Magnuson, Salvation in the Slums: Evangelical Social Work, 1865-1920 (Metuchen, N.J.: Scarecrow Press, 1977); Sarah S. Elkind, "Building a Better Jungle: Anti-Urban Sentiment, Public Works, and Political Reform in American Cities, 1880-1930," J. Urban Hist., November 1997, 24: 53-77. Significant studies of the rural cemetery and urban park movements include Blanche Linden-Ward, Silent City on a Hill: landscapes of Memory and Boston's Mount Auburn Cemetery (Columbus: Ohio State University Press, 1989); Kenneth T. Jackson, Silent Cities: The Evolution of the American Cemetery (New York: Princeton Architectural Press, 1989); David Schuyler, The New Urban Landscape: The Redefinition of City Form in Nineteenth-Century America (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1986).
22. Works concerning period sanitation and street engineering necessarily tend to treat the influence of medical thought on urban development with greater emphasis. Two worthwhile studies of sanitary infrastructure and street improvement are Ann Durkin Keating, Invisible Networks: Exploring the History of Local Utilities and Public Works (Malabar, Fla.: Krieger, 1994); Stanley Clay Schultz and Clay McShane, "To Engineer the Metropolis: Sewers, Sanitation, and City Planning in Late-Nineteenth-Century America," J. Amer. Hist., 1978, 65: 389-411. While numerous authors address suburban development, the influence of medical thought on that development is consistently of secondary or passing concern; see Henry C. Binford, The First Suburbs: Residential Communities in the Boston Periphery, 1815-1860 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1985); Sam Bass Warner, Jr., Streetcar Suburbs: The Process of Growth in Boston, 1870-1900 (New York: Atheneum, 1973). Works addressing the various aspects of the reform movement are more varied in their consideration of medical issues; representative examples include Norris A. Magnuson, Salvation in the Slums: Evangelical Social Work, 1865-1920 (Metuchen, N.J.: Scarecrow Press, 1977); Sarah S. Elkind, "Building a Better Jungle: Anti-Urban Sentiment, Public Works, and Political Reform in American Cities, 1880-1930," J. Urban Hist., November 1997, 24: 53-77. Significant studies of the rural cemetery and urban park movements include Blanche Linden-Ward, Silent City on a Hill: landscapes of Memory and Boston's Mount Auburn Cemetery (Columbus: Ohio State University Press, 1989); Kenneth T. Jackson, Silent Cities: The Evolution of the American Cemetery (New York: Princeton Architectural Press, 1989); David Schuyler, The New Urban Landscape: The Redefinition of City Form in Nineteenth-Century America (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1986).
23. Works concerning period sanitation and street engineering necessarily tend to treat the influence of medical thought on urban development with greater emphasis. Two worthwhile studies of sanitary infrastructure and street improvement are Ann Durkin Keating, Invisible Networks: Exploring the History of Local Utilities and Public Works (Malabar, Fla.: Krieger, 1994); Stanley Clay Schultz and Clay McShane, "To Engineer the Metropolis: Sewers, Sanitation, and City Planning in Late-Nineteenth-Century America," J. Amer. Hist., 1978, 65: 389-411. While numerous authors address suburban development, the influence of medical thought on that development is consistently of secondary or passing concern; see Henry C. Binford, The First Suburbs: Residential Communities in the Boston Periphery, 1815-1860 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1985); Sam Bass Warner, Jr., Streetcar Suburbs: The Process of Growth in Boston, 1870-1900 (New York: Atheneum, 1973). Works addressing the various aspects of the reform movement are more varied in their consideration of medical issues; representative examples include Norris A. Magnuson, Salvation in the Slums: Evangelical Social Work, 1865-1920 (Metuchen, N.J.: Scarecrow Press, 1977); Sarah S. Elkind, "Building a Better Jungle: Anti-Urban Sentiment, Public Works, and Political Reform in American Cities, 1880-1930," J. Urban Hist., November 1997, 24: 53-77. Significant studies of the rural cemetery and urban park movements include Blanche Linden-Ward, Silent City on a Hill: landscapes of Memory and Boston's Mount Auburn Cemetery (Columbus: Ohio State University Press, 1989); Kenneth T. Jackson, Silent Cities: The Evolution of the American Cemetery (New York: Princeton Architectural Press, 1989); David Schuyler, The New Urban Landscape: The Redefinition of City Form in Nineteenth-Century America (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1986).
