Militarized decision-making for war in Pakistan: 1947-1971

Armed Forces and Society

Volumn 27, Issue 1, 2000, Pages 131-148

  Schofield, Julian ^a,b  

^a Och Spine at New York Presbyterian Hospitals   (United States)

^b MCGILL UNIVERSITY   (Canada)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0034552159     PISSN: 0095327X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/0095327X0002700108     Document Type: Article

References (100)

1. Richard Betts, Soldier, Statesmen, and Cold War Crises (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1977), 4-7, 215-221; Samuel P. Huntington, The Soldier and the State: The Theory and Politics of Civil-Military Relations (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1967), 69.
2. Richard Betts, Soldier, Statesmen, and Cold War Crises (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1977), 4-7, 215-221; Samuel P. Huntington, The Soldier and the State: The Theory and Politics of Civil-Military Relations (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1967), 69.
3. Alfred Vagts, Defense and Diplomacy: The Soldier and the Conduct of Foreign Relations (New York: King Crown's Press, 1958); Stuart A. Bremer, "Dangerous Dyads: Conditions Affecting the Likelihood of Interstate War, 1816-1965," Journal of Conflict Resolution 36 (June 1992): 330; Jonathan Wilkenfeld, Michael Brecher, and Sheila Moser, Crises in the Twentieth Century, Vol. II: Handbook of International Crisis (New York: Pergamon, 1988), 197; For a critical view, see Zeev Maoz and Nasrin Abdolali, "Regime Types and International Conflict, 1816-1976," Journal of Conflict Resolution 33 (March 1989): 30-31; S. Andreski, "On the Peaceful Disposition of Military Dictatorships," Journal of Strategic Studies 3 (December 1980).
4. Alfred Vagts, Defense and Diplomacy: The Soldier and the Conduct of Foreign Relations (New York: King Crown's Press, 1958); Stuart A. Bremer, "Dangerous Dyads: Conditions Affecting the Likelihood of Interstate War, 1816-1965," Journal of Conflict Resolution 36 (June 1992): 330; Jonathan Wilkenfeld, Michael Brecher, and Sheila Moser, Crises in the Twentieth Century, Vol. II: Handbook of International Crisis (New York: Pergamon, 1988), 197; For a critical view, see Zeev Maoz and Nasrin Abdolali, "Regime Types and International Conflict, 1816-1976," Journal of Conflict Resolution 33 (March 1989): 30-31; S. Andreski, "On the Peaceful Disposition of Military Dictatorships," Journal of Strategic Studies 3 (December 1980).
5. Alfred Vagts, Defense and Diplomacy: The Soldier and the Conduct of Foreign Relations (New York: King Crown's Press, 1958); Stuart A. Bremer, "Dangerous Dyads: Conditions Affecting the Likelihood of Interstate War, 1816-1965," Journal of Conflict Resolution 36 (June 1992): 330; Jonathan Wilkenfeld, Michael Brecher, and Sheila Moser, Crises in the Twentieth Century, Vol. II: Handbook of International Crisis (New York: Pergamon, 1988), 197; For a critical view, see Zeev Maoz and Nasrin Abdolali, "Regime Types and International Conflict, 1816-1976," Journal of Conflict Resolution 33 (March 1989): 30-31; S. Andreski, "On the Peaceful Disposition of Military Dictatorships," Journal of Strategic Studies 3 (December 1980).
6. Alfred Vagts, Defense and Diplomacy: The Soldier and the Conduct of Foreign Relations (New York: King Crown's Press, 1958); Stuart A. Bremer, "Dangerous Dyads: Conditions Affecting the Likelihood of Interstate War, 1816-1965," Journal of Conflict Resolution 36 (June 1992): 330; Jonathan Wilkenfeld, Michael Brecher, and Sheila Moser, Crises in the Twentieth Century, Vol. II: Handbook of International Crisis (New York: Pergamon, 1988), 197; For a critical view, see Zeev Maoz and Nasrin Abdolali, "Regime Types and International Conflict, 1816-1976," Journal of Conflict Resolution 33 (March 1989): 30-31; S. Andreski, "On the Peaceful Disposition of Military Dictatorships," Journal of Strategic Studies 3 (December 1980).
