Therapeutics and the history of psychiatry

Bulletin of the History of Medicine

Volumn 74, Issue 4, 2000, Pages 794-802

  Braslow, Joel T ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ARTICLE; HISTORY; HUMAN; PSYCHIATRY; UNITED STATES;

HISTORY, 19TH CENTURY; HISTORY, 20TH CENTURY; HUMANS; PSYCHIATRY; UNITED STATES;

EID: 0034565057     PISSN: 00075140     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1353/bhm.2000.0161     Document Type: Review

References (50)

1. Jack David Pressman, Last Resort: Psychosurgery and the Limits of Medicine (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998).
2. This point is made particularly clear in Mark S. Micale and Roy Porter, eds., Discovering the History of Psychiatry (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994). In a similar vein, Otto Marx writes: "All historical writing is done from a particular historical, geographical and cultural perspective. And since history is concerned with meaningful events, the historian's choice of topic and his expectations must be added to the influence on his approach if not his findings. This is especially true for the history of psychiatry which invariably evokes a host of feelings" ("What Is the History of Psychiatry? II," Hist. Psychiatry, 1992, 3: 293-301; quotation on pp. 293-94).
3. This point is made particularly clear in Mark S. Micale and Roy Porter, eds., Discovering the History of Psychiatry (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994). In a similar vein, Otto Marx writes: "All historical writing is done from a particular historical, geographical and cultural perspective. And since history is concerned with meaningful events, the historian's choice of topic and his expectations must be added to the influence on his approach if not his findings. This is especially true for the history of psychiatry which invariably evokes a host of feelings" ("What Is the History of Psychiatry? II," Hist. Psychiatry, 1992, 3: 293-301; quotation on pp. 293-94).
4. To be convinced of the enormous increase in the number of psychiatric ills one might become afflicted with, compare the 1952 and 1994 editions of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual American Psychiatric Association, Diagnostic and Statistical Manual [of] Mental Disorders (Washington, D.C.: American Psychiatric Association, 1952); and Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders: DSM-IV (Washington, D.C.: American Psychiatric Association, 1994).
5. To be convinced of the enormous increase in the number of psychiatric ills one might become afflicted with, compare the 1952 and 1994 editions of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual American Psychiatric Association, Diagnostic and Statistical Manual [of] Mental Disorders (Washington, D.C.: American Psychiatric Association, 1952); and Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders: DSM-IV (Washington, D.C.: American Psychiatric Association, 1994).
6. Gregory Zilboorg, A History of Medical Psychology (York: W. W. Norton, 1941); Edward Shorter, A History of Psychiatry: From the Era of the Asylum to the Age of Prozac (New York: Wiley, 1997).
7. Gregory Zilboorg, A History of Medical Psychology (York: W. W. Norton, 1941); Edward Shorter, A History of Psychiatry: From the Era of the Asylum to the Age of Prozac (New York: Wiley, 1997).
8. Erwin H. Ackerknecht, "A Plea for a 'Behaviorist' Approach in Writing the History of Medicine," J. Hist. Med. & Allied Sci., 1967, 22: 211-14.
9. This is a rapidly growing literature. See, for example, Charles E. Rosenberg and Morris J. Vogel, eds., The Therapeutic Revolution: Essays in the Social History of American Medicine (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1979); Regina Markell Morantz and Sue Zschoche, "Professionalism, Feminism, and Gender Roles: A Comparative Study of Nineteenth-Century Medical Therapeutics," J. Amer. Hist., 1980, 67: 568-88; John Harley Warner, The Therapeutic Perspective: Medical Practice, Knowledge, and Identity in America, 1820-1885 (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1986); Joel D. Howell, Technology in the Hospital: Transforming Patient Care in the Early Twentieth Century (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1995).
