Lapsed Memory? The Roots of American Public Opinion Research

Polity

Volumn 33, Issue 1, 2000, Pages 49-75

  Korzi, Michael J ^a  

^a NONE

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EID: 0034556496     PISSN: 00323497     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2307/3235460     Document Type: Article

References (141)

1. James Bryce, The American Commonwealth, Vol. 2 (New York: Macmillan and Co., 1888), 216.
2. See, for instance, Paul A. Palmer, "The Concept of Public Opinion in Political Theory," in Essays in History and Political Theory: In Honor of Charles Howard McIlwain, ed. Carl F. Wittke (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1936); David W. Minar, "Public Opinion in the Perspective of Political Theory," Western Political Quarterly 23 (1960): 31-44; and Elisabeth Noelle-Neumann, The Spiral of Silence: Public Opinion, Our Social Skin, 2nd ed. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1993).
3. See, for instance, Paul A. Palmer, "The Concept of Public Opinion in Political Theory," in Essays in History and Political Theory: In Honor of Charles Howard McIlwain, ed. Carl F. Wittke (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1936); David W. Minar, "Public Opinion in the Perspective of Political Theory," Western Political Quarterly 23 (1960): 31-44; and Elisabeth Noelle-Neumann, The Spiral of Silence: Public Opinion, Our Social Skin, 2nd ed. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1993).
4. See, for instance, Paul A. Palmer, "The Concept of Public Opinion in Political Theory," in Essays in History and Political Theory: In Honor of Charles Howard McIlwain, ed. Carl F. Wittke (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1936); David W. Minar, "Public Opinion in the Perspective of Political Theory," Western Political Quarterly 23 (1960): 31-44; and Elisabeth Noelle-Neumann, The Spiral of Silence: Public Opinion, Our Social Skin, 2nd ed. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1993).
5. See Lawrence R. Jacobs and Robert Y. Shapiro, "Studying Substantive Democracy," PS: Political Science & Politics 27 (1994): 9-17 and Minar, "Public Opinion."
6. See Lawrence R. Jacobs and Robert Y. Shapiro, "Studying Substantive Democracy," PS: Political Science & Politics 27 (1994): 9-17 and Minar, "Public Opinion."
7. See, for example, Paul F. Lazarsfeld, "Public Opinion and the Classical Tradition," Public Opinion Quarterly 21 (1957): 39-53 and Michael Margolis, "Public Opinion, Polling, and Political Behavior," Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Sciences 472 (1984): 61-71.
8. See, for example, Paul F. Lazarsfeld, "Public Opinion and the Classical Tradition," Public Opinion Quarterly 21 (1957): 39-53 and Michael Margolis, "Public Opinion, Polling, and Political Behavior," Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Sciences 472 (1984): 61-71.
9. I would like to acknowledge an important debt to an incisive little volume by Vincent Price, Public Opinion (Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications, 1992). This work was quite useful for developing some of the major theoretical insights in this essay. Furthermore, the survey works of Donald R. Kinder, "Diversity and Complexity in American Public Opinion," in Political Science: The State of the Discipline, ed. Ada W. Finifter (Washington, DC: American Political Science Association, 1983) and Paul M. Sniderman, "The New Look in Public Opinion Research," in Political Science: The State of the Discipline II, ed. Ada W. Finifter (Washington, DC: American Political Science Association, 1993) were also helpful for this conceptualization.
10. I would like to acknowledge an important debt to an incisive little volume by Vincent Price, Public Opinion (Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications, 1992). This work was quite useful for developing some of the major theoretical insights in this essay. Furthermore, the survey works of Donald R. Kinder, "Diversity and Complexity in American Public Opinion," in Political Science: The State of the Discipline, ed. Ada W. Finifter (Washington, DC: American Political Science Association, 1983) and Paul M. Sniderman, "The New Look in Public Opinion Research," in Political Science: The State of the Discipline II, ed. Ada W. Finifter (Washington, DC: American Political Science Association, 1993) were also helpful for this conceptualization.