24. Works concerning period sanitation and street engineering necessarily tend to treat the influence of medical thought on urban development with greater emphasis. Two worthwhile studies of sanitary infrastructure and street improvement are Ann Durkin Keating, Invisible Networks: Exploring the History of Local Utilities and Public Works (Malabar, Fla.: Krieger, 1994); Stanley Clay Schultz and Clay McShane, "To Engineer the Metropolis: Sewers, Sanitation, and City Planning in Late-Nineteenth-Century America," J. Amer. Hist., 1978, 65: 389-411. While numerous authors address suburban development, the influence of medical thought on that development is consistently of secondary or passing concern; see Henry C. Binford, The First Suburbs: Residential Communities in the Boston Periphery, 1815-1860 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1985); Sam Bass Warner, Jr., Streetcar Suburbs: The Process of Growth in Boston, 1870-1900 (New York: Atheneum, 1973). Works addressing the various aspects of the reform movement are more varied in their consideration of medical issues; representative examples include Norris A. Magnuson, Salvation in the Slums: Evangelical Social Work, 1865-1920 (Metuchen, N.J.: Scarecrow Press, 1977); Sarah S. Elkind, "Building a Better Jungle: Anti-Urban Sentiment, Public Works, and Political Reform in American Cities, 1880-1930," J. Urban Hist., November 1997, 24: 53-77. Significant studies of the rural cemetery and urban park movements include Blanche Linden-Ward, Silent City on a Hill: landscapes of Memory and Boston's Mount Auburn Cemetery (Columbus: Ohio State University Press, 1989); Kenneth T. Jackson, Silent Cities: The Evolution of the American Cemetery (New York: Princeton Architectural Press, 1989); David Schuyler, The New Urban Landscape: The Redefinition of City Form in Nineteenth-Century America (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1986).
25. Works concerning period sanitation and street engineering necessarily tend to treat the influence of medical thought on urban development with greater emphasis. Two worthwhile studies of sanitary infrastructure and street improvement are Ann Durkin Keating, Invisible Networks: Exploring the History of Local Utilities and Public Works (Malabar, Fla.: Krieger, 1994); Stanley Clay Schultz and Clay McShane, "To Engineer the Metropolis: Sewers, Sanitation, and City Planning in Late-Nineteenth-Century America," J. Amer. Hist., 1978, 65: 389-411. While numerous authors address suburban development, the influence of medical thought on that development is consistently of secondary or passing concern; see Henry C. Binford, The First Suburbs: Residential Communities in the Boston Periphery, 1815-1860 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1985); Sam Bass Warner, Jr., Streetcar Suburbs: The Process of Growth in Boston, 1870-1900 (New York: Atheneum, 1973). Works addressing the various aspects of the reform movement are more varied in their consideration of medical issues; representative examples include Norris A. Magnuson, Salvation in the Slums: Evangelical Social Work, 1865-1920 (Metuchen, N.J.: Scarecrow Press, 1977); Sarah S. Elkind, "Building a Better Jungle: Anti-Urban Sentiment, Public Works, and Political Reform in American Cities, 1880-1930," J. Urban Hist., November 1997, 24: 53-77. Significant studies of the rural cemetery and urban park movements include Blanche Linden-Ward, Silent City on a Hill: landscapes of Memory and Boston's Mount Auburn Cemetery (Columbus: Ohio State University Press, 1989); Kenneth T. Jackson, Silent Cities: The Evolution of the American Cemetery (New York: Princeton Architectural Press, 1989); David Schuyler, The New Urban Landscape: The Redefinition of City Form in Nineteenth-Century America (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1986).
26. Works concerning period sanitation and street engineering necessarily tend to treat the influence of medical thought on urban development with greater emphasis. Two worthwhile studies of sanitary infrastructure and street improvement are Ann Durkin Keating, Invisible Networks: Exploring the History of Local Utilities and Public Works (Malabar, Fla.: Krieger, 1994); Stanley Clay Schultz and Clay McShane, "To Engineer the Metropolis: Sewers, Sanitation, and City Planning in Late-Nineteenth-Century America," J. Amer. Hist., 1978, 65: 389-411. While numerous authors address suburban development, the influence of medical thought on that development is consistently of secondary or passing concern; see Henry C. Binford, The First Suburbs: Residential Communities in the Boston Periphery, 1815-1860 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1985); Sam Bass Warner, Jr., Streetcar Suburbs: The Process of Growth in Boston, 1870-1900 (New York: Atheneum, 1973). Works addressing the various aspects of the reform movement are more varied in their consideration of medical issues; representative examples include Norris A. Magnuson, Salvation in the Slums: Evangelical Social Work, 1865-1920 (Metuchen, N.J.: Scarecrow Press, 1977); Sarah S. Elkind, "Building a Better Jungle: Anti-Urban Sentiment, Public Works, and Political Reform in American Cities, 1880-1930," J. Urban Hist., November 1997, 24: 53-77. Significant studies of the rural cemetery and urban park movements include Blanche Linden-Ward, Silent City on a Hill: landscapes of Memory and Boston's Mount Auburn Cemetery (Columbus: Ohio State University Press, 1989); Kenneth T. Jackson, Silent Cities: The Evolution of the American Cemetery (New York: Princeton Architectural Press, 1989); David Schuyler, The New Urban Landscape: The Redefinition of City Form in Nineteenth-Century America (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1986).
