Less than we can be: Men, women and the modern military

Journal of Strategic Studies

Volumn 23, Issue 4, 2000, Pages 1-20

  Van Creveld, Martin ^a  

^a NONE

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EID: 0034555138     PISSN: 01402390     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/01402390008437809     Document Type: Article

References (148)

1. Cf. this author's The Transformation of War (NY: Free Press 1991), passim; also his 'What is Wrong with Clausewitz?' in G. de Nooy (ed.)The Clausewitzian Dictum and the Future of Western Military Strategy (S'Gravenhage: Clingendael Inst. 1997), pp.7-24.
2. Cf. this author's The Transformation of War (NY: Free Press 1991), passim; also his 'What is Wrong with Clausewitz?' in G. de Nooy (ed.)The Clausewitzian Dictum and the Future of Western Military Strategy (S'Gravenhage: Clingendael Inst. 1997), pp.7-24.
3. Exodus 12.36-7.
4. Tacitus, Germania. (London: Heinemann, Loeb Classical Library 1965) p.18.
5. H. H. Turney-High, Primitive War, Its Practice and Concepts (Chapel Hill: UNC 1971) [1937] pp.162-3; T. Spears, Kenya's Past (London: Longman 1981) pp.63-7.
6. H. H. Turney-High, Primitive War, Its Practice and Concepts (Chapel Hill: UNC 1971) [1937] pp.162-3; T. Spears, Kenya's Past (London: Longman 1981) pp.63-7.
7. M. B. Davie, The Evolution of War: a Study of Its Kole in Early Societies (New Haven, CT: Yale UP 1929) p.33.
8. Iliad (London: Heinemann, Loeb Classical Library 1947) 6.124; 7.114. For an in-depth discussion of the Greek link between war and manhood see above all J. H. Blok, The Early Amazons: Modern and Ancient Perspectives on a Persistent Myth (Leiden: Brill 1995) pp.251-5.
9. Iliad (London: Heinemann, Loeb Classical Library 1947) 6.124; 7.114. For an in-depth discussion of the Greek link between war and manhood see above all J. H. Blok, The Early Amazons: Modern and Ancient Perspectives on a Persistent Myth (Leiden: Brill 1995) pp.251-5.
10. The Hebrew term in question, li-dfok, originally means 'to pound'. For a general discussion of the terminology that war and sex have in common see D. de Rougemnot, Passion and Society (London: Faber n.d.) pp.248-50; for the same phenomenon as expressed in ancient Greek, E. Vermeule, Aspects of Death in Early Greek Art and Poetry (Berkeley: U. of California Press 1979)p.101.
11. The Hebrew term in question, li-dfok, originally means 'to pound'. For a general discussion of the terminology that war and sex have in common see D. de Rougemnot, Passion and Society (London: Faber n.d.) pp.248-50; for the same phenomenon as expressed in ancient Greek, E. Vermeule, Aspects of Death in Early Greek Art and Poetry (Berkeley: U. of California Press 1979)p.101.
12. See E. Young-Bruehl, Freud on Women (NY: Norton 1990) pp.346-62, 272-82; K. Horney, 'The Flight from Womanhood', International Journal for Psycho-Analysis 7 (1926) p.330; idem, 'The Dread of Women', ibid., 13 (1932) p.359; H. L. and R. R. Ansbacher (eds.) The Individual Psychology of Alfred Adler (NY: Harper & Row 1956) pp.50, 452; P. R. Sanday, Female Power and Male Dominance: On the Origins of Sexual Inequality (Cambridge: CUP 1987) p.78; N.C. Chodorow, Feminism and Psychoanalytic Theory (New Haven, CT, Yale UP 1989) pp.32-41; J.K. Conway et al. (eds.) Learning about Women (Ann Arbor: U. of Michigan Press 1989) p.xxvi; and J. Rutherford, Men's Silences (London: Routledge 1990) pp.180-1. All these authorities consider that boys, either because they have been brought up by women or because there are no 'natural' biological changes to mark their passage, find it harder than girls to move from childhood into adulthood. The result is competitiveness and a tendency to overcompensate.
13. See E. Young-Bruehl, Freud on Women (NY: Norton 1990) pp.346-62, 272-82; K. Horney, 'The Flight from Womanhood', International Journal for Psycho-Analysis 7 (1926) p.330; idem, 'The Dread of Women', ibid., 13 (1932) p.359; H. L. and R. R. Ansbacher (eds.) The Individual Psychology of Alfred Adler (NY: Harper & Row 1956) pp.50, 452; P. R. Sanday, Female Power and Male Dominance: On the Origins of Sexual Inequality (Cambridge: CUP 1987) p.78; N.C. Chodorow, Feminism and Psychoanalytic Theory (New Haven, CT, Yale UP 1989) pp.32-41; J.K. Conway et al. (eds.) Learning about Women (Ann Arbor: U. of Michigan Press 1989) p.xxvi; and J. Rutherford, Men's Silences (London: Routledge 1990) pp.180-1. All these authorities consider that boys, either because they have been brought up by women or because there are no 'natural' biological changes to mark their passage, find it harder than girls to move from childhood into adulthood. The result is competitiveness and a tendency to overcompensate.
14. See E. Young-Bruehl, Freud on Women (NY: Norton 1990) pp.346-62, 272-82; K. Horney, 'The Flight from Womanhood', International Journal for Psycho-Analysis 7 (1926) p.330; idem, 'The Dread of Women', ibid., 13 (1932) p.359; H. L. and R. R. Ansbacher (eds.) The Individual Psychology of Alfred Adler (NY: Harper & Row 1956) pp.50, 452; P. R. Sanday, Female Power and Male Dominance: On the Origins of Sexual Inequality (Cambridge: CUP 1987) p.78; N.C. Chodorow, Feminism and Psychoanalytic Theory (New Haven, CT, Yale UP 1989) pp.32-41; J.K. Conway et al. (eds.) Learning about Women (Ann Arbor: U. of Michigan Press 1989) p.xxvi; and J. Rutherford, Men's Silences (London: Routledge 1990) pp.180-1. All these authorities consider that boys, either because they have been brought up by women or because there are no 'natural' biological changes to mark their passage, find it harder than girls to move from childhood into adulthood. The result is competitiveness and a tendency to overcompensate.