11. I would like to acknowledge an important debt to an incisive little volume by Vincent Price, Public Opinion (Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications, 1992). This work was quite useful for developing some of the major theoretical insights in this essay. Furthermore, the survey works of Donald R. Kinder, "Diversity and Complexity in American Public Opinion," in Political Science: The State of the Discipline, ed. Ada W. Finifter (Washington, DC: American Political Science Association, 1983) and Paul M. Sniderman, "The New Look in Public Opinion Research," in Political Science: The State of the Discipline II, ed. Ada W. Finifter (Washington, DC: American Political Science Association, 1993) were also helpful for this conceptualization.
12. Harwood L. Childs, Public Opinion: Nature, Formation, and Role (Princeton, NJ: Van Nostrand, 1965), 30.
13. Bryce, American Commonwealth, 212, 213-14.
14. Bryce, American Commonwealth, 212-13.
15. See, for instance, Bryce, American Commonwealth, 255-67, for a discussion of the influence of classes on public opinion.
16. Bryce, American Commonwealth, 297-306.
17. Bryce, American Commonwealth, 209.
18. Bryce, American Commonwealth, 225.
19. Bryce, American Commonwealth, 220-21.
20. Again, let me stress that Bryce was by no means the only person to deal with these issues nor the only influence on subsequent students of public opinion. However, he did articulate the dilemmas of public opinion in a comprehensive and judicious fashion; and, indeed, he was, if not the only influence, a big influence on key early writers such as A. L. Lowell and Walter Lippmann.
21. Arthur F. Bentley, The Process of Government: A Study of Social Pressures (Bloomington, IN: The Principia Press, 1935).
22. Bentley, Process of Government, 163.
23. See David B. Truman, The Governmental Process: Political Interests and Public Opinion (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1951).
24. Bentley, Process of Government, 236.
25. A. Lawrence Lowell, Public Opinion and Popular Government (New York: Johnson Reprints Corp., 1969).
26. Harwood L. Childs, Introduction to Public Opinion, by Lowell, xiv.
27. Walter Lippmann, Public Opinion (New York: Free Press, 1965).
28. Walter Lippmann, The Phantom Public (New York: Harcourt, Brace, 1925).
29. John Dewey, The Public and Its Problems (Athens, OH: Swallow Press, 1954).
30. Dewey, Public and Its Problems, 147, 146.
31. Price, Public Opinion, 18.
32. Dewey, Public and Its Problems, 183.
33. Price, Public Opinion, 45.
34. See Hadley Cantril, The Human Dimension: Experience in Policy Research (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1967).
35. George Gallup and Saul Forbes Rae, The Pulse of Democracy; The Public-Opinion Poll and How It Works (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1940).
36. Gallup and Rae, Pulse of Democracy, 21.
37. Gallup and Rae, Pulse of Democracy, 271-72.
38. Gallup and Rae, Pulse of Democracy, 287.
39. Gallup and Rae, Pulse of Democracy, 270.
40. Margolis, "Public Opinion," 66.
41. William Albig, "Two Decades of Public Opinion Study: 1936-1956," Public Opinion Quarterly 21 (1957): 18.
42. Floyd H. Allport, "Toward a Science of Public Opinion," Public Opinion Quarterly 1 (1937), 7, 9.
43. Paul F. Lazarsfeld, "The Controversy Over Detailed Interviews - An Offer for Negotiation," Public Opinion Quarterly 8 (1944): 38-60 and David Riesman and Nathan Glazer, " The Meaning of Opinion," Public Opinion Quarterly 12 (1948): 633-648. Other typical articles include H. M. Spitzer, "Presenting America in American Propaganda," Public Opinion Quarterly 11 (1947): 213-221; M. Brewster Smith, "The Personal Setting of Public Opinions: A Study of Attitudes Toward Russia," Public Opinion Quarterly 11 (1947): 507-523; and Frederick W. Williams, "Regional Attitudes on International Cooperation," Public Opinion Quarterly 9 (1945): 38-50.