27. Works concerning period sanitation and street engineering necessarily tend to treat the influence of medical thought on urban development with greater emphasis. Two worthwhile studies of sanitary infrastructure and street improvement are Ann Durkin Keating, Invisible Networks: Exploring the History of Local Utilities and Public Works (Malabar, Fla.: Krieger, 1994); Stanley Clay Schultz and Clay McShane, "To Engineer the Metropolis: Sewers, Sanitation, and City Planning in Late-Nineteenth-Century America," J. Amer. Hist., 1978, 65: 389-411. While numerous authors address suburban development, the influence of medical thought on that development is consistently of secondary or passing concern; see Henry C. Binford, The First Suburbs: Residential Communities in the Boston Periphery, 1815-1860 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1985); Sam Bass Warner, Jr., Streetcar Suburbs: The Process of Growth in Boston, 1870-1900 (New York: Atheneum, 1973). Works addressing the various aspects of the reform movement are more varied in their consideration of medical issues; representative examples include Norris A. Magnuson, Salvation in the Slums: Evangelical Social Work, 1865-1920 (Metuchen, N.J.: Scarecrow Press, 1977); Sarah S. Elkind, "Building a Better Jungle: Anti-Urban Sentiment, Public Works, and Political Reform in American Cities, 1880-1930," J. Urban Hist., November 1997, 24: 53-77. Significant studies of the rural cemetery and urban park movements include Blanche Linden-Ward, Silent City on a Hill: landscapes of Memory and Boston's Mount Auburn Cemetery (Columbus: Ohio State University Press, 1989); Kenneth T. Jackson, Silent Cities: The Evolution of the American Cemetery (New York: Princeton Architectural Press, 1989); David Schuyler, The New Urban Landscape: The Redefinition of City Form in Nineteenth-Century America (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1986).
28. One notable exception is the work of Jon A. Peterson, who looked at the general implications of medical thought on urban built form in "The Impact of Sanitary Reform upon American Urban Planning, 1840-1890," J. Soc. Hist., 1979, 13: 83-103.
29. For a history of the Hippocratic connection of climate and landform to health, see Frederick Sargent II, Hippocratic Heritage: A History of Ideas about Weather and Human Health (New York: Pergamon Press, 1982).
30. Warner, Therapeutic Perspective (n. 1), p. 198.
31. Christopher Hamlin, "Predisposing Causes and Public Health in Early Nineteenth-Century Medical Thought," Bull. Soc. Hist. Med., 1992, 5: 43-70; quotation on p. 70.
32. Ibid., p. 62.
33. Thomas Hepburn Buckler, A History of Epidemic Cholera, as it appeared at The Baltimore City and County Alms-house, in the summer of 1849: with some remarks on the medical topography and diseases of this region (Baltimore: Patent Cylinder Press, 1851).
34. Ibid., p. 36.
35. Ibid., p. 28. Appended to the document was a meteorologic chart prepared by another physician documenting the presence of "electricity" in the atmosphere during the outbreak. Buckler makes no reference to these data in his report, and we do not know to what degree he saw those atmospheric conditions as contributing to the outbreak.
36. Warner, Therapeutic Perspective (n. 1), p. 37.
37. Ibid., p. 58.
38. Ibid., p. 72.
39. While Warner sets the stage for understanding the reasons behind a rise in environmental etiologic thought, others have suggested the importance of miasma within this particular culture. James Cassedy has documented the development of American etiologic thought in antebellum America and suggests that in the six to eight decades prior to the war "a large proportion" of the medical profession endorsed some form of causal link between the physical environment and its phenomena - climate, winds, soil, topography, drainage, etc. - with disease: James H. Cassedy, Mediane and American Growth 1800-1860 (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1986), p. 34. Charles E. Rosenberg, in Explaining Epidemics and Other Studies in the History of Medicine (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992), p. 117, has written that "almost all" physicians in the 1830s knew of miasma and understood its essential role in producing disease. Michael Owen Jones has documented the popularity of "medical geographies" written between 1770 and 1830 by pioneer settlers (laypersons and medical professionals alike) as they described the new environments encountered in their travels and documented attendant affects on health: Michael Owen Jones, "Climate and Disease: The Traveller Describes America," Bull. Hist. Med., 1967, 41: 254-66. Phyllis Allen Richmond "glanced" at the etiologic sections of books and journals and reported on the regularity of miasmatic theories; she wrote: "The atmospheric, chemical, and miasmatic theories so dominated etiologic thought in the 1870's that when alternative views arose, . . . American reviewers were cautious and non-committal" (Phyllis Allen Richmond, "American Attitudes Toward the Germ Theory of Disease [1860-1880]," J. Hist. Med. & Allied Sci., October 1954, 9: 430).
