Land use and society in Manchuria and Inner Mongolia during the Qing Dynasty

Environmental History

Volumn 5, Issue 4, 2000, Pages 503-530

  Reardon Anderson, James ^a  

^a GEORGETOWN UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

AGRICULTURAL HISTORY; CULTIVATION; LAND USE; SETTLEMENT HISTORY;

(NORTHEAST); CHINA; NEI MONGGOL;

EID: 0034545672     PISSN: 10845453     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2307/3985584     Document Type: Article

References (159)

1. W. Hunter Colby et al., eds., Agricultural Statistics of the People's Republic of China, 1949-90, United States Department of Agriculture, Economic Research Service, Statistical Bulletin Number 844, December 1992, Tables 3 and 6 give the following figures for 1990: Population (1,000) Cultivated area (1,000 ha) Heilongjiang 35,215 8,827 Jilin 24,659 3,936 Liaoning 39,460 3,470 Northeast (total) 99,333 16.233 China (total) 1,130,483 95,657 Neimenggu tongji nianjian [Inner Mongolia Statistical Yearbook] (Beijing: Zhongguo tongji chubanshe, 1991), 411, 415, gives the following figures for the four leagues of eastern Inner Mongolia, which lie within the area of this study, in 1990: Population (1,000) Cultivated area (1,000 ha) Hulunbeir 2,575 648 Xing'an 1,541 404 Zhelimu 2,775 744 Chifeng 4,112 804 E. IMAR (total) 11,003 2,600 The total population of these regions is 110,336,000 or 9.8 percent and the total cultivated area is 18,832,000 hectares or 19.7 percent of the total for China as a whole.
2. Zhao Songqiao, Physical Geography of China (New York: John Wiley, 1986), 23, shows that the 500 mm isohyet runs west of the Harbin-Changchun-Shenyang line, whereas Nobuo Murakoshi and Glenn T. Trewartha, "Land Utilization Maps of Manchuria," The Geographical Review 20 (July 1930): 485, shows the 400 mm isohyet in approximately the same location, presumably indicating a drying trend in the intervening years.
3. Zhao Songqiao, Physical Geography of China (New York: John Wiley, 1986), 23, shows that the 500 mm isohyet runs west of the Harbin-Changchun-Shenyang line, whereas Nobuo Murakoshi and Glenn T. Trewartha, "Land Utilization Maps of Manchuria," The Geographical Review 20 (July 1930): 485, shows the 400 mm isohyet in approximately the same location, presumably indicating a drying trend in the intervening years.
4. Today, the area once known as Manchuria is called the "Northeast" [Dongbei], and is composed of three provinces: Liaoning, Jilin, and Heilongjiang. During most of the Qing, Manchuria was organized into three military territories each under the command of a general: Fengtian headquartered in Fengtian (1657-1907) in the south, Jilin headquartered in Ningguta (1653-1676) followed by Jilin (1676-1907) in the center, and Heilongjiang headquartered in Aigun (1683-1699) followed by Tsitsihar (1699-1907) in the north. All three territories were established as provinces under the same names in 1907. Today, the province of Fengtian is referred to as Liaoning, while Jilin and Heilongjiang remain under their original names. The capital of the southern province has also changed names. It was called Shengjing during and before the Ming, Fengtian during the Qing and early Republican period, Mukden during the Japanese period (1931-45), and Shenyang since 1949.
5. Statistics on land use presented in this paper must be taken with more than the usual grain of salt. Even today, figures on land use in China are notoriously unreliable, because they are difficult to gather, and because participants in the process often intervene to inflate or deflate the numbers. Statistics for the Qing period are especially problematic, because they exclude some categories of land actually under cultivation, include other categories that have been designated for reclamation but not yet reclaimed, and lump together estimates from several sites that confuse significant change in some areas with little or no change in others. As a consequence, data on land use presented here are meant to indicate the direction and scale of change, but should not be taken as bald statements of fact.
6. Xu Shuming, "Qingdai Dongbei diqu tudi kaiken shulue" [Account of land reclamation in the Northeast region during the Qing dynasty], Qingdai bianjiang kaifa yanjiu, [Research on the development of border regions during the Qing Dynasty], ed. Ma Ruheng and Ma Dazheng (Beijing: Zhongguo shekui kexue chubanshe, 1990), 91-92, 95; Guo Songyi, "Qingdai renkou liudong yu bianjiang kaifa" [Population Movement and Border Development during the Qing Dynasty], Qingdai bianjiang kaifa yanjiu. (1990), 41; Zhang Xuanru, "Qingchu fengjin yu zhaomin kaiken" [Closure and recruitment of people to reclaim land during the early Qing], Shehui kexue zhanxian 1 (1983): 188.