44. Paul F. Lazarsfeld, "The Controversy Over Detailed Interviews - An Offer for Negotiation," Public Opinion Quarterly 8 (1944): 38-60 and David Riesman and Nathan Glazer, " The Meaning of Opinion," Public Opinion Quarterly 12 (1948): 633-648. Other typical articles include H. M. Spitzer, "Presenting America in American Propaganda," Public Opinion Quarterly 11 (1947): 213-221; M. Brewster Smith, "The Personal Setting of Public Opinions: A Study of Attitudes Toward Russia," Public Opinion Quarterly 11 (1947): 507-523; and Frederick W. Williams, "Regional Attitudes on International Cooperation," Public Opinion Quarterly 9 (1945): 38-50.
45. Paul F. Lazarsfeld, "The Controversy Over Detailed Interviews - An Offer for Negotiation," Public Opinion Quarterly 8 (1944): 38-60 and David Riesman and Nathan Glazer, " The Meaning of Opinion," Public Opinion Quarterly 12 (1948): 633-648. Other typical articles include H. M. Spitzer, "Presenting America in American Propaganda," Public Opinion Quarterly 11 (1947): 213-221; M. Brewster Smith, "The Personal Setting of Public Opinions: A Study of Attitudes Toward Russia," Public Opinion Quarterly 11 (1947): 507-523; and Frederick W. Williams, "Regional Attitudes on International Cooperation," Public Opinion Quarterly 9 (1945): 38-50.
46. Paul F. Lazarsfeld, "The Controversy Over Detailed Interviews - An Offer for Negotiation," Public Opinion Quarterly 8 (1944): 38-60 and David Riesman and Nathan Glazer, " The Meaning of Opinion," Public Opinion Quarterly 12 (1948): 633-648. Other typical articles include H. M. Spitzer, "Presenting America in American Propaganda," Public Opinion Quarterly 11 (1947): 213-221; M. Brewster Smith, "The Personal Setting of Public Opinions: A Study of Attitudes Toward Russia," Public Opinion Quarterly 11 (1947): 507-523; and Frederick W. Williams, "Regional Attitudes on International Cooperation," Public Opinion Quarterly 9 (1945): 38-50.
47. Paul F. Lazarsfeld, "The Controversy Over Detailed Interviews - An Offer for Negotiation," Public Opinion Quarterly 8 (1944): 38-60 and David Riesman and Nathan Glazer, " The Meaning of Opinion," Public Opinion Quarterly 12 (1948): 633-648. Other typical articles include H. M. Spitzer, "Presenting America in American Propaganda," Public Opinion Quarterly 11 (1947): 213-221; M. Brewster Smith, "The Personal Setting of Public Opinions: A Study of Attitudes Toward Russia," Public Opinion Quarterly 11 (1947): 507-523; and Frederick W. Williams, "Regional Attitudes on International Cooperation," Public Opinion Quarterly 9 (1945): 38-50.
48. The presentations were reproduced in the American Sociological Review in 1948.
49. Herbert Blumer, "Public Opinion and Public Opinion Polling," American Sociological Review 13 (1948): 542.
50. Blumer, "Public Opinion," 543.
51. Blumer, "Public Opinion," 543-45, emphasis in the original.
52. Lindsay Rogers expressed a similar criticism a few years later: "It is a curious fact that, although the pollsters have paid a great deal of attention to the problem of securing interviewers who are unbiased and do not cheat, they do not seem to have been greatly interested in the question of whether it is legitimate to add up the kind of opinion that is disclosed in interviews with strangers and call it 'public opinion.' " Lindsay Rogers, The Pollsters: Public Opinion, Politics, and Democratic Leadership (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, Inc., 1949), 37.
53. Blumer, "Public Opinion," 545.
54. Theodore M. Newcomb, "Public Opinion and Public Opinion Polling: Discussion," American Sociological Review 13 (1948): 550.