40. While Warner sets the stage for understanding the reasons behind a rise in environmental etiologic thought, others have suggested the importance of miasma within this particular culture. James Cassedy has documented the development of American etiologic thought in antebellum America and suggests that in the six to eight decades prior to the war "a large proportion" of the medical profession endorsed some form of causal link between the physical environment and its phenomena - climate, winds, soil, topography, drainage, etc. - with disease: James H. Cassedy, Mediane and American Growth 1800-1860 (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1986), p. 34. Charles E. Rosenberg, in Explaining Epidemics and Other Studies in the History of Medicine (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992), p. 117, has written that "almost all" physicians in the 1830s knew of miasma and understood its essential role in producing disease. Michael Owen Jones has documented the popularity of "medical geographies" written between 1770 and 1830 by pioneer settlers (laypersons and medical professionals alike) as they described the new environments encountered in their travels and documented attendant affects on health: Michael Owen Jones, "Climate and Disease: The Traveller Describes America," Bull. Hist. Med., 1967, 41: 254-66. Phyllis Allen Richmond "glanced" at the etiologic sections of books and journals and reported on the regularity of miasmatic theories; she wrote: "The atmospheric, chemical, and miasmatic theories so dominated etiologic thought in the 1870's that when alternative views arose, . . . American reviewers were cautious and non-committal" (Phyllis Allen Richmond, "American Attitudes Toward the Germ Theory of Disease [1860-1880]," J. Hist. Med. & Allied Sci., October 1954, 9: 430).
41. While Warner sets the stage for understanding the reasons behind a rise in environmental etiologic thought, others have suggested the importance of miasma within this particular culture. James Cassedy has documented the development of American etiologic thought in antebellum America and suggests that in the six to eight decades prior to the war "a large proportion" of the medical profession endorsed some form of causal link between the physical environment and its phenomena - climate, winds, soil, topography, drainage, etc. - with disease: James H. Cassedy, Mediane and American Growth 1800-1860 (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1986), p. 34. Charles E. Rosenberg, in Explaining Epidemics and Other Studies in the History of Medicine (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992), p. 117, has written that "almost all" physicians in the 1830s knew of miasma and understood its essential role in producing disease. Michael Owen Jones has documented the popularity of "medical geographies" written between 1770 and 1830 by pioneer settlers (laypersons and medical professionals alike) as they described the new environments encountered in their travels and documented attendant affects on health: Michael Owen Jones, "Climate and Disease: The Traveller Describes America," Bull. Hist. Med., 1967, 41: 254-66. Phyllis Allen Richmond "glanced" at the etiologic sections of books and journals and reported on the regularity of miasmatic theories; she wrote: "The atmospheric, chemical, and miasmatic theories so dominated etiologic thought in the 1870's that when alternative views arose, . . . American reviewers were cautious and non-committal" (Phyllis Allen Richmond, "American Attitudes Toward the Germ Theory of Disease [1860-1880]," J. Hist. Med. & Allied Sci., October 1954, 9: 430).
42. While Warner sets the stage for understanding the reasons behind a rise in environmental etiologic thought, others have suggested the importance of miasma within this particular culture. James Cassedy has documented the development of American etiologic thought in antebellum America and suggests that in the six to eight decades prior to the war "a large proportion" of the medical profession endorsed some form of causal link between the physical environment and its phenomena - climate, winds, soil, topography, drainage, etc. - with disease: James H. Cassedy, Mediane and American Growth 1800-1860 (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1986), p. 34. Charles E. Rosenberg, in Explaining Epidemics and Other Studies in the History of Medicine (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992), p. 117, has written that "almost all" physicians in the 1830s knew of miasma and understood its essential role in producing disease. Michael Owen Jones has documented the popularity of "medical geographies" written between 1770 and 1830 by pioneer settlers (laypersons and medical professionals alike) as they described the new environments encountered in their travels and documented attendant affects on health: Michael Owen Jones, "Climate and Disease: The Traveller Describes America," Bull. Hist. Med., 1967, 41: 254-66. Phyllis Allen Richmond "glanced" at the etiologic sections of books and journals and reported on the regularity of miasmatic theories; she wrote: "The atmospheric, chemical, and miasmatic theories so dominated etiologic thought in the 1870's that when alternative views arose, . . . American reviewers were cautious and non-committal" (Phyllis Allen Richmond, "American Attitudes Toward the Germ Theory of Disease [1860-1880]," J. Hist. Med. & Allied Sci., October 1954, 9: 430).
43. Jabez Wiggins Heustis, Physical Observations, and Medical Tracts and Researches on the Topography and Diseases of Louisiana (New York: T & J Swords, 1817), p. 42.