10. This is a rapidly growing literature. See, for example, Charles E. Rosenberg and Morris J. Vogel, eds., The Therapeutic Revolution: Essays in the Social History of American Medicine (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1979); Regina Markell Morantz and Sue Zschoche, "Professionalism, Feminism, and Gender Roles: A Comparative Study of Nineteenth-Century Medical Therapeutics," J. Amer. Hist., 1980, 67: 568-88; John Harley Warner, The Therapeutic Perspective: Medical Practice, Knowledge, and Identity in America, 1820-1885 (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1986); Joel D. Howell, Technology in the Hospital: Transforming Patient Care in the Early Twentieth Century (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1995).
11. This is a rapidly growing literature. See, for example, Charles E. Rosenberg and Morris J. Vogel, eds., The Therapeutic Revolution: Essays in the Social History of American Medicine (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1979); Regina Markell Morantz and Sue Zschoche, "Professionalism, Feminism, and Gender Roles: A Comparative Study of Nineteenth-Century Medical Therapeutics," J. Amer. Hist., 1980, 67: 568-88; John Harley Warner, The Therapeutic Perspective: Medical Practice, Knowledge, and Identity in America, 1820-1885 (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1986); Joel D. Howell, Technology in the Hospital: Transforming Patient Care in the Early Twentieth Century (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1995).
12. This is a rapidly growing literature. See, for example, Charles E. Rosenberg and Morris J. Vogel, eds., The Therapeutic Revolution: Essays in the Social History of American Medicine (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1979); Regina Markell Morantz and Sue Zschoche, "Professionalism, Feminism, and Gender Roles: A Comparative Study of Nineteenth-Century Medical Therapeutics," J. Amer. Hist., 1980, 67: 568-88; John Harley Warner, The Therapeutic Perspective: Medical Practice, Knowledge, and Identity in America, 1820-1885 (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1986); Joel D. Howell, Technology in the Hospital: Transforming Patient Care in the Early Twentieth Century (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1995).
13. Gerald N. Grob's many works include The State and the Mentally Ill: A History of Worcester State Hospital in Massachusetts, 1830-1920 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1966); Mental Institutions in America: Social Policy to 1875 (New York: Free Press, 1973); Mental Illness and American Society, 1875-19-10 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1983); From Asylum to Community: Mental Health Policy in Modern America (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1991); and The Mad Among Us: A History of the Care of America's Mentally Ill (New York: Free Press, 1994).
14. Gerald N. Grob's many works include The State and the Mentally Ill: A History of Worcester State Hospital in Massachusetts, 1830-1920 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1966); Mental Institutions in America: Social Policy to 1875 (New York: Free Press, 1973); Mental Illness and American Society, 1875-19-10 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1983); From Asylum to Community: Mental Health Policy in Modern America (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1991); and The Mad Among Us: A History of the Care of America's Mentally Ill (New York: Free Press, 1994).
15. Gerald N. Grob's many works include The State and the Mentally Ill: A History of Worcester State Hospital in Massachusetts, 1830-1920 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1966); Mental Institutions in America: Social Policy to 1875 (New York: Free Press, 1973); Mental Illness and American Society, 1875-19-10 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1983); From Asylum to Community: Mental Health Policy in Modern America (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1991); and The Mad Among Us: A History of the Care of America's Mentally Ill (New York: Free Press, 1994).
16. Gerald N. Grob's many works include The State and the Mentally Ill: A History of Worcester State Hospital in Massachusetts, 1830-1920 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1966); Mental Institutions in America: Social Policy to 1875 (New York: Free Press, 1973); Mental Illness and American Society, 1875-19-10 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1983); From Asylum to Community: Mental Health Policy in Modern America (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1991); and The Mad Among Us: A History of the Care of America's Mentally Ill (New York: Free Press, 1994).
17. Gerald N. Grob's many works include The State and the Mentally Ill: A History of Worcester State Hospital in Massachusetts, 1830-1920 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1966); Mental Institutions in America: Social Policy to 1875 (New York: Free Press, 1973); Mental Illness and American Society, 1875-19-10 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1983); From Asylum to Community: Mental Health Policy in Modern America (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1991); and The Mad Among Us: A History of the Care of America's Mentally Ill (New York: Free Press, 1994).