7. Alfred Vagts, Defense and Diplomacy: The Soldier and the Conduct of Foreign Relations (New York: King Crown's Press, 1958); Stuart A. Bremer, "Dangerous Dyads: Conditions Affecting the Likelihood of Interstate War, 1816-1965," Journal of Conflict Resolution 36 (June 1992): 330; Jonathan Wilkenfeld, Michael Brecher, and Sheila Moser, Crises in the Twentieth Century, Vol. II: Handbook of International Crisis (New York: Pergamon, 1988), 197; For a critical view, see Zeev Maoz and Nasrin Abdolali, "Regime Types and International Conflict, 1816-1976," Journal of Conflict Resolution 33 (March 1989): 30-31; S. Andreski, "On the Peaceful Disposition of Military Dictatorships," Journal of Strategic Studies 3 (December 1980).
8. Andrew L. Ross, "Dimensions of Militarization in the Third World," Armed Forces & Society 13 (Summer 1987): 562-564.
9. On the impact of military influences on governing coalitions, see Jack Snyder, Myths of Empire: Domestic Politics and International Ambition (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1991), 31-60; David Stevenson, Armaments and the Coming of War: Europe, 1904-1914 (Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1996).
10. On the impact of military influences on governing coalitions, see Jack Snyder, Myths of Empire: Domestic Politics and International Ambition (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1991), 31-60; David Stevenson, Armaments and the Coming of War: Europe, 1904-1914 (Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1996).
11. Amos Perlmutter, "The Military and Politics in Modern Times: A Decade Later," Journal of Strategic Studies 9 (March 1986), 5-15; S. E. Finer, "The Man on Horseback: 1974," Armed Forces & Society 1 (November 1974), 5-27, 19-25; Roger W. Benjamin and Lewis J. Edinger, "Conditions for Military Control over Foreign Policy Decisions in Major States: A Historical Exploration," Journal of Conflict Resolution 15 (March 1971), 5-31, 17; I. K. Feierabend and R. L. Feierabend, "Aggressive Behaviors within Politics, 1948-1962: A Cross-National Study," Journal of Conflict Resolution 10 (September 1966): 249-271.
12. Amos Perlmutter, "The Military and Politics in Modern Times: A Decade Later," Journal of Strategic Studies 9 (March 1986), 5-15; S. E. Finer, "The Man on Horseback: 1974," Armed Forces & Society 1 (November 1974), 5-27, 19-25; Roger W. Benjamin and Lewis J. Edinger, "Conditions for Military Control over Foreign Policy Decisions in Major States: A Historical Exploration," Journal of Conflict Resolution 15 (March 1971), 5-31, 17; I. K. Feierabend and R. L. Feierabend, "Aggressive Behaviors within Politics, 1948-1962: A Cross-National Study," Journal of Conflict Resolution 10 (September 1966): 249-271.
13. Amos Perlmutter, "The Military and Politics in Modern Times: A Decade Later," Journal of Strategic Studies 9 (March 1986), 5-15; S. E. Finer, "The Man on Horseback: 1974," Armed Forces & Society 1 (November 1974), 5-27, 19-25; Roger W. Benjamin and Lewis J. Edinger, "Conditions for Military Control over Foreign Policy Decisions in Major States: A Historical Exploration," Journal of Conflict Resolution 15 (March 1971), 5-31, 17; I. K. Feierabend and R. L. Feierabend, "Aggressive Behaviors within Politics, 1948-1962: A Cross-National Study," Journal of Conflict Resolution 10 (September 1966): 249-271.