44. Cadwallader Colden, "Observations on the Fever which prevailed in the City of New-York in 1741 and 2," Amer. Med. & Philos. Reg., 1811, 1: 310-30. It can be assumed that Colden's word carried significant weight. As a member of the American intelligentsia, he was in frequent correspondence with botanist John Bartram. As well, Benjamin Franklin sought his judgment before going public with his ideas: see preface to The letters and Papers of Cadwallader Colden (Pennsylvania State University Library; New York: New York Historical Society, 1918), vol. 1 (1730-42), microform.
45. Cadwallader Colden, "Observations on the Fever which prevailed in the City of New-York in 1741 and 2," Amer. Med. & Philos. Reg., 1811, 1: 310-30. It can be assumed that Colden's word carried significant weight. As a member of the American intelligentsia, he was in frequent correspondence with botanist John Bartram. As well, Benjamin Franklin sought his judgment before going public with his ideas: see preface to The letters and Papers of Cadwallader Colden (Pennsylvania State University Library; New York: New York Historical Society, 1918), vol. 1 (1730-42), microform.
46. Martha J. Lamb, History of the City of New York, Its Origin, Rise, and Progress, vol. 1 (New York: A. S. Barnes, 1877), p. 589, seems to indicate that part of his advice was indeed adopted by city officials, but she offers no verification. Saul Jarcho, in "Cadwallader Colden as a Student of Infectious Disease," Bull. Hist. Med., 1955, 29: 103, relies on Lamb's evaluation.
47. Martha J. Lamb, History of the City of New York, Its Origin, Rise, and Progress, vol. 1 (New York: A. S. Barnes, 1877), p. 589, seems to indicate that part of his advice was indeed adopted by city officials, but she offers no verification. Saul Jarcho, in "Cadwallader Colden as a Student of Infectious Disease," Bull. Hist. Med., 1955, 29: 103, relies on Lamb's evaluation.
48. In Paris, Parent-Duchâtelet and Louis-René Villermé, through statistical analysis, maintained that disease was a manifestation of poverty. Conversely, Chadwick in England believed that poverty was nota causative factor but was rather a manifestation of disease and ill health. He concluded that the most appropriate intervention was environmental modification, especially the removal of pathogenic conditions. For an excellent history of the origins of the British and French public health movements, see Ann F. La Berge, Mission and Method: The Early Nineteenth-Century French Public Health Movement (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992).
49. Heustis, Physical Observations (n. 17), p. 13.
50. Matthew L. Davis, A Brief Account of the Epidemical Fever Which Lately Prevailed in the City of New York, With the Different Proclamations, Reports, and Letters of Gov. Jay . . . (New York: Matthew L. Davis, 1795), p. 39.
51. James Lind, An Essay on Diseases Incidental to Europeans in Hot Climates, 1st Amer. ed. from 6th London ed. (Philadelphia: W. Duane, 1811), pp. 13-37; quotation on p. 13.
52. Ibid., p. 36.
53. Daniel Drake, A Systematic Treatise, Historical, Etiological, and Practical, on the Principal Diseases of the Interior Valley of North America, as They Appear in the Caucasian, African, Indian and Esquimaux Varieties of Its Population, ed. S. Hanbury Smith and Francis G. Smith, 2d ser. (Philadelphia: Lippincott, Brambo, 1854), pp. 23-30, quotation on p. 23.
54. Ibid., p. 25.
55. Ibid., pp. 29-30.
56. At the time of his appointment to the Commission, Olmsted was a well-known author and had recently received public attention for the design of Central Park. The park was under construction when he took a leave of absence and went to Washington, D.C. to begin his war work. He was especially noted for his organizational skills in the administration of large projects, which helps explain his prominence in the Commission.
57. Alfred C. Post and W. H. Van Buren, "Military Hygiene and Therapeutics," in United States Sanitary Commission, Military, Medical and Surgical Essays Prepared for the United States Sanitary Commission 1862-1864 (Washington, D.C., 1865), 27 pp.; quotation on p. 8.
58. John T. Metcalf et al., "Miasmatic Fevers," in ibid., 23 pp.; quotation on p. 1.
59. Duffy, Sanitarians (n. 2), pp. 113-29.
60. Elisha Harris, "Hints for the Control and Prevention of Infectious
61. Nancy Tomes, "The Private Side of Public Health: Sanitary Science, Domestic Hygiene, and the Germ Theory, 1870-1900," Bull. Hist. Med., 1990, 64: 509-39; quotation on p. 511.