15. See E. Young-Bruehl, Freud on Women (NY: Norton 1990) pp.346-62, 272-82; K. Horney, 'The Flight from Womanhood', International Journal for Psycho-Analysis 7 (1926) p.330; idem, 'The Dread of Women', ibid., 13 (1932) p.359; H. L. and R. R. Ansbacher (eds.) The Individual Psychology of Alfred Adler (NY: Harper & Row 1956) pp.50, 452; P. R. Sanday, Female Power and Male Dominance: On the Origins of Sexual Inequality (Cambridge: CUP 1987) p.78; N.C. Chodorow, Feminism and Psychoanalytic Theory (New Haven, CT, Yale UP 1989) pp.32-41; J.K. Conway et al. (eds.) Learning about Women (Ann Arbor: U. of Michigan Press 1989) p.xxvi; and J. Rutherford, Men's Silences (London: Routledge 1990) pp.180-1. All these authorities consider that boys, either because they have been brought up by women or because there are no 'natural' biological changes to mark their passage, find it harder than girls to move from childhood into adulthood. The result is competitiveness and a tendency to overcompensate.
16. See E. Young-Bruehl, Freud on Women (NY: Norton 1990) pp.346-62, 272-82; K. Horney, 'The Flight from Womanhood', International Journal for Psycho-Analysis 7 (1926) p.330; idem, 'The Dread of Women', ibid., 13 (1932) p.359; H. L. and R. R. Ansbacher (eds.) The Individual Psychology of Alfred Adler (NY: Harper & Row 1956) pp.50, 452; P. R. Sanday, Female Power and Male Dominance: On the Origins of Sexual Inequality (Cambridge: CUP 1987) p.78; N.C. Chodorow, Feminism and Psychoanalytic Theory (New Haven, CT, Yale UP 1989) pp.32-41; J.K. Conway et al. (eds.) Learning about Women (Ann Arbor: U. of Michigan Press 1989) p.xxvi; and J. Rutherford, Men's Silences (London: Routledge 1990) pp.180-1. All these authorities consider that boys, either because they have been brought up by women or because there are no 'natural' biological changes to mark their passage, find it harder than girls to move from childhood into adulthood. The result is competitiveness and a tendency to overcompensate.
17. See E. Young-Bruehl, Freud on Women (NY: Norton 1990) pp.346-62, 272-82; K. Horney, 'The Flight from Womanhood', International Journal for Psycho-Analysis 7 (1926) p.330; idem, 'The Dread of Women', ibid., 13 (1932) p.359; H. L. and R. R. Ansbacher (eds.) The Individual Psychology of Alfred Adler (NY: Harper & Row 1956) pp.50, 452; P. R. Sanday, Female Power and Male Dominance: On the Origins of Sexual Inequality (Cambridge: CUP 1987) p.78; N.C. Chodorow, Feminism and Psychoanalytic Theory (New Haven, CT, Yale UP 1989) pp.32-41; J.K. Conway et al. (eds.) Learning about Women (Ann Arbor: U. of Michigan Press 1989) p.xxvi; and J. Rutherford, Men's Silences (London: Routledge 1990) pp.180-1. All these authorities consider that boys, either because they have been brought up by women or because there are no 'natural' biological changes to mark their passage, find it harder than girls to move from childhood into adulthood. The result is competitiveness and a tendency to overcompensate.
18. See E. Young-Bruehl, Freud on Women (NY: Norton 1990) pp.346-62, 272-82; K. Horney, 'The Flight from Womanhood', International Journal for Psycho-Analysis 7 (1926) p.330; idem, 'The Dread of Women', ibid., 13 (1932) p.359; H. L. and R. R. Ansbacher (eds.) The Individual Psychology of Alfred Adler (NY: Harper & Row 1956) pp.50, 452; P. R. Sanday, Female Power and Male Dominance: On the Origins of Sexual Inequality (Cambridge: CUP 1987) p.78; N.C. Chodorow, Feminism and Psychoanalytic Theory (New Haven, CT, Yale UP 1989) pp.32-41; J.K. Conway et al. (eds.) Learning about Women (Ann Arbor: U. of Michigan Press 1989) p.xxvi; and J. Rutherford, Men's Silences (London: Routledge 1990) pp.180-1. All these authorities consider that boys, either because they have been brought up by women or because there are no 'natural' biological changes to mark their passage, find it harder than girls to move from childhood into adulthood. The result is competitiveness and a tendency to overcompensate.
19. See E. Young-Bruehl, Freud on Women (NY: Norton 1990) pp.346-62, 272-82; K. Horney, 'The Flight from Womanhood', International Journal for Psycho-Analysis 7 (1926) p.330; idem, 'The Dread of Women', ibid., 13 (1932) p.359; H. L. and R. R. Ansbacher (eds.) The Individual Psychology of Alfred Adler (NY: Harper & Row 1956) pp.50, 452; P. R. Sanday, Female Power and Male Dominance: On the Origins of Sexual Inequality (Cambridge: CUP 1987) p.78; N.C. Chodorow, Feminism and Psychoanalytic Theory (New Haven, CT, Yale UP 1989) pp.32-41; J.K. Conway et al. (eds.) Learning about Women (Ann Arbor: U. of Michigan Press 1989) p.xxvi; and J. Rutherford, Men's Silences (London: Routledge 1990) pp.180-1. All these authorities consider that boys, either because they have been brought up by women or because there are no 'natural' biological changes to mark their passage, find it harder than girls to move from childhood into adulthood. The result is competitiveness and a tendency to overcompensate.
20. For the view of war as sport see above all F. Nietzsche, Thus Spake Zarathustra [1883-92] (Harmondsworth, Middx: Penguin 1961) pp.73-5; Creveld, Transformation of War (note 1) Ch. 6; and B. Erhrenreich, Blood Rites: Origins and History of the Passions of War (NY: Holt 1997) Ch. 7.