7. Xu Shuming, "Qingdai Dongbei diqu tudi kaiken shulue" [Account of land reclamation in the Northeast region during the Qing dynasty], Qingdai bianjiang kaifa yanjiu, [Research on the development of border regions during the Qing Dynasty], ed. Ma Ruheng and Ma Dazheng (Beijing: Zhongguo shekui kexue chubanshe, 1990), 91-92, 95; Guo Songyi, "Qingdai renkou liudong yu bianjiang kaifa" [Population Movement and Border Development during the Qing Dynasty], Qingdai bianjiang kaifa yanjiu. (1990), 41; Zhang Xuanru, "Qingchu fengjin yu zhaomin kaiken" [Closure and recruitment of people to reclaim land during the early Qing], Shehui kexue zhanxian 1 (1983): 188.
8. Xu Shuming, "Qingdai Dongbei diqu tudi kaiken shulue" [Account of land reclamation in the Northeast region during the Qing dynasty], Qingdai bianjiang kaifa yanjiu, [Research on the development of border regions during the Qing Dynasty], ed. Ma Ruheng and Ma Dazheng (Beijing: Zhongguo shekui kexue chubanshe, 1990), 91-92, 95; Guo Songyi, "Qingdai renkou liudong yu bianjiang kaifa" [Population Movement and Border Development during the Qing Dynasty], Qingdai bianjiang kaifa yanjiu. (1990), 41; Zhang Xuanru, "Qingchu fengjin yu zhaomin kaiken" [Closure and recruitment of people to reclaim land during the early Qing], Shehui kexue zhanxian 1 (1983): 188.
9. Manchuria: Guo Songyi, "Qingdai renkou liudong yu bianjiang kaifa," 41; Xu Shuming, "Qingdai Dongbei diqu tudi kaiken shulue," 102; Sun Zhanwen, "Qing chu, zhong qi Heilongjiang sheng di tudi kaifa" [Land Reclamation in Heilongjiang Province during the Early and Mid-Qing], Beifang luncong 1 (1981): 91-93. Inner Mongolia: Yuan Senbo, "Saiwai Chengde senlin lishi bianqian di fansi" [Reflections on Historical Changes in the Forests of Chengde Outside the Great Wall], Hebei xuekan 2 (1986): 28; Ma Ruheng and Cheng Chongde, "Kang Qian shiqi renkou liudong yu changcheng bianwai kaifa" [Population Movement during the Kangxi and Qianlong Eras and Development of the Areas Outside the Great Wall], Qingshi yanjiu 2 (1990):12, 16-17.
10. Manchuria: Guo Songyi, "Qingdai renkou liudong yu bianjiang kaifa," 41; Xu Shuming, "Qingdai Dongbei diqu tudi kaiken shulue," 102; Sun Zhanwen, "Qing chu, zhong qi Heilongjiang sheng di tudi kaifa" [Land Reclamation in Heilongjiang Province during the Early and Mid-Qing], Beifang luncong 1 (1981): 91-93. Inner Mongolia: Yuan Senbo, "Saiwai Chengde senlin lishi bianqian di fansi" [Reflections on Historical Changes in the Forests of Chengde Outside the Great Wall], Hebei xuekan 2 (1986): 28; Ma Ruheng and Cheng Chongde, "Kang Qian shiqi renkou liudong yu changcheng bianwai kaifa" [Population Movement during the Kangxi and Qianlong Eras and Development of the Areas Outside the Great Wall], Qingshi yanjiu 2 (1990):12, 16-17.
11. Manchuria: Guo Songyi, "Qingdai renkou liudong yu bianjiang kaifa," 41; Xu Shuming, "Qingdai Dongbei diqu tudi kaiken shulue," 102; Sun Zhanwen, "Qing chu, zhong qi Heilongjiang sheng di tudi kaifa" [Land Reclamation in Heilongjiang Province during the Early and Mid-Qing], Beifang luncong 1 (1981): 91-93. Inner Mongolia: Yuan Senbo, "Saiwai Chengde senlin lishi bianqian di fansi" [Reflections on Historical Changes in the Forests of Chengde Outside the Great Wall], Hebei xuekan 2 (1986): 28; Ma Ruheng and Cheng Chongde, "Kang Qian shiqi renkou liudong yu changcheng bianwai kaifa" [Population Movement during the Kangxi and Qianlong Eras and Development of the Areas Outside the Great Wall], Qingshi yanjiu 2 (1990):12, 16-17.