62. Ibid., p. 512.
63. Cassedy, Medicine (n. 16), pp. 54-59.
64. Olmsted's work and voluminous writings have been analyzed thoroughly and aptly by a number of historians, and most thoroughly by Laura Wood Roper. For Olmsted's philosophy toward a changing urban culture, see the excellent discussion in Thomas Bender, Toward an Urban Vision: Ideas and Institutions in Nineteenth-Century America (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1975), chap. 7; Bender also includes a helpful analysis of additional sources of Olmsted's urban reflections in the "Bibliographical Essay," pp. 266-68. Rauch's involvement as a Civil War physician preceded his immersion in the public health issues of Chicago and his eventual leadership role in the Department of Health for the State of Illinois. It is obvious that his was a deeply held, personal mission of public health advocacy.
65. Olmsted's work and voluminous writings have been analyzed thoroughly and aptly by a number of historians, and most thoroughly by Laura Wood Roper. For Olmsted's philosophy toward a changing urban culture, see the excellent discussion in Thomas Bender, Toward an Urban Vision: Ideas and Institutions in Nineteenth-Century America (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1975), chap. 7; Bender also includes a helpful analysis of additional sources of Olmsted's urban reflections in the "Bibliographical Essay," pp. 266-68. Rauch's involvement as a Civil War physician preceded his immersion in the public health issues of Chicago and his eventual leadership role in the Department of Health for the State of Illinois. It is obvious that his was a deeply held, personal mission of public health advocacy.
66. Specifically regarding Chicago, see Isaac D. Rawlings, The Rise and Fall of Disease in Illinois (Springfield: Illinois State Department of Health, 1927), 1: 101-14; Thomas Neville Bonner, Medicine in Chicago: 1850-1950, 2d ed. (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1991), p. 7.
67. Specifically regarding Chicago, see Isaac D. Rawlings, The Rise and Fall of Disease in Illinois (Springfield: Illinois State Department of Health, 1927), 1: 101-14; Thomas Neville Bonner, Medicine in Chicago: 1850-1950, 2d ed. (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1991), p. 7.
68. Chicago Democrat, 17 June 1835, n.p. (Chicago Historical Society).
69. Bessie Louise Pierce, A History of Chicago (New York: Knopf, 1937-57), 2: 317. While the raising of buildings and streets was an extreme measure - the Board of Health reported that within two decades 4,000 acres of the city had been "raised to a grade of 3 to 5 feet above the bottomless quagmire which formerly bordered this shore of Lake Michigan" (quoted in Sophonisba Breckinridge, "Tenement-house Legislation in Chicago," in The Tenements of Chicago: 1908-1935, ed. Edith Abbott [New York: Arno Press, 1970; 1936], p. 40) - it was an action taken as much for lhe health of its residents as for the health of business in the rapidly growing city.
70. Bessie Louise Pierce, A History of Chicago (New York: Knopf, 1937-57), 2: 317. While the raising of buildings and streets was an extreme measure - the Board of Health reported that within two decades 4,000 acres of the city had been "raised to a grade of 3 to 5 feet above the bottomless quagmire which formerly bordered this shore of Lake Michigan" (quoted in Sophonisba Breckinridge, "Tenement-house Legislation in Chicago," in The Tenements of Chicago: 1908-1935, ed. Edith Abbott [New York: Arno Press, 1970; 1936], p. 40) - it was an action taken as much for lhe health of its residents as for the health of business in the rapidly growing city.
71. John H. Rauch, Intramural Interments in Populous Cities and Their Influence upon Health and Epidemics (Chicago: Tribune Co., 1866), pp. 56-57. For a description of Rauch's role, see Francis Eastman, "The Public Parks of Chicago," in Chicago City Manual (Chicago: Bureau of Statistics, 1914), pp. 7-31, especially p. 13; Glen Holt, "Private Plans for Public Spaces: The Origins of Chicago's Park System, 1850-1875," in Chicago History (Chicago: Chicago Historical Society, 1979), pp. 173-84. In addition to Rauch's compelling medical testimony, pressure was placed on the city council for the development of a park on the cemetery grounds by investors of the North Chicago Street Railway Company, comprised of prominent citizens, who, in seeking to obtain the rights to build a road, argued the potential for future residential development of the area, as well as the probable conversion of the cemetery to a public park.
72. John H. Rauch, Intramural Interments in Populous Cities and Their Influence upon Health and Epidemics (Chicago: Tribune Co., 1866), pp. 56-57. For a description of Rauch's role, see Francis Eastman, "The Public Parks of Chicago," in Chicago City Manual (Chicago: Bureau of Statistics, 1914), pp. 7-31, especially p. 13; Glen Holt, "Private Plans for Public Spaces: The Origins of Chicago's Park System, 1850-1875," in Chicago History (Chicago: Chicago Historical Society, 1979), pp. 173-84. In addition to Rauch's compelling medical testimony, pressure was placed on the city council for the development of a park on the cemetery grounds by investors of the North Chicago Street Railway Company, comprised of prominent citizens, who, in seeking to obtain the rights to build a road, argued the potential for future residential development of the area, as well as the probable conversion of the cemetery to a public park.