21. For the view of war as sport see above all F. Nietzsche, Thus Spake Zarathustra [1883-92] (Harmondsworth, Middx: Penguin 1961) pp.73-5; Creveld, Transformation of War (note 1) Ch. 6; and B. Erhrenreich, Blood Rites: Origins and History of the Passions of War (NY: Holt 1997) Ch. 7.
22. For the view of war as sport see above all F. Nietzsche, Thus Spake Zarathustra [1883-92] (Harmondsworth, Middx: Penguin 1961) pp.73-5; Creveld, Transformation of War (note 1) Ch. 6; and B. Erhrenreich, Blood Rites: Origins and History of the Passions of War (NY: Holt 1997) Ch. 7.
23. Exceptions, e.g. China, may be explained by the fact that it was the Mandarins and not the soldiers who did the writing.
24. According to M. Mead, Male and Female (London: Gollancz 1949) pp. 159-60.
25. S.Goldberg, Why Me n Rule, a Theory of Male Dominance (Chicago, MI.: Open Court 1993). particularly the appendix.
26. See R. Wenke, Patterns in Prehistory: Humankind's First Three Million Years (NY: OUP 1990) pp.120-1.
27. For the idea that the subjection of women is natural and inevitable see above all Goldberg, Why Men Rule (note 12).
28. F. Nietzsche, Beyond Good and Evil [1886] (Harmondsworth, Middx.: Penguin 1969) p.145.
29. S. Firestone, The Dialectic of Sex (NY: Morrow 1971). Ms Firestone's solution to the problem is to mechanise conception and pregnancy whereas children, once born, are to be raised by the community.
30. E. Reardon, Sexism and the War System (NY: Teachers' College 1985) p.47.
31. K. Millett, Sexual Politics (NY: Avon Books 1971) p.119.
32. If, out of a group comprising two hundred males and two hundred females, one were to choose the 50 per cent who are physically the strongest, then 93 would be men and 7 women. D. Young, Manwatching (London: Elsevier 1977) pp.230-2.
33. For a list of the ways in which they have done so see N. Huston, 'Tales of War and Tears of Women', in J. H. Stiehm (ed.) Women and Men's Wars (Oxford: Pergamon Press 1983), pp.274-5.
34. J. Fraser, The Golden Bough (NY: Macmillan 1955) [1922] pp.31-2; J. van der Dennen, The Origin of War (Groningen: Origo 1995) Vol. 1 p. 423; Turney-Hich, Primitive War (note 4) p.152ff.
35. J. Fraser, The Golden Bough (NY: Macmillan 1955) [1922] pp.31-2; J. van der Dennen, The Origin of War (Groningen: Origo 1995) Vol. 1 p. 423; Turney-Hich, Primitive War (note 4) p.152ff.
36. J. Fraser, The Golden Bough (NY: Macmillan 1955) [1922] pp.31-2; J. van der Dennen, The Origin of War (Groningen: Origo 1995) Vol. 1 p. 423; Turney-Hich, Primitive War (note 4) p.152ff.
37. C. Wissler, Societies and Ceremonial Associations of the Oglala Division of the Teton-Dakota, (NY: American Museum of Natural History 1912) p.17.
38. J. Krige, The Social System of the Zulus (London: Longmans 1936) p.279.
39. Tacitus (note 3) 8.
40. Julius Caesar, Bellum Gallicum (London: Heinemann, Loeb Classical Library 1949) 7.26; 7.48.
41. Plutarch, Moralia (London: Heinemann, Loeb Classical Library 1931) p.241. For a good discussion of women as the abetters of war see J.B. Elshtain, Women and War (U. of Chicago Press 1995) [1987] pp.47-72.
42. Plutarch, Moralia (London: Heinemann, Loeb Classical Library 1931) p.241. For a good discussion of women as the abetters of war see J.B. Elshtain, Women and War (U. of Chicago Press 1995) [1987] pp.47-72.
43. Plato, The Republic (London: Heinemann, Loeb Classical Library 1969) p.460B.
44. R. Stromberg, Redemption by War: the Intellectuals and 1914 (Lawrence: U. of Kansas Press 1982)p.182.
45. For the heady atmosphere of those days see H. Swanwick, I Have Been Young (London: Gollancz 1935) Ch. 2.
46. H. Deutsch, The Psychology of Women (London: Research Books 1947) Vol. I, p.301.
47. Yediot Acharonot Weekend Magazine, 31 Oct. 1997. According to some reports Rabin's murderer, Yigal Amir, was inspired by considerations of a similar kind.
48. Turney-High, Primitive War (note 4) p. 154 ff.; L.H. Keeley, War Before Civilization (Oxford: OUP 1996) pp.86-7.
49. Turney-High, Primitive War (note 4) p. 154 ff.; L.H. Keeley, War Before Civilization (Oxford: OUP 1996) pp.86-7.
50. L.P. Peirce, The Imperial Harem, Women and Sovereignty in the Ottoman Empire (NY: OUP 1993) p.32 ff.
51. Susan Brownmuller, Against Our Will (NY: Simon & Schuster 1975).
52. Caesar, Helium Gallicum 7.47.
53. The lady with the lamp' spent the Crimean War at Scutari, opposite Istanbul, helping improve conditions in British military hospitals.
54. On camp followers at various times and places see G. R. Watson, The Roman Soldier (Ithaca, NY: Cornell UP 1969) p.133 ff.; B.C. Hacker, 'Women and Military Institutions in Early Modern Europe: a Reconnaissance', Signs 6 (1981) pp.643-71; P. E. Kopperman, 'The British High Command and Soldiers' Wives in America', Journal of the Society for Army Historical Research 60 (1982) pp.14-34; N.T. St. Williams, Judy O'Grady and the Colonel's Lady (London: Brassey's 1988) passim; and Z.K. Kerber, '"History Can Do It No Justice"; Women and the Reinterpretation of the American Revolution', in R. Hoffmann and P.J. Alberts (eds.) Women in the Age of the American Revolution (Charlottesville: UP of Virginia 1989) pp.11-9.