55. Newcomb, "Public Opinion Discussion," 550.
56. Julian Woodward, "Public Opinion and Public Opinion Polling: Discussion," American Sociological Review 13 (1948): 553.
57. Woodward, "Public Opinion Discussion," 553.
58. Blumer, "Public Opinion," fn., 548.
59. Blumer, "Public Opinion," 548. Blumer here touches on another issue that is still neglected in public opinion circles. Few public opinion scholars problematize political participation and most are content to see political involvement as characterized by the expression of an opinion or by the casting of a ballot. Notions of public participation as discursive interaction à la Dewey, Public and Its Problems, or Jürgen Habermas, The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere (Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press, 1989), are conspicuously rare.
60. Blumer, "Public Opinion," 548. Blumer here touches on another issue that is still neglected in public opinion circles. Few public opinion scholars problematize political participation and most are content to see political involvement as characterized by the expression of an opinion or by the casting of a ballot. Notions of public participation as discursive interaction à la Dewey, Public and Its Problems, or Jürgen Habermas, The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere (Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press, 1989), are conspicuously rare.
61. Blumer, "Public Opinion," 548. Blumer here touches on another issue that is still neglected in public opinion circles. Few public opinion scholars problematize political participation and most are content to see political involvement as characterized by the expression of an opinion or by the casting of a ballot. Notions of public participation as discursive interaction à la Dewey, Public and Its Problems, or Jürgen Habermas, The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere (Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press, 1989), are conspicuously rare.
62. Interestingly, public opinion researchers even today are still aware of Blumer's critique, if largely to dismiss it. See, for instance, Philip E. Converse, "Changing Conceptions of Public Opinion in the Political Process," Public Opinion Quarterly 51 (1987): S12-S24.
63. Leo Bogart, "No Opinion, Don't Know, and Maybe No Answer," Public Opinion Quarterly 31 (1967): 334.
64. To be sure, there were skeptical voices and nonsurvey-based and "political" studies being done during this time, although they were a minority. See, for instance, Martin Kriesberg, "What Congressmen and Administrators Think of the Polls," Public Opinion Quarterly 9 (1945): 333-337; John C. Ranney, "Do The Polls Serve Democracy?" Public Opinion Quarterly 10 (1946): 349-360; Rogers, The Pollsters; and the Public Opinion Quarterly symposium, "Communication to the Policy-Maker: Petition and Pressure," Public Opinion Quarterly 20 (1956): 5-48.
65. To be sure, there were skeptical voices and nonsurvey-based and "political" studies being done during this time, although they were a minority. See, for instance, Martin Kriesberg, "What Congressmen and Administrators Think of the Polls," Public Opinion Quarterly 9 (1945): 333-337; John C. Ranney, "Do The Polls Serve Democracy?" Public Opinion Quarterly 10 (1946): 349-360; Rogers, The Pollsters; and the Public Opinion Quarterly symposium, "Communication to the Policy-Maker: Petition and Pressure," Public Opinion Quarterly 20 (1956): 5-48.
66. To be sure, there were skeptical voices and nonsurvey-based and "political" studies being done during this time, although they were a minority. See, for instance, Martin Kriesberg, "What Congressmen and Administrators Think of the Polls," Public Opinion Quarterly 9 (1945): 333-337; John C. Ranney, "Do The Polls Serve Democracy?" Public Opinion Quarterly 10 (1946): 349-360; Rogers, The Pollsters; and the Public Opinion Quarterly symposium, "Communication to the Policy-Maker: Petition and Pressure," Public Opinion Quarterly 20 (1956): 5-48.
67. To be sure, there were skeptical voices and nonsurvey-based and "political" studies being done during this time, although they were a minority. See, for instance, Martin Kriesberg, "What Congressmen and Administrators Think of the Polls," Public Opinion Quarterly 9 (1945): 333-337; John C. Ranney, "Do The Polls Serve Democracy?" Public Opinion Quarterly 10 (1946): 349-360; Rogers, The Pollsters; and the Public Opinion Quarterly symposium, "Communication to the Policy-Maker: Petition and Pressure," Public Opinion Quarterly 20 (1956): 5-48.