18. Andrew T. Scull, Museums of Madness: The Social Organization of Insanity in Nineteenth-Century England (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1979).
19. Charlotte MacKenzie, Psychiatry for the Rich: A History of Ticehurst Private Asylum, 1792-1917 (New York: Routledge, 1992); Anne Digby, Madness, Morality, and Medicine: A Study of the York Retreat, 1796-1914 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985).
20. Charlotte MacKenzie, Psychiatry for the Rich: A History of Ticehurst Private Asylum, 1792-1917 (New York: Routledge, 1992); Anne Digby, Madness, Morality, and Medicine: A Study of the York Retreat, 1796-1914 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985).
21. Nancy Tomes, A Generous Confidence: Thomas Story Kirkbride and the Art of Asylum-Keeping, 18-10-1883 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984); Ellen Dwyer, Homes for the Mad: Life inside Two Nineteenth-Century Asylums (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1987).
22. Nancy Tomes, A Generous Confidence: Thomas Story Kirkbride and the Art of Asylum-Keeping, 18-10-1883 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984); Ellen Dwyer, Homes for the Mad: Life inside Two Nineteenth-Century Asylums (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1987).
23. The most common and difficult to treat side effect of long-term antipsychotic drug usage is tardive dyskinesia. Patients afflicted with this disorder exhibit involuntary, writhing movements affecting the trunk, the arms, and facial and tongue muscles. This difficult-to-reverse sequela was not recognized until the late 1950s, several years after the widespread use of the drugs. For a brief history of tardive dyskinesia, see Pierre Deniker, "From Chlorpromazine to Tardive Dsykinesia (a Brief History of the Neuroleptics)," Psychiatry J. Univ. Ottawa, 1989, 14: 253-59.
24. Andrew Scull, "Somatic Treatments and the Historiography of Psychiatry," Hist. Psychiatry, 1994, 5: 1-12; quotation on p. 12.
25. For the full volley of articles and responses, see Andrew Scull, "Psychiatrists and Historical Facts. 1. The Historiography of Somatic Treatments," Hist. Psychiatry, 1995, 6: 225-41; idem, "Psychiatrists and Historical Facts. 2. Re-Writing the History of Asylumdom," ibid., pp. 387-94; Harold Merskey, Comment (1): "Somatic Treatments, Ignorance, and the Historiography of Psychiatry," ibid., 1994, 5: 387-91; "H. Merskey Replies to Scull," ibid., 1995, 6: 240-41.
26. For the full volley of articles and responses, see Andrew Scull, "Psychiatrists and Historical Facts. 1. The Historiography of Somatic Treatments," Hist. Psychiatry, 1995, 6: 225-41; idem, "Psychiatrists and Historical Facts. 2. Re-Writing the History of Asylumdom," ibid., pp. 387-94; Harold Merskey, Comment (1): "Somatic Treatments, Ignorance, and the Historiography of Psychiatry," ibid., 1994, 5: 387-91; "H. Merskey Replies to Scull," ibid., 1995, 6: 240-41.
27. For the full volley of articles and responses, see Andrew Scull, "Psychiatrists and Historical Facts. 1. The Historiography of Somatic Treatments," Hist. Psychiatry, 1995, 6: 225-41; idem, "Psychiatrists and Historical Facts. 2. Re-Writing the History of Asylumdom," ibid., pp. 387-94; Harold Merskey, Comment (1): "Somatic Treatments, Ignorance, and the Historiography of Psychiatry," ibid., 1994, 5: 387-91; "H. Merskey Replies to Scull," ibid., 1995, 6: 240-41.