55. On camp followers at various times and places see G. R. Watson, The Roman Soldier (Ithaca, NY: Cornell UP 1969) p.133 ff.; B.C. Hacker, 'Women and Military Institutions in Early Modern Europe: a Reconnaissance', Signs 6 (1981) pp.643-71; P. E. Kopperman, 'The British High Command and Soldiers' Wives in America', Journal of the Society for Army Historical Research 60 (1982) pp.14-34; N.T. St. Williams, Judy O'Grady and the Colonel's Lady (London: Brassey's 1988) passim; and Z.K. Kerber, '"History Can Do It No Justice"; Women and the Reinterpretation of the American Revolution', in R. Hoffmann and P.J. Alberts (eds.) Women in the Age of the American Revolution (Charlottesville: UP of Virginia 1989) pp.11-9.
56. On camp followers at various times and places see G. R. Watson, The Roman Soldier (Ithaca, NY: Cornell UP 1969) p.133 ff.; B.C. Hacker, 'Women and Military Institutions in Early Modern Europe: a Reconnaissance', Signs 6 (1981) pp.643-71; P. E. Kopperman, 'The British High Command and Soldiers' Wives in America', Journal of the Society for Army Historical Research 60 (1982) pp.14-34; N.T. St. Williams, Judy O'Grady and the Colonel's Lady (London: Brassey's 1988) passim; and Z.K. Kerber, '"History Can Do It No Justice"; Women and the Reinterpretation of the American Revolution', in R. Hoffmann and P.J. Alberts (eds.) Women in the Age of the American Revolution (Charlottesville: UP of Virginia 1989) pp.11-9.
57. On camp followers at various times and places see G. R. Watson, The Roman Soldier (Ithaca, NY: Cornell UP 1969) p.133 ff.; B.C. Hacker, 'Women and Military Institutions in Early Modern Europe: a Reconnaissance', Signs 6 (1981) pp.643-71; P. E. Kopperman, 'The British High Command and Soldiers' Wives in America', Journal of the Society for Army Historical Research 60 (1982) pp.14-34; N.T. St. Williams, Judy O'Grady and the Colonel's Lady (London: Brassey's 1988) passim; and Z.K. Kerber, '"History Can Do It No Justice"; Women and the Reinterpretation of the American Revolution', in R. Hoffmann and P.J. Alberts (eds.) Women in the Age of the American Revolution (Charlottesville: UP of Virginia 1989) pp.11-9.
58. On camp followers at various times and places see G. R. Watson, The Roman Soldier (Ithaca, NY: Cornell UP 1969) p.133 ff.; B.C. Hacker, 'Women and Military Institutions in Early Modern Europe: a Reconnaissance', Signs 6 (1981) pp.643-71; P. E. Kopperman, 'The British High Command and Soldiers' Wives in America', Journal of the Society for Army Historical Research 60 (1982) pp.14-34; N.T. St. Williams, Judy O'Grady and the Colonel's Lady (London: Brassey's 1988) passim; and Z.K. Kerber, '"History Can Do It No Justice"; Women and the Reinterpretation of the American Revolution', in R. Hoffmann and P.J. Alberts (eds.) Women in the Age of the American Revolution (Charlottesville: UP of Virginia 1989) pp.11-9.
59. P. H. Wilson, 'German Women and War', War in History 3 (1996) pp.127-40, 152-57.
60. Cf. e.g. J. Contamine, War in the Middle Ages (Oxford: Blackwell 1984) p.241; also G. Bell, Soldiers' Glory: Rough Notes of an Old Soldier (London: Bell 1956) pp.61, 74, 75. According to W. H. Blumenthal, Women Camp Followers of the American Revolution (Philadelphia, PA: McManus 1952) p.66, George Washington called the presence of female camp followers 'pernicious', but could never make himself order them sent away.
61. Cf. e.g. J. Contamine, War in the Middle Ages (Oxford: Blackwell 1984) p.241; also G. Bell, Soldiers' Glory: Rough Notes of an Old Soldier (London: Bell 1956) pp.61, 74, 75. According to W. H. Blumenthal, Women Camp Followers of the American Revolution (Philadelphia, PA: McManus 1952) p.66, George Washington called the presence of female camp followers 'pernicious', but could never make himself order them sent away.
62. Cf. e.g. J. Contamine, War in the Middle Ages (Oxford: Blackwell 1984) p.241; also G. Bell, Soldiers' Glory: Rough Notes of an Old Soldier (London: Bell 1956) pp.61, 74, 75. According to W. H. Blumenthal, Women Camp Followers of the American Revolution (Philadelphia, PA: McManus 1952) p.66, George Washington called the presence of female camp followers 'pernicious', but could never make himself order them sent away.
63. See, for the British Army, M. Trustram, Women of the Regiment: Marriage and the Victorian Army (Cambridge: CUP 1984) p.3.
64. Ibid. p.91.
65. According to J. Holm, Women in the Military, the Unfinished Revolution (Novato, CA: Presidio 1992), Ch. 4 and 6, at peak the American armed forces contained 120,000 women (2.3 percent of strength) of whom 17,000, or 14 per cent, were deployed outside the Continental US.
66. Cf. A. Noggle, Dance with Death: Soviet Airwomen in World War II (College Station: Texas UP 1994).
67. G.J. DeGroot, 'Whose Finger on the Trigger? Mixed Anti-Aircraft batteries and the Female Combat Taboo', War in History 4/4 (Nov. 1997) pp.411-31; also D'Ann Campbell, 'Women in Combat: the World War II Experience in the United States, Great Britain, Germany, and the Soviet Union', Journal of Military History 57 (April 1993) pp.301-23.
68. G.J. DeGroot, 'Whose Finger on the Trigger? Mixed Anti-Aircraft batteries and the Female Combat Taboo', War in History 4/4 (Nov. 1997) pp.411-31; also D'Ann Campbell, 'Women in Combat: the World War II Experience in the United States, Great Britain, Germany, and the Soviet Union', Journal of Military History 57 (April 1993) pp.301-23.