73. John H. Rauch, Intramural Interments in Populous Cities and Their Influence upon Health and Epidemics (Chicago: Tribune Co., 1866), pp. 56-57. For a description of Rauch's role, see Francis Eastman, "The Public Parks of Chicago," in Chicago City Manual (Chicago: Bureau of Statistics, 1914), pp. 7-31, especially p. 13; Glen Holt, "Private Plans for Public Spaces: The Origins of Chicago's Park System, 1850-1875," in Chicago History (Chicago: Chicago Historical Society, 1979), pp. 173-84. In addition to Rauch's compelling medical testimony, pressure was placed on the city council for the development of a park on the cemetery grounds by investors of the North Chicago Street Railway Company, comprised of prominent citizens, who, in seeking to obtain the rights to build a road, argued the potential for future residential development of the area, as well as the probable conversion of the cemetery to a public park.
74. Rauch, Intramural Interments (n. 40), pp. 56-60; quotation on p. 59.
75. Ibid., p. 24.
76. Ibid., pp. 56-57.
77. Andrew Jackson Downing, "Your Leader, on Cemeteries and Public Gardens," Horticulturist & J. Rural Art & Rural Taste [ed. Andrew Jackson Downing], 1849, 4: 139.
78. Holt, "Private Plans" (n. 40), pp. 175-76.
79. Schuyler, New Urban Landscape (n. 4), p. 41.
80. Rauch, Intramural Interments (n. 40), p. 66. The footnote in the text served to warm readers that no removals should be made from May to November, known as the most dangerous months for epidemics.
81. Eastman's "Public Parks" (n. 40) is a straightforward account of the birth of the three park commissions, with observations of the attendant political power plays.
82. Rauch to F. L. Olmsted, 13 April 1869, in The Papers of Frederick Law Olmsted (Pennsylvania State University Library; Washington, D.C.: Library of Congress Photoduplication Service, 1975), microfilm (hereafter Olmsted Papers).
83. The Academy had previously concerned itself exclusively with the promotion of scientific knowledge and investigation. Why, then, would it throw its weight into the park debate? One possible connection is through Ezra B. McCagg, member of the Academy and a lawyer specializing in real estate law (McCagg's law partner, J. Young Scammon, was one of the founding members of the Academy). Instrumental in the passage of Lincoln Park, McCagg held one of the powerful Lincoln Park commissioner positions and was a colleague of Olmsted. According to Eastman, a gentleman's agreement was made for the support of park commissions in the West and South districts in return for the earlier passage of the Lincoln Park Commission. See Eastman, "Public Parks" (n. 40), p. 15. The park commissioners were governor-appointed and enjoyed financial independence from the municipality.
84. John H. Rauch, Public Parks: Their Effects upon the Moral, Physical and Sanitary Condition of the Inhabitants of Large Cities; With Special Reference to the City of Chicago (Chicago: S. C. Griggs, 1869).
85. Rauch, Intramural Interments (n. 40), p. 23. Vegetation's role in purifying "vitiated" air and producing oxygen was finally becoming common knowledge in America. For example, the production of oxygen by trees was patiently described in two earlier articles in the scholarly North American Review: "The Chemistry of Vegetation," 1845, 60(126): 157-95; "Trees and Their Uses," 1857, 85 (176): 178-205.
86. Rauch, Intramural Interments (n. 40), p. 23. Vegetation's role in purifying "vitiated" air and producing oxygen was finally becoming common knowledge in America. For example, the production of oxygen by trees was patiently described in two earlier articles in the scholarly North American Review: "The Chemistry of Vegetation," 1845, 60(126): 157-95; "Trees and Their Uses," 1857, 85 (176): 178-205.
87. Rauch, Intramural Interments (n. 40), p. 23. Vegetation's role in purifying "vitiated" air and producing oxygen was finally becoming common knowledge in America. For example, the production of oxygen by trees was patiently described in two earlier articles in the scholarly North American Review: "The Chemistry of Vegetation," 1845, 60(126): 157-95; "Trees and Their Uses," 1857, 85 (176): 178-205.
88. Rauch, Public Parks (n. 51), p. 79 n. It is interesting to note that the bulk of his eighty-four-page report focuses on environmental factors in preventing disease; only at the very end does he briefly mention the psychological and moral benefits of parks, the two arguments that prevail in historiographic depictions of the era.
89. Ibid., pp. 83-84.
90. John Henry Rauch, The Sanitary Problems of Chicago, Past and Present (Cambridge, Mass.: Riverside Press, 1879), p. 15.