14. Amos Perlmutter, "The Military and Politics in Modern Times: A Decade Later," Journal of Strategic Studies 9 (March 1986), 5-15; S. E. Finer, "The Man on Horseback: 1974," Armed Forces & Society 1 (November 1974), 5-27, 19-25; Roger W. Benjamin and Lewis J. Edinger, "Conditions for Military Control over Foreign Policy Decisions in Major States: A Historical Exploration," Journal of Conflict Resolution 15 (March 1971), 5-31, 17; I. K. Feierabend and R. L. Feierabend, "Aggressive Behaviors within Politics, 1948-1962: A Cross-National Study," Journal of Conflict Resolution 10 (September 1966): 249-271.
15. Vagts, Defense and Diplomacy, 3.
16. Patrick M. Morgan, "Disarmament," in Joel Krieger, ed., The Oxford Companion to the Politics of the World (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1993), 246.
17. Raymond Aron, "Remarks on Lassell's 'The Garrison State'," Armed Forces & Society 5 (Spring 1979), 347-359, 356; Aaron L. Friedberg, "Why Didn't the United States Become a Garrison State?" International Security 16 (Spring 1992), 109-142, 116-120; For criticism, see Samuel Huntington, Political Order in Changing Societies (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1969), and Morris Janowitz, Military Institutions and Coercion in Developing Nations (Chicago: Chicago University Press, 1977), 48.
18. Raymond Aron, "Remarks on Lassell's 'The Garrison State'," Armed Forces & Society 5 (Spring 1979), 347-359, 356; Aaron L. Friedberg, "Why Didn't the United States Become a Garrison State?" International Security 16 (Spring 1992), 109-142, 116-120; For criticism, see Samuel Huntington, Political Order in Changing Societies (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1969), and Morris Janowitz, Military Institutions and Coercion in Developing Nations (Chicago: Chicago University Press, 1977), 48.
19. Raymond Aron, "Remarks on Lassell's 'The Garrison State'," Armed Forces & Society 5 (Spring 1979), 347-359, 356; Aaron L. Friedberg, "Why Didn't the United States Become a Garrison State?" International Security 16 (Spring 1992), 109-142, 116-120; For criticism, see Samuel Huntington, Political Order in Changing Societies (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1969), and Morris Janowitz, Military Institutions and Coercion in Developing Nations (Chicago: Chicago University Press, 1977), 48.
20. Raymond Aron, "Remarks on Lassell's 'The Garrison State'," Armed Forces & Society 5 (Spring 1979), 347-359, 356; Aaron L. Friedberg, "Why Didn't the United States Become a Garrison State?" International Security 16 (Spring 1992), 109-142, 116-120; For criticism, see Samuel Huntington, Political Order in Changing Societies (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1969), and Morris Janowitz, Military Institutions and Coercion in Developing Nations (Chicago: Chicago University Press, 1977), 48.
21. Jay Stanley, "Introduction: An Invitation to Revisit Lasswell's Garrison State," in Jay Stanley, ed., Essays on the Garrison State (New Brunswick: Transaction Publishers, 1997), 17-41, 23.
22. Stanley, "Introduction," 34.
23. Huntington, The Soldier and the State, 69.
24. Huntington, The Soldier and the State, 69-70.
25. Huntington, The Soldier and the State, 64-65.
26. Betts, Soldier, Statesmen, and Cold War Crises, 5, 217.
27. Jeffrey Record, Revising US Military Strategy: Tailoring Means to Ends (Washington, DC: Pergamon, 1984), 1.
28. Carl von Clausewitz, On War, trans. Michael Howard and Peter Paret (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1976), 605.
29. Julian Lider, "War and Politics: Clausewitz Today," Conflict and Cooperation 12 (1977): 187-189.
30. Hans Morgenthau, Politics among Nations: The Struggle for Power and Peace (New York: Knopf, 1960), 27-29.
31. Stephen B. Jones, "The Power Inventory and National Strategy," World Politics 6 (July 1954): 421-452, 440-442.
32. John D. Steinbruner, The Cybernetic Theory of Decision (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1974), 47-87.
33. Morris Janowitz and Roger Little, Sociology and the Military Establishment (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1965), 31, 100, 103.