69. For the US see S. J. Diensterey, 'Women Veterans' Exposure to Combat', Armed Forces and Society 14/4 (Summer 1988) p.593; for Britain N. Loring Goldman and R. Stiles, 'Great Britain and the World Wars', in N. Loring Goldman (ed.) Female Soldiers - Combatants or Noncombatants? (Westport, CT: Greenwood 1982) p.35.
70. For the US see S. J. Diensterey, 'Women Veterans' Exposure to Combat', Armed Forces and Society 14/4 (Summer 1988) p.593; for Britain N. Loring Goldman and R. Stiles, 'Great Britain and the World Wars', in N. Loring Goldman (ed.) Female Soldiers - Combatants or Noncombatants? (Westport, CT: Greenwood 1982) p.35.
71. Cf. D. Gera, Warrior Women: the Anonymous Tractatus de Miilieribus (Leiden: Brill 1997).
72. In addition there was a considerable number of fictional female warriors; cf. D. Dugaw, Warrior Women and Popular Balladry, 1650-1850 (London: CUP 1989).
73. One very famous warrior-woman whose adventures may have had something to do with her desire to escape marriage was Jeanne d'Arc. See A. Buchan, Joan of Arc and the Recovery of France (London: Hodder 1948) pp.55, 59.
74. Accounts of military women in disguise may be found in St. Williams, Judy O'Grady (note 37) pp. 10-11; also R.M. Dekker and L.C. van de Pol, The Tradition of Female Transvestitism in Early Modern Europe (NY: St Martin's 1989).
75. Accounts of military women in disguise may be found in St. Williams, Judy O'Grady (note 37) pp. 10-11; also R.M. Dekker and L.C. van de Pol, The Tradition of Female Transvestitism in Early Modern Europe (NY: St Martin's 1989).
76. Durova's adventures are described in her autobiography. Cavalry Maiden: Journals of a Female Russian Officer in the Napoleonic Wars (London: Paladin 1990). In fact, though, there is reason to believe that this oeuvre is less than completely honest, both because Durova completely skips over her marriage and because it deliberately presents parts of her career in literary, rather than factual, terms.
77. J. Boulegue, "Feminization" and the French Military: an Anthropological Approach', Armed Forces and Society 17/3 (1991) p.345.
78. One exception to the trend was Israel where the era of large-scale conventional war had not ended. See M. van Creveld, The Sword and the Olive: a History of the Israeli Army (NY, Public Affairs 1998) passim.
79. Holm, Women in the Military (note 42) pp. 181,184.
80. Ibid. Ch. 15; W. Breuer, War and American Women: Deeds and Controversy (Westport: CT: Prager 1897) p.79; H. Rogan., Mixed Company, Women in the Modern Army (Boston, MA: Beacon Press 1981) p.16; J. Ebert and M. B. Hall, Crossed Currents: Navy Women from WWI to Tailhook (Washington DC: Brassey's 1993) pp.160-1, 168, 222-3; J.J. Mansbridge, Why We Lost the Era (U. of Chicago Press 1986) p.72; B. Mitchell, Women in the Military; Flirting with Disaster (Washington DC: Regnery 1998) pp.24-5.
81. Ibid. Ch. 15; W. Breuer, War and American Women: Deeds and Controversy (Westport: CT: Prager 1897) p.79; H. Rogan., Mixed Company, Women in the Modern Army (Boston, MA: Beacon Press 1981) p.16; J. Ebert and M. B. Hall, Crossed Currents: Navy Women from WWI to Tailhook (Washington DC: Brassey's 1993) pp.160-1, 168, 222-3; J.J. Mansbridge, Why We Lost the Era (U. of Chicago Press 1986) p.72; B. Mitchell, Women in the Military; Flirting with Disaster (Washington DC: Regnery 1998) pp.24-5.
82. Ibid. Ch. 15; W. Breuer, War and American Women: Deeds and Controversy (Westport: CT: Prager 1897) p.79; H. Rogan., Mixed Company, Women in the Modern Army (Boston, MA: Beacon Press 1981) p.16; J. Ebert and M. B. Hall, Crossed Currents: Navy Women from WWI to Tailhook (Washington DC: Brassey's 1993) pp.160-1, 168, 222-3; J.J. Mansbridge, Why We Lost the Era (U. of Chicago Press 1986) p.72; B. Mitchell, Women in the Military; Flirting with Disaster (Washington DC: Regnery 1998) pp.24-5.
83. Ibid. Ch. 15; W. Breuer, War and American Women: Deeds and Controversy (Westport: CT: Prager 1897) p.79; H. Rogan., Mixed Company, Women in the Modern Army (Boston, MA: Beacon Press 1981) p.16; J. Ebert and M. B. Hall, Crossed Currents: Navy Women from WWI to Tailhook (Washington DC: Brassey's 1993) pp.160-1, 168, 222-3; J.J. Mansbridge, Why We Lost the Era (U. of Chicago Press 1986) p.72; B. Mitchell, Women in the Military; Flirting with Disaster (Washington DC: Regnery 1998) pp.24-5.
84. Ibid. Ch. 15; W. Breuer, War and American Women: Deeds and Controversy (Westport: CT: Prager 1897) p.79; H. Rogan., Mixed Company, Women in the Modern Army (Boston, MA: Beacon Press 1981) p.16; J. Ebert and M. B. Hall, Crossed Currents: Navy Women from WWI to Tailhook (Washington DC: Brassey's 1993) pp.160-1, 168, 222-3; J.J. Mansbridge, Why We Lost the Era (U. of Chicago Press 1986) p.72; B. Mitchell, Women in the Military; Flirting with Disaster (Washington DC: Regnery 1998) pp.24-5.
85. Ibid. Ch. 15; W. Breuer, War and American Women: Deeds and Controversy (Westport: CT: Prager 1897) p.79; H. Rogan., Mixed Company, Women in the Modern Army (Boston, MA: Beacon Press 1981) p.16; J. Ebert and M. B. Hall, Crossed Currents: Navy Women from WWI to Tailhook (Washington DC: Brassey's 1993) pp.160-1, 168, 222-3; J.J. Mansbridge, Why We Lost the Era (U. of Chicago Press 1986) p.72; B. Mitchell, Women in the Military; Flirting with Disaster (Washington DC: Regnery 1998) pp.24-5.