68. G. D. Wiebe, "Some Implications of Separating Opinions from Attitudes," Public Opinion Quarterly 17 (1953): 328-52.
69. Price, Public Opinion, 52.
70. Angus Campbell, Philip E. Converse, Warren E. Miller, and Donald E. Stokes, The American Voter (New York: John Wiley, 1960) and Philip E. Converse, "The Nature of Belief Systems in Mass Publics," in Ideology and Discontent, ed. David E. Apter (New York: Free Press, 1964).
71. Angus Campbell, Philip E. Converse, Warren E. Miller, and Donald E. Stokes, The American Voter (New York: John Wiley, 1960) and Philip E. Converse, "The Nature of Belief Systems in Mass Publics," in Ideology and Discontent, ed. David E. Apter (New York: Free Press, 1964).
72. Campbell et al., American Voter, 521. It should be noted that Campbell and his colleagues were quite aware that their analysis only constituted a piece of the public opinion picture: "Our quest of understanding should not end with the discovery of the causes of electoral decisions; it should extend to their consequences as well." Yet, "almost no research has had as its primary objective the description of influence relations connecting the electoral process with other decision processes of the American government" (American Voter, 539-40). Notwithstanding this acknowledgment and lament, most analysts would continue to neglect these other connections and issues.
73. Campbell et al., American Voter, 521. It should be noted that Campbell and his colleagues were quite aware that their analysis only constituted a piece of the public opinion picture: "Our quest of understanding should not end with the discovery of the causes of electoral decisions; it should extend to their consequences as well." Yet, "almost no research has had as its primary objective the description of influence relations connecting the electoral process with other decision processes of the American government" (American Voter, 539-40). Notwithstanding this acknowledgment and lament, most analysts would continue to neglect these other connections and issues.
74. Kinder, "Diversity and Complexity."
75. Converse, "Nature of Belief Systems," 255.
76. Converse, "Nature of Belief Systems," 238-41.
77. Converse, "Nature of Belief Systems," 255.
78. Robert E. Lane, Political Ideology: Why the American Common Man Believes What He Does (New York: Free Press, 1962).
79. Lane, Political Ideology, 9.
80. V. O. Key, Public Opinion and American Democracy (New York: Knopf, 1961).
81. Key, Public Opinion, vii.
82. Key, Public Opinion, 536-37.
83. I am not, by making this statement, arguing that "groups" have not been an important aspect of public opinion research. I do want to argue, though, that public opinion scholars have generally looked at groups to determine how they affect the opinions of individuals, not how they qua groups influence politics. Key, in discussing "attentive publics" was harking back to a Blumerian or even Bentley-like understanding of the public and the political process. Not surprisingly, this type of understanding of public opinion was less amenable to analysis through public opinion polls.
84. Herbert H. Hyman, "Toward a Theory of Public Opinion," Public Opinion Quarterly 21 (1957): 59.
85. Albig, "TWo Decades," 21.
86. Minar, "Public Opinion," 32.
87. Childs, Public Opinion, 62.
88. Sidney Verba, "The Impact of the Public on Policy," Public Opinion Quarterly 34 (1970): 455.
89. Bernard R. Berelson, Paul F. Lazarsfeld, and William N. McPhee, Voting: A Study of Opinion Formation in a Presidential Campaign (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1954), 305.
90. Noelle-Neumann, Spiral of Silence, 219.
91. Truman, Governmental Process and W. Phillips Davison, "The Third-Person Effect in Communication," Public Opinion Quarterly 47 (1983): 1-15.
92. Truman, Governmental Process and W. Phillips Davison, "The Third-Person Effect in Communication," Public Opinion Quarterly 47 (1983): 1-15.