28. For the full volley of articles and responses, see Andrew Scull, "Psychiatrists and Historical Facts. 1. The Historiography of Somatic Treatments," Hist. Psychiatry, 1995, 6: 225-41; idem, "Psychiatrists and Historical Facts. 2. Re-Writing the History of Asylumdom," ibid., pp. 387-94; Harold Merskey, Comment (1): "Somatic Treatments, Ignorance, and the Historiography of Psychiatry," ibid., 1994, 5: 387-91; "H. Merskey Replies to Scull," ibid., 1995, 6: 240-41.
29. Since its decline, most works on lobotomy have been highly critical of the surgery, its outcomes, and the science that legitimated it. See, for example, Elliot S. Valenstein, Brain Control: A Critical Examination of Brain Stimulation and Psychosurgery (London: Wiley-Interscience, 1973); David Shutts, Lobotomy: Resort to the Knife (New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1982); Mark O'Callaghan and Douglas Carroll, Psychosurgery: A Scientific Analysis (Lancaster: MTP Press, 1982). Less critical, though informative, articles include the following: P. Flor-Henry, "Psychiatric Surgery - 1935-1973: Evolution and Current Perspectives," Can. Psychiatric Assoc. J., 1975, 20: 157-67; P. K. Bridges and J. R. Bartlett, "Psychosurgery: Yesterday and Today," Brit. J. Psychiatry, 1977, 131: 249-60; Oscar Sugar, "Changing Attitudes toward Psychosurgery," Surg. Neurol., 1978, 9: 331-35; Anastasia Kurcharski, "History of Frontal Lobotomy in the United States, 1935-1955," Neurosurgery, 1984, 14: 765-72; Scott L. Diering and William O. Bell, "Functional Neurosurgery for Psychiatric Disorders: A Historical Perspective," Stereotactic & Funct. Neurosurg., 1991, 57: 175-94.
30. Since its decline, most works on lobotomy have been highly critical of the surgery, its outcomes, and the science that legitimated it. See, for example, Elliot S. Valenstein, Brain Control: A Critical Examination of Brain Stimulation and Psychosurgery (London: Wiley-Interscience, 1973); David Shutts, Lobotomy: Resort to the Knife (New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1982); Mark O'Callaghan and Douglas Carroll, Psychosurgery: A Scientific Analysis (Lancaster: MTP Press, 1982). Less critical, though informative, articles include the following: P. Flor-Henry, "Psychiatric Surgery - 1935-1973: Evolution and Current Perspectives," Can. Psychiatric Assoc. J., 1975, 20: 157-67; P. K. Bridges and J. R. Bartlett, "Psychosurgery: Yesterday and Today," Brit. J. Psychiatry, 1977, 131: 249-60; Oscar Sugar, "Changing Attitudes toward Psychosurgery," Surg. Neurol., 1978, 9: 331-35; Anastasia Kurcharski, "History of Frontal Lobotomy in the United States, 1935-1955," Neurosurgery, 1984, 14: 765-72; Scott L. Diering and William O. Bell, "Functional Neurosurgery for Psychiatric Disorders: A Historical Perspective," Stereotactic & Funct. Neurosurg., 1991, 57: 175-94.
31. Since its decline, most works on lobotomy have been highly critical of the surgery, its outcomes, and the science that legitimated it. See, for example, Elliot S. Valenstein, Brain Control: A Critical Examination of Brain Stimulation and Psychosurgery (London: Wiley-Interscience, 1973); David Shutts, Lobotomy: Resort to the Knife (New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1982); Mark O'Callaghan and Douglas Carroll, Psychosurgery: A Scientific Analysis (Lancaster: MTP Press, 1982). Less critical, though informative, articles include the following: P. Flor-Henry, "Psychiatric Surgery - 1935-1973: Evolution and Current Perspectives," Can. Psychiatric Assoc. J., 1975, 20: 157-67; P. K. Bridges and J. R. Bartlett, "Psychosurgery: Yesterday and Today," Brit. J. Psychiatry, 1977, 131: 249-60; Oscar Sugar, "Changing Attitudes toward Psychosurgery," Surg. Neurol., 1978, 9: 331-35; Anastasia Kurcharski, "History of Frontal Lobotomy in the United States, 1935-1955," Neurosurgery, 1984, 14: 765-72; Scott L. Diering and William O. Bell, "Functional Neurosurgery for Psychiatric Disorders: A Historical Perspective," Stereotactic & Funct. Neurosurg., 1991, 57: 175-94.