12. Manchuria: Guo Songyi, "Qingdai renkou liudong yu bianjiang kaifa," 41; Xu Shuming, "Qingdai Dongbei diqu tudi kaiken shulue," 102; Sun Zhanwen, "Qing chu, zhong qi Heilongjiang sheng di tudi kaifa" [Land Reclamation in Heilongjiang Province during the Early and Mid-Qing], Beifang luncong 1 (1981): 91-93. Inner Mongolia: Yuan Senbo, "Saiwai Chengde senlin lishi bianqian di fansi" [Reflections on Historical Changes in the Forests of Chengde Outside the Great Wall], Hebei xuekan 2 (1986): 28; Ma Ruheng and Cheng Chongde, "Kang Qian shiqi renkou liudong yu changcheng bianwai kaifa" [Population Movement during the Kangxi and Qianlong Eras and Development of the Areas Outside the Great Wall], Qingshi yanjiu 2 (1990):12, 16-17.
13. Manchuria: Guo Songyi, "Qingdai renkou liudong yu bianjiang kaifa," 41; Xu Shuming, "Qingdai Dongbei diqu tudi kaiken shulue," 102; Sun Zhanwen, "Qing chu, zhong qi Heilongjiang sheng di tudi kaifa" [Land Reclamation in Heilongjiang Province during the Early and Mid-Qing], Beifang luncong 1 (1981): 91-93. Inner Mongolia: Yuan Senbo, "Saiwai Chengde senlin lishi bianqian di fansi" [Reflections on Historical Changes in the Forests of Chengde Outside the Great Wall], Hebei xuekan 2 (1986): 28; Ma Ruheng and Cheng Chongde, "Kang Qian shiqi renkou liudong yu changcheng bianwai kaifa" [Population Movement during the Kangxi and Qianlong Eras and Development of the Areas Outside the Great Wall], Qingshi yanjiu 2 (1990):12, 16-17.
14. The Manchoukuo Year Book, 1934 (Tokyo: Toa-Keizia Chosakyoku [East-Asiatic Economic Investigation Bureau], 1934), 237, gives a total of 14.0 million hectares for the three provinces of the Northeast, and 1.7 million hectares for Jehol. After 1927, the three northeastern provinces included the eastern portions of Zhelimu and Zhuosutu Leagues (see Map 3).
15. The following figures for land under cultivation (1,000 hectares), are from Kang Chao, Agricultural production in Communist China, 1949-1965 (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1970), 280-81, for 1952 and 1957; and from W. Hunter Colby, Agricultural Statistics of the People's Republic of China of the PRC, 1949-7990, Table 6, for 1990. I have been unable to find separate figures for eastern Inner Mongolia in the 1950s. Province 1952 1957 1990 Heilongjiang 6,481 7,290 8,827 Jilin 4,682 4,721 3,936 Liaoning 4,668 4,753 3,470 TOTAL 15,831 16,764 16,233
16. The following figures for land under cultivation (1,000 hectares), are from Kang Chao, Agricultural production in Communist China, 1949-1965 (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1970), 280-81, for 1952 and 1957; and from W. Hunter Colby, Agricultural Statistics of the People's Republic of China of the PRC, 1949-7990, Table 6, for 1990. I have been unable to find separate figures for eastern Inner Mongolia in the 1950s. Province 1952 1957 1990 Heilongjiang 6,481 7,290 8,827 Jilin 4,682 4,721 3,936 Liaoning 4,668 4,753 3,470 TOTAL 15,831 16,764 16,233
17. For a discussion of Qing policies toward the north during the period 1644-68, see Xu Shuming, "Qingdai Dongbei diqu tudi kaiken shulue," 90-92; Guo Songyi, "Qingdai renkou liudong yu bianjiang kaifa," 15; Zhang Xuanru, "Qingchu fengjin yu zhaomin kaiken," 186; and Sun Zhanwen and Wu Wenxian "Qing chu Heilongjiang diqu tudi kaifa gaishu" [Summary of land reclamation in the Heilongjiang region during the early Qing], Dongbei kaogu yu lishi, 1 (1982): 65-71.