34. Janowitz and Little, Sociology and the Military Establishment, 21; Harold D. Lasswell, "The Universal Peril: Perpetual Crisis and the Garrison State," in Lyman Bryson, Louis Finkelstein, and R.M. MacIver, eds., Perspectives on a Troubled Decade: Science, Philosophy and Religion, 1939-1949 (New York: Harper, 1950), 117-125, 118
35. Janowitz and Little, Sociology and the Military Establishment, 21; Harold D. Lasswell, "The Universal Peril: Perpetual Crisis and the Garrison State," in Lyman Bryson, Louis Finkelstein, and R.M. MacIver, eds., Perspectives on a Troubled Decade: Science, Philosophy and Religion, 1939-1949 (New York: Harper, 1950), 117-125, 118
36. According to Huntington, the ethic of military professionalism precludes an interest in political affairs. For this and its antithesis in Janowitz, see Arthur D. Larson, "Military Professionalism and Civil Control: A Comparative Analysis of Two Interpretations," Journal of Political and Military Sociology 2 (Spring 1974): 57-72.
37. Jonathan Wilkenfeld, Michael Brecher, and Sheila Moser, Crises in the Twentieth Century, 197.
38. T. Clifton Morgan and Sally Howard Campbell, "Domestic Structure, Decisional Constraints, and War," Journal of Conflict Resolution 35 (June 1991): 193.
39. Randolph M. Siverson, "Democracies and War Participation: In Defense of the Institutional Constraints Argument," European Journal of International Relations 1 (1995): 486.
40. Nondemocracies were subdivided as autocracies and totalitarian states. R. J. Rummel, "Democracies are Less Warlike than Other Regimes," European Journal of International Relations 1 (1995), 457-478; "Libertarianism and International Violence," Journal of Conflict Resolution 27 (March 1983): 27-71.
41. Nondemocracies were subdivided as autocracies and totalitarian states. R. J. Rummel, "Democracies are Less Warlike than Other Regimes," European Journal of International Relations 1 (1995), 457-478; "Libertarianism and International Violence," Journal of Conflict Resolution 27 (March 1983): 27-71.
42. Scott Sigmund Gartner and Randolph M. Siverson, "War Expansion and War Outcome," Journal of Conflict Resolution 40 (March 1996): 4-15.
43. Huntington, The Soldier and the State, 66.
44. Richard K. Betts, "Strategy: Military Technology, Doctrine, and Stability," in Richard K. Betts, ed., Conflict After the Cold War (Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1994), 309-311.
45. Richard Smoke, War: Controlling Escalation (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1977), 23-25.
46. Betts, Soldier, Statesmen, and Cold War Crises, 5.
47. An arithmetic reduction in deployed forces can lead to an exponential loss in strength. See John W. R. Pepingwell, "The Laws of Combat? Lanchester Reexamined," International Security 12 (Summer 1987): 97.
48. Wilkenfeld et al., Crises in the Twentieth Century, 197.
49. Akbar Khan (Maj. Gen.), Raiders in Kashmir (Karachi: Pak Publishers Limited, 1970), 8, 15-16.
50. Interview, Aide-de-Camp to Mohammad Ali Jinnah, 1948, Brig. Noor A. Husain, 21 April, 1999, Rawalpindi.
51. Phillips Talbot, "Kashmir and Hyderabad," World Politics 1 (1948-1949): 321-332, 329. There is evidence that the revolt began as early as July. Alastair Lamb, The Kashmir Problem: A Historical Survey (New York: Frederick A. Praeger, 1967), 37.
52. Phillips Talbot, "Kashmir and Hyderabad," World Politics 1 (1948-1949): 321-332, 329. There is evidence that the revolt began as early as July. Alastair Lamb, The Kashmir Problem: A Historical Survey (New York: Frederick A. Praeger, 1967), 37.