86. Japan: K. M. Wiegand, 'Japan: Cautious Utilization', in Goldman, Female Soldiers (note 45) pp.184, 187. Sweden: K. Tornqvist, 'Sweden, the Neutral Nation', in ibid, p.208. Greece: J. Brown and C. Safilios-Rothschild, 'Greece: Reluctant Presence', ibid, p.168. Britain: C. Dandeker, 'New Times for the Military', British Journal of Sociology 45/4 (Dec. 1994), p.649. Israel: J. Jerby, Ha-mechir Ha-kaful: Ma-amad Ha-isha Ba-chevra Ha-yisraelit Vesheritt Ha-nashim Be-TSAHAL [The Double Price: The Status of Women in Israel Society and Military Service for Women] (Tel Aviv: Ramot 1994) p. 149.
87. Japan: K. M. Wiegand, 'Japan: Cautious Utilization', in Goldman, Female Soldiers (note 45) pp.184, 187. Sweden: K. Tornqvist, 'Sweden, the Neutral Nation', in ibid, p.208. Greece: J. Brown and C. Safilios-Rothschild, 'Greece: Reluctant Presence', ibid, p.168. Britain: C. Dandeker, 'New Times for the Military', British Journal of Sociology 45/4 (Dec. 1994), p.649. Israel: J. Jerby, Ha-mechir Ha-kaful: Ma-amad Ha-isha Ba-chevra Ha-yisraelit Vesheritt Ha-nashim Be-TSAHAL [The Double Price: The Status of Women in Israel Society and Military Service for Women] (Tel Aviv: Ramot 1994) p. 149.
88. Japan: K. M. Wiegand, 'Japan: Cautious Utilization', in Goldman, Female Soldiers (note 45) pp.184, 187. Sweden: K. Tornqvist, 'Sweden, the Neutral Nation', in ibid, p.208. Greece: J. Brown and C. Safilios-Rothschild, 'Greece: Reluctant Presence', ibid, p.168. Britain: C. Dandeker, 'New Times for the Military', British Journal of Sociology 45/4 (Dec. 1994), p.649. Israel: J. Jerby, Ha-mechir Ha-kaful: Ma-amad Ha-isha Ba-chevra Ha-yisraelit Vesheritt Ha-nashim Be-TSAHAL [The Double Price: The Status of Women in Israel Society and Military Service for Women] (Tel Aviv: Ramot 1994) p. 149.
89. Japan: K. M. Wiegand, 'Japan: Cautious Utilization', in Goldman, Female Soldiers (note 45) pp.184, 187. Sweden: K. Tornqvist, 'Sweden, the Neutral Nation', in ibid, p.208. Greece: J. Brown and C. Safilios-Rothschild, 'Greece: Reluctant Presence', ibid, p.168. Britain: C. Dandeker, 'New Times for the Military', British Journal of Sociology 45/4 (Dec. 1994), p.649. Israel: J. Jerby, Ha-mechir Ha-kaful: Ma-amad Ha-isha Ba-chevra Ha-yisraelit Vesheritt Ha-nashim Be-TSAHAL [The Double Price: The Status of Women in Israel Society and Military Service for Women] (Tel Aviv: Ramot 1994) p. 149.
90. Japan: K. M. Wiegand, 'Japan: Cautious Utilization', in Goldman, Female Soldiers (note 45) pp.184, 187. Sweden: K. Tornqvist, 'Sweden, the Neutral Nation', in ibid, p.208. Greece: J. Brown and C. Safilios-Rothschild, 'Greece: Reluctant Presence', ibid, p.168. Britain: C. Dandeker, 'New Times for the Military', British Journal of Sociology 45/4 (Dec. 1994), p.649. Israel: J. Jerby, Ha-mechir Ha-kaful: Ma-amad Ha-isha Ba-chevra Ha-yisraelit Vesheritt Ha-nashim Be-TSAHAL [The Double Price: The Status of Women in Israel Society and Military Service for Women] (Tel Aviv: Ramot 1994) p. 149.
91. Cf. M. D. Feld, 'Arms and the Woman', Armed Forces and Society 4/4 (Aug. 1978) pp.557-8, 564; L. D. Meier, Creating GI Jane: Sexuality and Power in the Women's. Army Corps during World War II (NY: Columbia UP 1996) pp. 1-2, 5; C. Enloe, Does Khaki Become You? The Militarization of Women's Lives (London: Pluto 1983) pp.16-17.
92. Cf. M. D. Feld, 'Arms and the Woman', Armed Forces and Society 4/4 (Aug. 1978) pp.557-8, 564; L. D. Meier, Creating GI Jane: Sexuality and Power in the Women's. Army Corps during World War II (NY: Columbia UP 1996) pp. 1-2, 5; C. Enloe, Does Khaki Become You? The Militarization of Women's Lives (London: Pluto 1983) pp.16-17.
93. Cf. M. D. Feld, 'Arms and the Woman', Armed Forces and Society 4/4 (Aug. 1978) pp.557-8, 564; L. D. Meier, Creating GI Jane: Sexuality and Power in the Women's. Army Corps during World War II (NY: Columbia UP 1996) pp. 1-2, 5; C. Enloe, Does Khaki Become You? The Militarization of Women's Lives (London: Pluto 1983) pp.16-17.
94. On the other hand, and at the same time as they demanded 'equality', women refused to be drafted; a refusal which was supported by the (male dominated) Supreme Court. Cf. Holm, Women in the Military (note 42) p. 347.
95. Figures from A. Hoiberg, 'Women as New "Manpower"', Armed Forces and Society 4/4 (Aug. 1978) p.555; also Holm, Women in the Military (note 42) p.397.
96. Figures from A. Hoiberg, 'Women as New "Manpower"', Armed Forces and Society 4/4 (Aug. 1978) p.555; also Holm, Women in the Military (note 42) p.397.