93. Warren E. Miller and Donald E. Stokes, "Constituency Influence in Congress," American Political Science Review 57 (1963): 45-56.
94. See, for example, Kinder, "Diversity and Complexity."
95. One of the few studies that did not fall into this predicament was John Kingdon's Congressmen's Voting Decisions, 3rd ed. (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1989). Kingdon did not correlate congressmen's decisions with public opinion surveys; rather, he asked congressmen, in interviews, what affected their decisions and how big a role public opinion played.
96. Norman H. Nie, Sidney Verba, and John R. Petrocik, The Changing American Voter (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1976).
97. Kinder, "Diversity and Complexity," 397. The following are just a few of the numerous studies spawned by the "innocent of ideology" debate: James A. Stimson, "Belief Systems: Constraint, Complexity, and the 1972 Election," American Journal of Political Science 19 (1975): 393-418; Christopher H. Achen, "Mass Political Attitudes and the Survey Response," American Political Science Review 69 (1975): 1218- 1231; Eric R. A. N. Smith, "The Levels of Conceptualization: False Measure of Ideological Sophistication," American Political Science Review 74 (1980): 685-96; and Pamela Johnston Conover and Stanley Feldman, "The Origins and Meaning of Liberal/Conservative Self-Identifications," American Journal of Political Science 25 (1981): 617-45.
98. Kinder, "Diversity and Complexity," 397. The following are just a few of the numerous studies spawned by the "innocent of ideology" debate: James A. Stimson, "Belief Systems: Constraint, Complexity, and the 1972 Election," American Journal of Political Science 19 (1975): 393-418; Christopher H. Achen, "Mass Political Attitudes and the Survey Response," American Political Science Review 69 (1975): 1218- 1231; Eric R. A. N. Smith, "The Levels of Conceptualization: False Measure of Ideological Sophistication," American Political Science Review 74 (1980): 685-96; and Pamela Johnston Conover and Stanley Feldman, "The Origins and Meaning of Liberal/Conservative Self-Identifications," American Journal of Political Science 25 (1981): 617-45.
99. Kinder, "Diversity and Complexity," 397. The following are just a few of the numerous studies spawned by the "innocent of ideology" debate: James A. Stimson, "Belief Systems: Constraint, Complexity, and the 1972 Election," American Journal of Political Science 19 (1975): 393-418; Christopher H. Achen, "Mass Political Attitudes and the Survey Response," American Political Science Review 69 (1975): 1218-1231; Eric R. A. N. Smith, "The Levels of Conceptualization: False Measure of Ideological Sophistication," American Political Science Review 74 (1980): 685-96; and Pamela Johnston Conover and Stanley Feldman, "The Origins and Meaning of Liberal/Conservative Self-Identifications," American Journal of Political Science 25 (1981): 617-45.
100. Kinder, "Diversity and Complexity," 397. The following are just a few of the numerous studies spawned by the "innocent of ideology" debate: James A. Stimson, "Belief Systems: Constraint, Complexity, and the 1972 Election," American Journal of Political Science 19 (1975): 393-418; Christopher H. Achen, "Mass Political Attitudes and the Survey Response," American Political Science Review 69 (1975): 1218- 1231; Eric R. A. N. Smith, "The Levels of Conceptualization: False Measure of Ideological Sophistication," American Political Science Review 74 (1980): 685-96; and Pamela Johnston Conover and Stanley Feldman, "The Origins and Meaning of Liberal/Conservative Self-Identifications," American Journal of Political Science 25 (1981): 617-45.
101. Kinder, "Diversity and Complexity," 397. The following are just a few of the numerous studies spawned by the "innocent of ideology" debate: James A. Stimson, "Belief Systems: Constraint, Complexity, and the 1972 Election," American Journal of Political Science 19 (1975): 393-418; Christopher H. Achen, "Mass Political Attitudes and the Survey Response," American Political Science Review 69 (1975): 1218- 1231; Eric R. A. N. Smith, "The Levels of Conceptualization: False Measure of Ideological Sophistication," American Political Science Review 74 (1980): 685-96; and Pamela Johnston Conover and Stanley Feldman, "The Origins and Meaning of Liberal/Conservative Self-Identifications," American Journal of Political Science 25 (1981): 617-45.