53. H. V. Hodson, The Great Divide: Britain-India-Pakistan (Karachi: Oxford University Press, 1985), 443.
54. Khan, Raiders in Kashmir, 30.
55. Fazal Muqueem Khan (Maj. Gen.), The Story of the Pakistan Army (Karachi: Oxford University Press, 1963), 92.
56. Shaukat Riza (Maj. Gen.), Izzat-O-Iqbal (Nowshera: School of Artillery, 1980), 50.
57. Khan, The Story of the Pakistan Army, 103, 110-111, 117.
58. Khan, The Story of the Pakistan Army, 98-99; interview with Armored Divisional Commander at the battle of Sialkot and later Pakistan Foreign Minister, Gen. Yaqub Khan, 28 April, 1999, Islamabad.
59. Jawaharlal Nehru, India's Foreign Policy (New Delhi: Ministry of Information, 1961), 466, 468.
60. "India Warns Pakistan on Blow on Kashmir," The New York Times, 6 August 1951.
61. "Pakistan to Discuss Indian Troop Moves," The New York Times, 20 July 1951; "Nehru Disavows Plan to Attack Pakistan," The New York Times, 25 July 1951.
62. "Pakistan to Discuss Indian Troop Moves," The New York Times, 20 July 1951; "Nehru Disavows Plan to Attack Pakistan," The New York Times, 25 July 1951.
63. Michael Brecher, The Struggle for Kashmir (New York: Oxford University Press, 1953), 125.
64. V. D. Chopra, Genesis of Indo-Pakistan Conflict in Kashmir (New Delhi: Patriot Publishers, 1990), 16.
65. Mohammad Ayub Khan, Friends Not Masters (London: Oxford University Press, 1967), 40.
66. G. W. Choudhury, The Last Days of United Pakistan (Bloomington: Indian University Press, 1974), 17
67. Pakistan Army Chief 1971-72, Gen. Gul Hassan believed that the military government had serious difficulties managing information, particularly in foreign affairs. Interview, 23 April, 1999, Rawalpindi; Gul Hassan Khan, Memoirs (Karachi: Oxford University Press, 1993), 133, 139.
68. Pakistan's Permanent Representative to the UN during the East Pakistan crisis, Agha Shahi, remarked that under Ayub, there was little candid advice offered by the Foreign Office. Interview, 21 April 1999, Islamabad; concurrent analysis offered by Iqbal Ahmed, interview, 22 April 1999, Islamabad.
69. Stephen Philip Cohen, The Pakistan Army (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1984), 135.
70. Brecher, The Struggle for Kashmir, 195; Šumit Ganguly, The Origins of War in South Asia (Boulder: Westview Press, 1994), 61.
71. Brecher, The Struggle for Kashmir, 195; Šumit Ganguly, The Origins of War in South Asia (Boulder: Westview Press, 1994), 61.
72. Agha Shahi. Interview, 21 April 1999, Islamabad.
73. Gen. Gul Hassan did not believe Kashmir had strategic value worth risking a war. Interview, 23 April 1999, Rawalpindi; Kashmir's strategic value, its headwaters for irrigation and access to China, had already been secured in the First Kashmir War in 1947-1948. Interview, de facto Pakistan Army Chief 1984-87, Gen. Khalid Mahmud Arif, 26 April 1999, Rawalpindi; Interview, Pakistan Army Chief 1988-91, Gen. Mirza Aslam Beg, 24 April 1999, Rawalpindi.
74. Gen. Yaqub Khan, interview, 24 April 1999, Islamabad; Defense Secretary Ijlal Haider Zaidi, interview, 29 April 1999, Islamabad.
75. Russell Brines, The Indo-Pakistani Conflict (London: Pall Mall Press, 1968), 287-288.
76. Hari Ram Gupta, The Kutch Affair (Delhi: U. C. Kapur & Sons, 1969), 161; Khan, Memoirs, 163-164.
77. Hari Ram Gupta, The Kutch Affair (Delhi: U. C. Kapur & Sons, 1969), 161; Khan, Memoirs, 163-164.
78. Ganguly, The Crisis in Kashmir, 51.
79. Altaf Gauhar, Ayub Khan: Pakistan's First Military Ruler (Lahore: Sang-e-Meel Publications, 1993), 301; Pakistan Army Chief, 1972-76, Gen. Tikka Khan, commander at Rann of Kutch battle, recalls that he received his orders directly from Gen. Yahya Khan, indicating that the proper chain of command was in use. Interview, 25 April 1999, Rawalpindi. Brig Noor A. Husain does recall that Ayub warned his subordinates that he did not want war over the Rann of Kutch. Interview, 27 April 1999, Rawalpindi.