97. L. van Tuyl, 'Vrouwen tegen Vergrijzing' [Women against the Aging Process] Annex (Dec. 1997) p. 17.
98. Israel's Women's Lobby, 'Nashim Ve-sherut Be-TSAHAL', Tel Aviv University, mimeographed, 1995, pp.13, 19. For similar data from additional countries see M. Binkin and Bach, Women in the Military (Washington DC: Brookings 1977) passim, and J. E. Klick, 'Utilization of Women in the NATO Alliance', Armed Forces and Society 4/4 (Aug. 1978) pp.673-7 for short, if badly dated, overviews of the position of military women in various countries.
99. Israel's Women's Lobby, 'Nashim Ve-sherut Be-TSAHAL', Tel Aviv University, mimeographed, 1995, pp.13, 19. For similar data from additional countries see M. Binkin and Bach, Women in the Military (Washington DC: Brookings 1977) passim, and J. E. Klick, 'Utilization of Women in the NATO Alliance', Armed Forces and Society 4/4 (Aug. 1978) pp.673-7 for short, if badly dated, overviews of the position of military women in various countries.
100. Israel's Women's Lobby, 'Nashim Ve-sherut Be-TSAHAL', Tel Aviv University, mimeographed, 1995, pp.13, 19. For similar data from additional countries see M. Binkin and Bach, Women in the Military (Washington DC: Brookings 1977) passim, and J. E. Klick, 'Utilization of Women in the NATO Alliance', Armed Forces and Society 4/4 (Aug. 1978) pp.673-7 for short, if badly dated, overviews of the position of military women in various countries.
101. In the US, this change took place in 1978 when the post of WAC director was abolished; Holm, Women in the Military (note 42) p.285.
102. Cf. M. Martin, 'From Periphery to Center - Women in the French Military', Armed Forces and Society 8/2 (Winter 1982) pp.303-3.
103. For some of these arguments see Binkin and Bach, Women in the Military (note 60) pp.48-9.
104. On what nuclear weapons have done to interstate warfare see M. van Creveld, Nuclear Proliferation and the Future of Conflict (NY: Free Press 1993) Ch. 2.
105. Feld, 'Arms and the Woman' (note 56) p.563.
106. W. B. Breuer, War and American Women, Heroism, Deeds, and Controversy (NY: Praeger 1997) p.230.
107. Mitchell, Women in the Military (note 54) p.247.
108. See L. Tiger, Men in Groups (NY: Random House 1969) pp.76, 78. For detailed accounts of the link between the prestige of different occupations, the income derived from them, and their penetration by women see C. E. Bose, Jobs and Gender, a Study of Occupational Prestige (NY: Praeger 1985); also B. R. Reskin and P. A. Roos, Job Queues, Gender Queues, Explaining Women's Inroads into Male Occupations (Philadelphia, PA: Temple UP 1990). Both books, incidentally, were written by women.
109. See L. Tiger, Men in Groups (NY: Random House 1969) pp.76, 78. For detailed accounts of the link between the prestige of different occupations, the income derived from them, and their penetration by women see C. E. Bose, Jobs and Gender, a Study of Occupational Prestige (NY: Praeger 1985); also B. R. Reskin and P. A. Roos, Job Queues, Gender Queues, Explaining Women's Inroads into Male Occupations (Philadelphia, PA: Temple UP 1990). Both books, incidentally, were written by women.
110. See L. Tiger, Men in Groups (NY: Random House 1969) pp.76, 78. For detailed accounts of the link between the prestige of different occupations, the income derived from them, and their penetration by women see C. E. Bose, Jobs and Gender, a Study of Occupational Prestige (NY: Praeger 1985); also B. R. Reskin and P. A. Roos, Job Queues, Gender Queues, Explaining Women's Inroads into Male Occupations (Philadelphia, PA: Temple UP 1990). Both books, incidentally, were written by women.
111. For detailed figures see Mitchell, Women in the Military (note 53) pp. 141-2.
112. In Israel, during an experimental mixed basic training course, the males were called 'c - ts' by their comrades.
113. Mead, Male and Female (note 11) p.315. In addition, many female instructors in charge of men have never gone through the full rigors of male basic training. It is like taking driving lessons from an instructor who has only ever been in a simulator; in the Israeli Army, which was the first to make the experiment, it created a situation where commanders no longer knew how to command, instructors how to instruct. Yediot Acharonot, 13 Sept. 1992, p. 26.
114. Mead, Male and Female (note 11) p.315. In addition, many female instructors in charge of men have never gone through the full rigors of male basic training. It is like taking driving lessons from an instructor who has only ever been in a simulator; in the Israeli Army, which was the first to make the experiment, it created a situation where commanders no longer knew how to command, instructors how to instruct. Yediot Acharonot, 13 Sept. 1992, p. 26.
115. Judith Hicks Stiehm, Arms and the Enlisted Women (Philadelphia, PA: Temple UP 1989) pp.96-7, 106.
116. Ebert and Hall, Crossed Currents (note 54) p. 14.
117. Cf. DeGroot, 'Whose Finger on the Trigger?' (note 44) p.437; F. Pile, Ack-Ack, Britain's Defence against Air Attack during the Second World War (London: Harrap 1949) pp.190-1.
118. Cf. DeGroot, 'Whose Finger on the Trigger?' (note 44) p.437; F. Pile, Ack-Ack, Britain's Defence against Air Attack during the Second World War (London: Harrap 1949) pp.190-1.
119. N. Loring Goldman and R. Stites, 'Great Britain and the World Wars', in Goldman, Female Soldiers (note 45) p.32.
120. A. E. Griesse and R. Stites, 'Russia: Revolution and War', in Goldman, Female Soldiers (note 45) p.80.
121. Brown and Safilios-Rothschild, 'Greece: Reluctant Presence' (note 55) p.173.
122. C.H. Enloe, 'Women in NATO Militaries - A Conference Report', Women's Studies International Forum 5/3-4 (1982) p.330.
123. Cf. Boulgeue, '"Feminizalion" and the French Military' (note 51) p.343 for figures on the French military as of 1985. The situation in the old USSR was similar.