102. Robert Weissberg, Public Opinion and Popular Government (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1976), 5.
103. Kinder, "Diversity and Complexity," 413.
104. Key, Public Opinion, 535.
105. Kinder, "Diversity and Complexity," 416.
106. Sniderman, "New Look," 219. While I obviously think Sniderman is right about this movement in public opinion research, as will become clear in the following discussion, I do have a slightly different understanding of the works and studies which characterize and evidence this movement toward the "political."
107. James A. Stimson, Public Opinion in America: Moods, Cycles, and Swings (Boulder: Westview Press, 1991), 14.
108. Stimson, Public Opinion, 3, emphasis in the original.
109. Stimson, Public Opinion, xvii.
110. Stimson, Public Opinion, xxi.
111. Benjamin I. Page and Robert Y. Shapiro, The Rational Public: Fifty Years of Trends in Americans' Policy Preferences (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992), 15.
112. John Zaller, The Nature and Origins of Mass Opinion (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1992), 1.
113. Another notable work which bears mentioning in this context is Paul M. Sniderman and Edward G. Carmines, Reaching Beyond Race (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1997). The authors, while concerning themselves largely with the beliefs of the public on issues of race, express a skepticism toward conventional survey analyses and also exhibit a decided concern with the political and normative implications of their research.
114. Edward G. Carmines and James A. Stimson, Issue Evolution: Race and the Transformation of American Politics (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1989) and Richard A. Brody, Assessing the President: The Media, Elite Opinion, and Popular Support (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1991).
115. Edward G. Carmines and James A. Stimson, Issue Evolution: Race and the Transformation of American Politics (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1989) and Richard A. Brody, Assessing the President: The Media, Elite Opinion, and Popular Support (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1991).
116. Sidney Verba and Gary R. Orren, Equality in America: The View from the Top (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1985), among others, have also made an important contribution to understanding the "elite element" in opinion by focusing on the opinions of elites and leaders regarding equality.
117. Benjamin I. Page and Robert Y. Shapiro, "Effects of Public Opinion on Policy," American Political Science Review 77 (1983): 175-90; Robert S. Erikson, John P. McIver, and Gerald C. Wright, Jr., "State Political Culture and Public Opinion," American Political Science Review 81 (1987): 797-813; and Robert S. Erikson, Gerald C. Wright, and John P. McIver, Statehouse Democracy: Public Opinion and Democracy in the American States (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1993).
118. Benjamin I. Page and Robert Y. Shapiro, "Effects of Public Opinion on Policy," American Political Science Review 77 (1983): 175-90; Robert S. Erikson, John P. McIver, and Gerald C. Wright, Jr., "State Political Culture and Public Opinion," American Political Science Review 81 (1987): 797-813; and Robert S. Erikson, Gerald C. Wright, and John P. McIver, Statehouse Democracy: Public Opinion and Democracy in the American States (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1993).
119. Benjamin I. Page and Robert Y. Shapiro, "Effects of Public Opinion on Policy," American Political Science Review 77 (1983): 175-90; Robert S. Erikson, John P. McIver, and Gerald C. Wright, Jr., "State Political Culture and Public Opinion," American Political Science Review 81 (1987): 797-813; and Robert S. Erikson, Gerald C. Wright, and John P. McIver, Statehouse Democracy: Public Opinion and Democracy in the American States (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1993).
120. See Sniderman, "New Look," 239.
121. Lawrence R. Jacobs and Robert Y. Shapiro, "Issues, Candidate Image, and Priming: The Use of Polls in Kennedy's 1960 Presidential Campaign," American Political Science Review 88 (1994): 527-40.
122. Jacobs and Shapiro, "Issues, Candidate Image, and Priming," 529.
123. Lawrence R. Jacobs, The Health of Nations: Public Opinion and the Making of American and British Health Policy (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1993).