32. Since its decline, most works on lobotomy have been highly critical of the surgery, its outcomes, and the science that legitimated it. See, for example, Elliot S. Valenstein, Brain Control: A Critical Examination of Brain Stimulation and Psychosurgery (London: Wiley-Interscience, 1973); David Shutts, Lobotomy: Resort to the Knife (New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1982); Mark O'Callaghan and Douglas Carroll, Psychosurgery: A Scientific Analysis (Lancaster: MTP Press, 1982). Less critical, though informative, articles include the following: P. Flor-Henry, "Psychiatric Surgery - 1935-1973: Evolution and Current Perspectives," Can. Psychiatric Assoc. J., 1975, 20: 157-67; P. K. Bridges and J. R. Bartlett, "Psychosurgery: Yesterday and Today," Brit. J. Psychiatry, 1977, 131: 249-60; Oscar Sugar, "Changing Attitudes toward Psychosurgery," Surg. Neurol., 1978, 9: 331-35; Anastasia Kurcharski, "History of Frontal Lobotomy in the United States, 1935-1955," Neurosurgery, 1984, 14: 765-72; Scott L. Diering and William O. Bell, "Functional Neurosurgery for Psychiatric Disorders: A Historical Perspective," Stereotactic & Funct. Neurosurg., 1991, 57: 175-94.
33. Since its decline, most works on lobotomy have been highly critical of the surgery, its outcomes, and the science that legitimated it. See, for example, Elliot S. Valenstein, Brain Control: A Critical Examination of Brain Stimulation and Psychosurgery (London: Wiley-Interscience, 1973); David Shutts, Lobotomy: Resort to the Knife (New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1982); Mark O'Callaghan and Douglas Carroll, Psychosurgery: A Scientific Analysis (Lancaster: MTP Press, 1982). Less critical, though informative, articles include the following: P. Flor-Henry, "Psychiatric Surgery - 1935-1973: Evolution and Current Perspectives," Can. Psychiatric Assoc. J., 1975, 20: 157-67; P. K. Bridges and J. R. Bartlett, "Psychosurgery: Yesterday and Today," Brit. J. Psychiatry, 1977, 131: 249-60; Oscar Sugar, "Changing Attitudes toward Psychosurgery," Surg. Neurol., 1978, 9: 331-35; Anastasia Kurcharski, "History of Frontal Lobotomy in the United States, 1935-1955," Neurosurgery, 1984, 14: 765-72; Scott L. Diering and William O. Bell, "Functional Neurosurgery for Psychiatric Disorders: A Historical Perspective," Stereotactic & Funct. Neurosurg., 1991, 57: 175-94.
34. Since its decline, most works on lobotomy have been highly critical of the surgery, its outcomes, and the science that legitimated it. See, for example, Elliot S. Valenstein, Brain Control: A Critical Examination of Brain Stimulation and Psychosurgery (London: Wiley-Interscience, 1973); David Shutts, Lobotomy: Resort to the Knife (New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1982); Mark O'Callaghan and Douglas Carroll, Psychosurgery: A Scientific Analysis (Lancaster: MTP Press, 1982). Less critical, though informative, articles include the following: P. Flor-Henry, "Psychiatric Surgery - 1935-1973: Evolution and Current Perspectives," Can. Psychiatric Assoc. J., 1975, 20: 157-67; P. K. Bridges and J. R. Bartlett, "Psychosurgery: Yesterday and Today," Brit. J. Psychiatry, 1977, 131: 249-60; Oscar Sugar, "Changing Attitudes toward Psychosurgery," Surg. Neurol., 1978, 9: 331-35; Anastasia Kurcharski, "History of Frontal Lobotomy in the United States, 1935-1955," Neurosurgery, 1984, 14: 765-72; Scott L. Diering and William O. Bell, "Functional Neurosurgery for Psychiatric Disorders: A Historical Perspective," Stereotactic & Funct. Neurosurg., 1991, 57: 175-94.