124. For the US see testimony of Lt John Calgett, USN, 6 Aug. 1992, Presidential Commission on the Assignment of Women in the Armed Forces Report to the President, 15 Nov. 1992; also D. Hackworth, 'War and the Second Sex', Newsweek, 5 Aug. 1991, p. 26. For Israel see Yediot Acharonot, 8 May 1996, p.17, and ibid. 9 May 1996, p.6.
125. For the US see testimony of Lt John Calgett, USN, 6 Aug. 1992, Presidential Commission on the Assignment of Women in the Armed Forces Report to the President, 15 Nov. 1992; also D. Hackworth, 'War and the Second Sex', Newsweek, 5 Aug. 1991, p. 26. For Israel see Yediot Acharonot, 8 May 1996, p.17, and ibid. 9 May 1996, p.6.
126. For the US see testimony of Lt John Calgett, USN, 6 Aug. 1992, Presidential Commission on the Assignment of Women in the Armed Forces Report to the President, 15 Nov. 1992; also D. Hackworth, 'War and the Second Sex', Newsweek, 5 Aug. 1991, p. 26. For Israel see Yediot Acharonot, 8 May 1996, p.17, and ibid. 9 May 1996, p.6.
127. DeGroot, 'Whose Finger on the Trigger?' (note 44) pp.437-8.
128. M.C. Devilbis, 'Gender Integration and Unit Deployment: a Study of GI Jo', Armed Forces and Society 11/4 (Summer 1985) p.538.
129. Cf. GAO Report to Sec. of Def. (Washington DC: US GAO 1993) pp.2-5.
130. On the incidence of sexual harassment in the US armed forces see J. A. Firestone and R. J. Harris, 'Sexual Harassment in the US Military', Armed Forces and Society 21/1 (Fall 1994) pp.24-43.
131. See Rogan, Mixed Company (note 53) p.248, for the men's reactions.
132. Financial Times, 12 Aug. 1998.
133. See Creveld, The Sword and the Olive (note 52) passim.
134. According to Presidential Commission the Assignment of Women in the Armed Forces on the (note 80) p.C-22.
135. van Tuyl, 'Vrouwen legen Vergrijzing' (note 59).
136. See most recently M. Kaldor, New and Old Wars: Organized Violence in a Global Era (Oxford: Polity Press 1998).
137. M. Wechsler Segal, 'Women in the Armed Forces', in R. H. Howes and M. R. Stevenson, (eds.) Women and the Use of Armed Force (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner 1993) p. 92. A good illustration of this process is provided by the US Navy. From 1948 on it allowed women to serve aboard transports and hospital ships; at the same time it got rid of both categories. See Binkin and Bach, Women in the Military (note 60) p.24.
138. M. Wechsler Segal, 'Women in the Armed Forces', in R. H. Howes and M. R. Stevenson, (eds.) Women and the Use of Armed Force (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner 1993) p. 92. A good illustration of this process is provided by the US Navy. From 1948 on it allowed women to serve aboard transports and hospital ships; at the same time it got rid of both categories. See Binkin and Bach, Women in the Military (note 60) p.24.
139. Goldberg, Why Men Rule (note 12) p.114; also F. G. Burwell and M. R. Sarkness, 'Women and National Security Policy', in Howes and Stevenson, Women and the Use of Armed Force (note 91) pp. 111-34. From 1966 to 1994, 22 countries have had female heads of state and prime ministers, who held office for an average of just under 5 years: A. Brill (ed.) A Rising Public Voice, Women in Politics Worldwide (NY: City U. of New York 1995) p.212. Since the number of sovereign countries is around 150, and assuming the same average term of office for both sexes, then during those years there must have been some 840 heads of state and prime ministers world wide, making women a tiny minority of 2.6 per cent.
140. Goldberg, Why Men Rule (note 12) p.114; also F. G. Burwell and M. R. Sarkness, 'Women and National Security Policy', in Howes and Stevenson, Women and the Use of Armed Force (note 91) pp. 111-34. From 1966 to 1994, 22 countries have had female heads of state and prime ministers, who held office for an average of just under 5 years: A. Brill (ed.) A Rising Public Voice, Women in Politics Worldwide (NY: City U. of New York 1995) p.212. Since the number of sovereign countries is around 150, and assuming the same average term of office for both sexes, then during those years there must have been some 840 heads of state and prime ministers world wide, making women a tiny minority of 2.6 per cent.
141. Goldberg, Why Men Rule (note 12) p.114; also F. G. Burwell and M. R. Sarkness, 'Women and National Security Policy', in Howes and Stevenson, Women and the Use of Armed Force (note 91) pp. 111-34. From 1966 to 1994, 22 countries have had female heads of state and prime ministers, who held office for an average of just under 5 years: A. Brill (ed.) A Rising Public Voice, Women in Politics Worldwide (NY: City U. of New York 1995) p.212. Since the number of sovereign countries is around 150, and assuming the same average term of office for both sexes, then during those years there must have been some 840 heads of state and prime ministers world wide, making women a tiny minority of 2.6 per cent.
142. For example, at Fort McClellan, where the US Army used to train its WACs, the switch to integrated training soon led to the female CO being replaced by a male; Rogan, Mixed Company (note 60) p.227.
143. Cf. e.g. Ebert and Hall, Crossed Currents (note 54) p.166.
144. International Herald Tribune, 12 March 1998, p.3.
145. For Israel see 'Achat Esre Ha-noazot' [The Eleven Viragoes], Yediot Acharonot, weekend magazine, 10 Jan. 1997, pp.18-9; for Ulster Goldman and Stites, 'Great Britain and the World Wars', in Goldman (note 45) p.38.
146. For Israel see 'Achat Esre Ha-noazot' [The Eleven Viragoes], Yediot Acharonot, weekend magazine, 10 Jan. 1997, pp.18-9; for Ulster Goldman and Stites, 'Great Britain and the World Wars', in Goldman (note 45) p.38.
147. B. Ehrenreich, Blood Rites: Origins and History of the Passions of War (NY: Anchor Books 1997) p.230.
148. Letter to Martha Bernays, 5 Nov. 1883, quoted in Ernst Jones, The Life and Work of Sigmund Freud (NY: Basic Books 1953) Vol. I, p. 176.