18. For a discussion of Qing policies toward the north during the period 1644-68, see Xu Shuming, "Qingdai Dongbei diqu tudi kaiken shulue," 90-92; Guo Songyi, "Qingdai renkou liudong yu bianjiang kaifa," 15; Zhang Xuanru, "Qingchu fengjin yu zhaomin kaiken," 186; and Sun Zhanwen and Wu Wenxian "Qing chu Heilongjiang diqu tudi kaifa gaishu" [Summary of land reclamation in the Heilongjiang region during the early Qing], Dongbei kaogu yu lishi, 1 (1982): 65-71.
19. For a discussion of Qing policies toward the north during the period 1644-68, see Xu Shuming, "Qingdai Dongbei diqu tudi kaiken shulue," 90-92; Guo Songyi, "Qingdai renkou liudong yu bianjiang kaifa," 15; Zhang Xuanru, "Qingchu fengjin yu zhaomin kaiken," 186; and Sun Zhanwen and Wu Wenxian "Qing chu Heilongjiang diqu tudi kaifa gaishu" [Summary of land reclamation in the Heilongjiang region during the early Qing], Dongbei kaogu yu lishi, 1 (1982): 65-71.
20. For a discussion of Qing policies toward the north during the period 1644-68, see Xu Shuming, "Qingdai Dongbei diqu tudi kaiken shulue," 90-92; Guo Songyi, "Qingdai renkou liudong yu bianjiang kaifa," 15; Zhang Xuanru, "Qingchu fengjin yu zhaomin kaiken," 186; and Sun Zhanwen and Wu Wenxian "Qing chu Heilongjiang diqu tudi kaifa gaishu" [Summary of land reclamation in the Heilongjiang region during the early Qing], Dongbei kaogu yu lishi, 1 (1982): 65-71.
21. Xu Shuming, "Qingdai Dongbei diqu tudi kaiken shulue," 94-95; Guo Songyi, "Qingdai renkou liudong yu bianjiang kaifa," 15.
22. Xu Shuming, "Qingdai Dongbei diqu tudi kaiken shulue," 94-95; Guo Songyi, "Qingdai renkou liudong yu bianjiang kaifa," 15.
23. Suhemiaopo, Wang Deyuan and Zhang Jianhua, eds., Chifeng shi [History of Chifeng] (Beijing: Wenwu chubanshe, 1991), 181.
24. John Shepherd, Statecraft and Political Economy on the Taiwan Frontier, 1600-1800 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1993).
25. On the establishment of government agencies, see Zhang Xuanru, "Qingchu fengjin yu zhaomin kaiken,"186-87; Sun Zhanwen and Wu Wenxian, "Qing chu Heilongjiang diqu tudi kaifa gaishu," 65. am assuming that the county unit Zhang referred to as "Gaiping" is the same as "Gaizhou" (Gertraude Roth, "The Manchu-Chinese Relationship, 1618-1636," in From Ming to Qing: Conquest, Region and Continuity in Seventeenth-Century China, ed. Jonathan Spence and John E. Wills, Jr. (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1979), 2) and currently "Gaixian" in Liaoning Province. In all cases, the first character, gai, is the same.
26. On the establishment of government agencies, see Zhang Xuanru, "Qingchu fengjin yu zhaomin kaiken,"186-87; Sun Zhanwen and Wu Wenxian, "Qing chu Heilongjiang diqu tudi kaifa gaishu," 65. am assuming that the county unit Zhang referred to as "Gaiping" is the same as "Gaizhou" (Gertraude Roth, "The Manchu-Chinese Relationship, 1618-1636," in From Ming to Qing: Conquest, Region and Continuity in Seventeenth-Century China, ed. Jonathan Spence and John E. Wills, Jr. (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1979), 2) and currently "Gaixian" in Liaoning Province. In all cases, the first character, gai, is the same.
27. On the establishment of government agencies, see Zhang Xuanru, "Qingchu fengjin yu zhaomin kaiken,"186-87; Sun Zhanwen and Wu Wenxian, "Qing chu Heilongjiang diqu tudi kaifa gaishu," 65. am assuming that the county unit Zhang referred to as "Gaiping" is the same as "Gaizhou" (Gertraude Roth, "The Manchu-Chinese Relationship, 1618-1636," in From Ming to Qing: Conquest, Region and Continuity in Seventeenth-Century China, ed. Jonathan Spence and John E. Wills, Jr. (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1979), 2) and currently "Gaixian" in Liaoning Province. In all cases, the first character, gai, is the same.