35. Since its decline, most works on lobotomy have been highly critical of the surgery, its outcomes, and the science that legitimated it. See, for example, Elliot S. Valenstein, Brain Control: A Critical Examination of Brain Stimulation and Psychosurgery (London: Wiley-Interscience, 1973); David Shutts, Lobotomy: Resort to the Knife (New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1982); Mark O'Callaghan and Douglas Carroll, Psychosurgery: A Scientific Analysis (Lancaster: MTP Press, 1982). Less critical, though informative, articles include the following: P. Flor-Henry, "Psychiatric Surgery - 1935-1973: Evolution and Current Perspectives," Can. Psychiatric Assoc. J., 1975, 20: 157-67; P. K. Bridges and J. R. Bartlett, "Psychosurgery: Yesterday and Today," Brit. J. Psychiatry, 1977, 131: 249-60; Oscar Sugar, "Changing Attitudes toward Psychosurgery," Surg. Neurol., 1978, 9: 331-35; Anastasia Kurcharski, "History of Frontal Lobotomy in the United States, 1935-1955," Neurosurgery, 1984, 14: 765-72; Scott L. Diering and William O. Bell, "Functional Neurosurgery for Psychiatric Disorders: A Historical Perspective," Stereotactic & Funct. Neurosurg., 1991, 57: 175-94.
36. Since its decline, most works on lobotomy have been highly critical of the surgery, its outcomes, and the science that legitimated it. See, for example, Elliot S. Valenstein, Brain Control: A Critical Examination of Brain Stimulation and Psychosurgery (London: Wiley-Interscience, 1973); David Shutts, Lobotomy: Resort to the Knife (New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1982); Mark O'Callaghan and Douglas Carroll, Psychosurgery: A Scientific Analysis (Lancaster: MTP Press, 1982). Less critical, though informative, articles include the following: P. Flor-Henry, "Psychiatric Surgery - 1935-1973: Evolution and Current Perspectives," Can. Psychiatric Assoc. J., 1975, 20: 157-67; P. K. Bridges and J. R. Bartlett, "Psychosurgery: Yesterday and Today," Brit. J. Psychiatry, 1977, 131: 249-60; Oscar Sugar, "Changing Attitudes toward Psychosurgery," Surg. Neurol., 1978, 9: 331-35; Anastasia Kurcharski, "History of Frontal Lobotomy in the United States, 1935-1955," Neurosurgery, 1984, 14: 765-72; Scott L. Diering and William O. Bell, "Functional Neurosurgery for Psychiatric Disorders: A Historical Perspective," Stereotactic & Funct. Neurosurg., 1991, 57: 175-94.
37. Elliot S. Valenstein, Great and Desperate Cures: The Rise and Decline of Psychosurgery and Other Radical Treatments for Mental Illness (New York: Basic Books, 1986), p. 4.
38. Pressman, Last Resort (n. 1), p. 410.
39. I take a similar interpretive strategy in Joel T. Braslow, Mental Ills and Bodily Cures: Psychiatric Treatment in the First Half of the Twentieth Century (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997). In contrast to Last Resort, however, Mental Ills and Bodily Cures examines the entire range of somatic therapies used in the everyday context of California state hospitals. These interventions ranged from hydrotherapy in the 1900s to lobotomy in the late 1940s and early 1950s.
40. See J. C. Gillin, "The Decade of the Brain - Introduction," Neuropsychiatry, 1990, 3: 307; L. L.Judd, "The Decade of the Brain - Prospects and Challenges for NIMH," ibid., pp. 309-10; Phil Gunby, "'Decade of Brain' Holds Promise for Answers to Schizophrenia," JAMA, 1990, 264: 2483.