91. Rauch, Public Parks (n. 51), p. 31n.
92. Ibid.
93. Regarding preparation of the report Public Parks, see Rauch to Olmsted, 12, 20, and 21 January 1869, Olmsted Papers (n. 49). Regarding Olmsted and Vaux's involvement in the design of the park, see Rauch to Olmsted, 13, 21, and 22 April 1869; McCagg to Olmsted, 1 May 1869, ibid.
94. Regarding preparation of the report Public Parks, see Rauch to Olmsted, 12, 20, and 21 January 1869, Olmsted Papers (n. 49). Regarding Olmsted and Vaux's involvement in the design of the park, see Rauch to Olmsted, 13, 21, and 22 April 1869; McCagg to Olmsted, 1 May 1869, ibid.
95. Laura Wood Roper, FLO: A Biography of Frederick Law Olmsted (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1973).
96. London, in his own Architectural Magazine and Journal (London: Longman etc., 1838), 5: 619, references noted phrenologist George Combe's The Constitution of Man: Considered in Relation to External Objects, 5th ed. (Edinburgh: J. Anderson, Jnr., 1835), and John Macculloch, Malaria; An Essay on the Production and Propagation of This Poison, and on the Nature and Localities of the Places by Which It Is Produced . . . (Philadelphia: T. Kite, 1829); and Sir James Clark, The Influence of Climate in the Prevention and Cure of Chronic Diseases . . . (London: T. and G. Underwood, 1830), as essential to understanding urban design.
97. London, in his own Architectural Magazine and Journal (London: Longman etc., 1838), 5: 619, references noted phrenologist George Combe's The Constitution of Man: Considered in Relation to External Objects, 5th ed. (Edinburgh: J. Anderson, Jnr., 1835), and John Macculloch, Malaria; An Essay on the Production and Propagation of This Poison, and on the Nature and Localities of the Places by Which It Is Produced . . . (Philadelphia: T. Kite, 1829); and Sir James Clark, The Influence of Climate in the Prevention and Cure of Chronic Diseases . . . (London: T. and G. Underwood, 1830), as essential to understanding urban design.
98. London, in his own Architectural Magazine and Journal (London: Longman etc., 1838), 5: 619, references noted phrenologist George Combe's The Constitution of Man: Considered in Relation to External Objects, 5th ed. (Edinburgh: J. Anderson, Jnr., 1835), and John Macculloch, Malaria; An Essay on the Production and Propagation of This Poison, and on the Nature and Localities of the Places by Which It Is Produced . . . (Philadelphia: T. Kite, 1829); and Sir James Clark, The Influence of Climate in the Prevention and Cure of Chronic Diseases . . . (London: T. and G. Underwood, 1830), as essential to understanding urban design.
99. London, in his own Architectural Magazine and Journal (London: Longman etc., 1838), 5: 619, references noted phrenologist George Combe's The Constitution of Man: Considered in Relation to External Objects, 5th ed. (Edinburgh: J. Anderson, Jnr., 1835), and John Macculloch, Malaria; An Essay on the Production and Propagation of This Poison, and on the Nature and Localities of the Places by Which It Is Produced . . . (Philadelphia: T. Kite, 1829); and Sir James Clark, The Influence of Climate in the Prevention and Cure of Chronic Diseases . . . (London: T. and G. Underwood, 1830), as essential to understanding urban design.
100. There is sustained and at times affectionate correspondence from Waring to Olmsted in Olmsted Papers (n. 49).
101. George E. Waring, Jr., Draining for Profit, and Draining for Health, 2d ed. (New York: Orange Judd Company, 1879).
102. Frederick Law Olmsted et al., "Report to the Staten Island Improvement Commission of a Preliminary Scheme of Improvements" (1871), in Landscape into Cityscape: Frederick Law Olmsted's Plans for a Greater New York City, ed. Albert Fein (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1968), pp. 173-300.
103. Ibid., p. 199.
104. Ibid., pp. 207-37.
105. Frederick Law Olmsted and J. J. R. Croes, "Preliminary Report . . . upon the Laying Out of the Twenty-third and Twenty-fourth Wards" (1877), in Civilizing American Cities: A Selection of Frederick Law Olmsted's Writings on City Landscapes, ed. S. B. Sutton (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1971), pp. 41-51, quotation on p. 49.
106. Olmsted, Vaux & Co., Observation on the Progress of Improvements in Street Plans, with Special Reference to the Park-way Proposed to Be Laid Out in Brooklyn, 1868 (Brooklyn: I. van Anden's Print, 1868), p. 17.
107. Ibid., p. 18.
108. Frederick Law Olmsted, "Public Parks and the Enlargement of Towns" (1870), in Sutton, Civilizing American Cities (n. 66), pp. 52-99, quotation on p. 70.
109. Ibid., p. 72.
110. Charles E. Beveridge, "Frederick Law Olmsted," in American Landscape Architecture: Designers and Places, ed. William H. Tishler (Washington, D.C.: Preservation Press, 1989), p. 38.