28. Zhang Xuanru, "Qingchu fengjin yu zhaomin kaiken,"188, reports the following increases during this period: County Adult males [rending] Taxed land [mu] Guangning Xian 4,330 20,699 Jin Xian 10,906 60,619 Ningyuan Zhou 8,665 48,586 Gaizhou Xian 1,666 28,491 Kaiyuan Xian 2,162 33,608 TOTAL 27,729 192,003 hectacre equivalent 11,712
29. 1661 and 1781: Guo Songyi, "Qingdai renkou liudong yu bianjiang kaifa," 41. 1724: Xu Shuming, "Qingdai Dongbei diqu tudi kaiken shulue," 95. The conversion rate used in this paper is 1.0 mu = 0.061 hectares. Cihai [Comprehensive Dictionary], Revised Edition, 3 Volumes, (Taipei: Taiwan zhonghua shuju, 1980), appendix, 3:338, states that 1.0 "construction mu" [yingcaomu], which was the official measure used by the Ministry of Public Works during the Ming and Qing Dynasties, equals 0.06144 hectares.
30. 1661 and 1781: Guo Songyi, "Qingdai renkou liudong yu bianjiang kaifa," 41. 1724: Xu Shuming, "Qingdai Dongbei diqu tudi kaiken shulue," 95. The conversion rate used in this paper is 1.0 mu = 0.061 hectares. Cihai [Comprehensive Dictionary], Revised Edition, 3 Volumes, (Taipei: Taiwan zhonghua shuju, 1980), appendix, 3:338, states that 1.0 "construction mu" [yingcaomu], which was the official measure used by the Ministry of Public Works during the Ming and Qing Dynasties, equals 0.06144 hectares.
31. 1661 and 1781: Guo Songyi, "Qingdai renkou liudong yu bianjiang kaifa," 41. 1724: Xu Shuming, "Qingdai Dongbei diqu tudi kaiken shulue," 95. The conversion rate used in this paper is 1.0 mu = 0.061 hectares. Cihai [Comprehensive Dictionary], Revised Edition, 3 Volumes, (Taipei: Taiwan zhonghua shuju, 1980), appendix, 3:338, states that 1.0 "construction mu" [yingcaomu], which was the official measure used by the Ministry of Public Works during the Ming and Qing Dynasties, equals 0.06144 hectares.
32. Guo Songyi, "Qingdai di renkou zengzhang he renkou liuqian" [Population movement and population circulation during the Qing Dyansty], Qingshi luncong 5 (1985): 118; Xu Shuming, "Qingdai Dongbei diqu tudi kaiken shulue," 102; Sun Zhanwen, "Qing chu, zhong qi Heilongjiang sheng di tudi kaifa," 100. Xu Shuming and Sun Zhanwen cite Shengjing tongzhi for 1734, 1771, and 1781, Da Qing huidian for 1818.
33. Guo Songyi, "Qingdai di renkou zengzhang he renkou liuqian" [Population movement and population circulation during the Qing Dyansty], Qingshi luncong 5 (1985): 118; Xu Shuming, "Qingdai Dongbei diqu tudi kaiken shulue," 102; Sun Zhanwen, "Qing chu, zhong qi Heilongjiang sheng di tudi kaifa," 100. Xu Shuming and Sun Zhanwen cite Shengjing tongzhi for 1734, 1771, and 1781, Da Qing huidian for 1818.
34. Guo Songyi, "Qingdai di renkou zengzhang he renkou liuqian" [Population movement and population circulation during the Qing Dyansty], Qingshi luncong 5 (1985): 118; Xu Shuming, "Qingdai Dongbei diqu tudi kaiken shulue," 102; Sun Zhanwen, "Qing chu, zhong qi Heilongjiang sheng di tudi kaifa," 100. Xu Shuming and Sun Zhanwen cite Shengjing tongzhi for 1734, 1771, and 1781, Da Qing huidian for 1818.