41. See J. C. Gillin, "The Decade of the Brain - Introduction," Neuropsychiatry, 1990, 3: 307; L. L.Judd, "The Decade of the Brain - Prospects and Challenges for NIMH," ibid., pp. 309-10; Phil Gunby, "'Decade of Brain' Holds Promise for Answers to Schizophrenia," JAMA, 1990, 264: 2483.
42. See J. C. Gillin, "The Decade of the Brain - Introduction," Neuropsychiatry, 1990, 3: 307; L. L.Judd, "The Decade of the Brain - Prospects and Challenges for NIMH," ibid., pp. 309-10; Phil Gunby, "'Decade of Brain' Holds Promise for Answers to Schizophrenia," JAMA, 1990, 264: 2483.
43. David Healy, The Antidepressant Era (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1997).
44. The literature on practice guidelines has grown rapidly and is now quite large. For the treatment of chronic psychotic disorders in psychiatry, see American Psychiatric Association, "Practice Guideline for the Treatment of Patients with Schizophrenia," Amer. J. Psychiatry, 1997, 154: 1-63; American Psychiatric Association Steering Committee, "The Expert Consensus Guideline Series. Treatment of Schizophrenia," J. Clin. Psychiatry, 1966, 57: 3-58; A. F. Lehman and D. M. Steinwachs, "Patterns of Usual Care for Schizophrenia: Initial Results from the Schizophrenia Patient Outcomes Research Team (PORT) Client Survey," Schiz. Bull., 1998, 24:11-20, and discussion on pp. 20-32.
45. The literature on practice guidelines has grown rapidly and is now quite large. For the treatment of chronic psychotic disorders in psychiatry, see American Psychiatric Association, "Practice Guideline for the Treatment of Patients with Schizophrenia," Amer. J. Psychiatry, 1997, 154: 1-63; American Psychiatric Association Steering Committee, "The Expert Consensus Guideline Series. Treatment of Schizophrenia," J. Clin. Psychiatry, 1966, 57: 3-58; A. F. Lehman and D. M. Steinwachs, "Patterns of Usual Care for Schizophrenia: Initial Results from the Schizophrenia Patient Outcomes Research Team (PORT) Client Survey," Schiz. Bull., 1998, 24:11-20, and discussion on pp. 20-32.
46. The literature on practice guidelines has grown rapidly and is now quite large. For the treatment of chronic psychotic disorders in psychiatry, see American Psychiatric Association, "Practice Guideline for the Treatment of Patients with Schizophrenia," Amer. J. Psychiatry, 1997, 154: 1-63; American Psychiatric Association Steering Committee, "The Expert Consensus Guideline Series. Treatment of Schizophrenia," J. Clin. Psychiatry, 1966, 57: 3-58; A. F. Lehman and D. M. Steinwachs, "Patterns of Usual Care for Schizophrenia: Initial Results from the Schizophrenia Patient Outcomes Research Team (PORT) Client Survey," Schiz. Bull., 1998, 24:11-20, and discussion on pp. 20-32.
47. Kenneth B. Wells, "Treatment Research at the Crossroads: The Scientific Interface of Clinical Trials and Effectiveness Research," Amer. J. Psychiatry, 1999, 156: 5-10; National Advisory Mental Health Council's Clinical Treatment and Services Research Workgroup, Bridging Science and Service (1998), http://www.nimh.nih.gov/research/bridge.htm.
48. Kenneth B. Wells, "Treatment Research at the Crossroads: The Scientific Interface of Clinical Trials and Effectiveness Research," Amer. J. Psychiatry, 1999, 156: 5-10; National Advisory Mental Health Council's Clinical Treatment and Services Research Workgroup, Bridging Science and Service (1998), http://www.nimh.nih.gov/research/bridge.htm.
49. Pressman, Last Resort (n. 1), p. 415.
50. Michael MacDonald, Mystical Bedlam: Madness, Anxiety, and Healing in Seventeenth-Century England (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981), p. 1.