80. Gauhar, Ayub Khan, 307-308; Differences between Bhutto and the Foreign Ministry were cited by Agha Shahi. Interview, 21 April 1999, Islamabad.
81. Gen. Tikka Khan, interview, 25 April 1999, Rawalpindi.
82. Palmer, "The Defense of South Asia," 898-929, 908.
83. Ganguly, The Crisis in Kashmir.
84. Gauhar, Ayub Khan, 312, 319-320.
85. Mohammad Musa, My Version: India-Pakistan War of 1965 (Lahore: Wajidalis, 1983), 2, 5.
86. Although GHQ prepared the attack in expectation of escalation, it appeared that Gen. Akhtar Hussain Malik, the Pakistan commander in Kashmir, had intended the attack to go through as an integral pan of Op Gibraltar: "Because of the impending Grand Slam Indian concentration in Haji Pir could only help us after Akhnur, and they would have to pull out troops from there to counter the new threats and surrender their gains, and maybe more, in the process." Interview, Col. Saeed Akhtar Malik (Gen. Malik's son), 21 April 1999, Rawalpindi; Letter from Gen. Malik to his brother, dated 22 November 1967.
87. Khan, Memoirs, 226.
88. Gen. Gul Hassan, then the Director of Military Operations, believed that the Pakistani forces should have escalated even sooner than they did. Interview, 23 April 1999, Rawalpindi; This was not an uncommon belief among Pakistan's generals. Gen. Fazal Muqueem, interview, 25 April 1999, Rawalpindi; Some disagreed: Gen. Rao Farman Ali, who was largely responsible for conceptualizing the basis for the 1965 Khem Karan counter-offensive, interview, 26 April, 1999, Rawalpindi.
89. Choudhury, The Last Days of United Pakistan, 7, 148.
90. J. F. R. Jacob (Lt. Gen.), Surrender at Dacca: Birth of a Nation (New Delhi: Manohar, 1997), 35-36.
91. Hasan Zaheer, The Separation of East Pakistan: The Rise and Realization of Bengali Muslim Nationalism (Karachi: Oxford University Press, 1994), 349.
92. Choudhury, The Last Days of United Pakistan, 56.
93. Information Secretary, Roedad Khan, interview, 22 April 1999, Islamabad; Richard Sisson and Leo E. Rose, War and Secession: Pakistan, India, and the Creation of Bangladesh (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990), 108-109.
94. Roedad Khan, who was present at a number of GHQ meetings, did not recall even a single discussion regarding the likelihood of China's promised intervention. Interview, 22 April 1999, Islamabad.
95. Choudhury, The Last Days of United Pakistan, 67; Agha Shahi confirmed that Yahya did not consult the Foreign Office on the East Pakistan crisis. Interview 21 April 1999, Islamabad.
96. Agha Shahi recalls that when he recommended that he, as Pakistan's UN representative, bring up India's aggression before the Security Council, Bhutto instructed him not to. Interview, 21 April 1999; Niaz Naik, interview, 23 April 1999, Islamabad.
97. Kamal Matinuddin (Lt. Gen.), Tragedy of Errors (East Pakistan Crisis: 1968-1971) (Lahore: Wajidalis, 1994), 334.
98. Khan, Memoirs, 308-310, 322; I Corps Chief of Staff in 1971, Brig. Noor A. Husain, interview, 27 April 1999, Rawalpindi.
99. Zaheer, The Separation of East Pakistan, 360.
100. Matinuddin, Tragedy of Errors, 479.