124. Benjamin I. Page, "Democratic Responsiveness? Untangling the Links Between Public Opinion and Policy," PS: Political Science & Politics 27 (1994): 28.
125. Albig, "Two Decades," 18.
126. Benjamin Ginsberg, The Captive Public: How Mass Opinion Promotes State Power (New York: Basic Books, 1986) and Susan Herbst, Numbered Voices: How Opinion Polling Has Shaped American Politics (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1993).
127. Benjamin Ginsberg, The Captive Public: How Mass Opinion Promotes State Power (New York: Basic Books, 1986) and Susan Herbst, Numbered Voices: How Opinion Polling Has Shaped American Politics (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1993).
128. Lawrence R. Jacobs and Robert Y. Shapiro, "The Rise of Presidential Polling: The Nixon White House in Historical Perspective," Public Opinion Quarterly 59 (1995): 163-95 and Lawrence R. Jacobs and Robert Y. Shapiro, "Presidential Manipulation of Polls and Public Opinion: The Nixon Administration and the Pollsters," Political Science Quarterly 110 (1995): 519-38.
129. Lawrence R. Jacobs and Robert Y. Shapiro, "The Rise of Presidential Polling: The Nixon White House in Historical Perspective," Public Opinion Quarterly 59 (1995): 163-95 and Lawrence R. Jacobs and Robert Y. Shapiro, "Presidential Manipulation of Polls and Public Opinion: The Nixon Administration and the Pollsters," Political Science Quarterly 110 (1995): 519-38.
130. James S. Fishkin, Democracy and Deliberation: New Directions for Democratic Reform (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1991); James S. Fishkin, Voice of the People: Public Opinion and Democracy (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1995); and Daniel Yankelovich, Coming to Public Judgment (Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 1991).
131. James S. Fishkin, Democracy and Deliberation: New Directions for Democratic Reform (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1991); James S. Fishkin, Voice of the People: Public Opinion and Democracy (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1995); and Daniel Yankelovich, Coming to Public Judgment (Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 1991).
132. James S. Fishkin, Democracy and Deliberation: New Directions for Democratic Reform (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1991); James S. Fishkin, Voice of the People: Public Opinion and Democracy (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1995); and Daniel Yankelovich, Coming to Public Judgment (Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 1991).
133. Fishkin, in particular, focuses on a conception of public opinion that has been jettisoned by many public opinion researchers, with the noted exceptions of Dewey, Public and Its Problems, and Habermas, Structural Transformation. He conceives of democracy as "deliberation"; deliberation should be encouraged among citizens when forming opinions and making decisions. His "deliberative opinion poll" is a way to harness the power of polls to service the end of dialogic democracy.
134. Fishkin, in particular, focuses on a conception of public opinion that has been jettisoned by many public opinion researchers, with the noted exceptions of Dewey, Public and Its Problems, and Habermas, Structural Transformation. He conceives of democracy as "deliberation"; deliberation should be encouraged among citizens when forming opinions and making decisions. His "deliberative opinion poll" is a way to harness the power of polls to service the end of dialogic democracy.
135. Stanley Presser, "Editorial," Public Opinion Quarterly 58 (1994): 1.
136. Kinder, "Diversity and Complexity," 413.
137. E. E. Schattschneider, The Semisovereign People: A Realist's View of Democracy in America (Hindale, IL: The Dryden Press, [1960] 1975), 128.
138. Schattschneider, Semisovereign People, 128.
139. Jacobs and Shapiro, "Studying Substantive Democracy," 10.
140. Margolis, "Public Opinion," 66.
141. An excellent new textbook which comprehensively treats public opinion, and which will hopefully become a standard in public opinion courses, is Carroll J. Glynn, Susan Herbst, Garrett J. O'Keefe, and Robert Y. Shapiro, Public Opinion: Politics, Communication, and Social Process (Boulder: Westview Press, 1999).