35. Guo Songyi, "Qingdai di renkou zengzhang he renkou liuqian" [Population movement and population circulation during the Qing Dyansty], Qingshi luncong 5 (1985): 118; Xu Shuming, "Qingdai Dongbei diqu tudi kaiken shulue," 102; Sun Zhanwen, "Qing chu, zhong qi Heilongjiang sheng di tudi kaifa," 100. Xu Shuming and Sun Zhanwen cite Shengjing tongzhi for 1734, 1771, and 1781, Da Qing huidian for 1818.
36. This is a case, as noted in the introduction, where the reported figures should be taken to indicate the trend of land settlement and reclamation rather than the absolute size of this enterprise. The figures cited here exclude cultivated areas of Manchu Bannerlands and estates and unregistered farmland of all types, and therefore represent only a portion of the cultivated land. Guo Songyi, "Qingdai renkou liudong yu bianjiang kaifa," 41, notes that in Fengtian in 1781, in addition to the 2,663,097 mu of registered private farmland, another 907,113 mu (55,334 ha) of land was rented by private individuals from banners and other landlords, and still more farmland not included in these figures was reclaimed by private individuals on bannerlands and estates.
37. Robert Lee, The Manchurian Frontier in Ch'ing History (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1970), 63-64, 59-60. These garrisons were moved from Ningguta to Jilin in 1676, and from Aigun to Tsitsihar in 1699, after which the latter sites became the headquarters of the Jilin and Heilongjiang military regions, respectively.
38. Owen Lattimore, The Mongols of Manchuria (New York: John Day, 1934), 198-99; Sun Zhanwen, "Qing chu, zhong qi Heilongjiang sheng di tudi kaifa," 91-93, 100; Ma Ruheng and Cheng Chongde, "Kang Qian shiqi renkou liudong," 17.
39. Owen Lattimore, The Mongols of Manchuria (New York: John Day, 1934), 198-99; Sun Zhanwen, "Qing chu, zhong qi Heilongjiang sheng di tudi kaifa," 91-93, 100; Ma Ruheng and Cheng Chongde, "Kang Qian shiqi renkou liudong," 17.
40. Owen Lattimore, The Mongols of Manchuria (New York: John Day, 1934), 198-99; Sun Zhanwen, "Qing chu, zhong qi Heilongjiang sheng di tudi kaifa," 91-93, 100; Ma Ruheng and Cheng Chongde, "Kang Qian shiqi renkou liudong," 17.
41. Xu Shuming, "Qingdai Dongbei diqu tudi kaiken shulue," 102.
42. Sun Zhanwen, "Qing chu, zhong qi Heilongjiang sheng di tudi kaifa," 91-93. The conversion rate used in this paper is 1.0 shang = 0.614 hectares, which was arrived at as follows: Cihai2:2153, states that the area of the shang varied according to region, from 6 mu in southern Liaoning to 12 mu in Jilin and Heilongjiang, with the mean of 10 mu in northern Liaoning. Similarly, Young (1932), 346, states that 1.0 shan (sic) = 10 mu. According to the Cihai, Appendix, 338, 1.0 "construction mu" [yingcaomu] = 0.0614 ha. Therefore, 1.0 shang = 10 mu = 0.614 hectares. This is roughly the conversion rate cited by S.M. Shirokogoroff, Social Organization of the Manchus: A Study of the Manchu Clan Organization (Shanghai: Royal Asiatic Society, 1924), 136, 1.0 cimari = 0.635 ha.
43. Sun Zhanwen, "Qing chu, zhong qi Heilongjiang sheng di tudi kaifa," 91-93. The conversion rate used in this paper is 1.0 shang = 0.614 hectares, which was arrived at as follows: Cihai2:2153, states that the area of the shang varied according to region, from 6 mu in southern Liaoning to 12 mu in Jilin and Heilongjiang, with the mean of 10 mu in northern Liaoning. Similarly, Young (1932), 346, states that 1.0 shan (sic) = 10 mu. According to the Cihai, Appendix, 338, 1.0 "construction mu" [yingcaomu] = 0.0614 ha. Therefore, 1.0 shang = 10 mu = 0.614 hectares. This is roughly the conversion rate cited by S.M. Shirokogoroff, Social Organization of the Manchus: A Study of the Manchu Clan Organization (Shanghai: Royal Asiatic Society, 1924), 136, 1.0 cimari = 0.635 ha.
44. Guo Songyi, "Qingdai renkou liudong yu bianjiang kaifa," 41; Guo Songyi, "Qingdai di renkou zengzhang he renkou liuqian," 118; Xu Shuming, "Qingdai Dongbei diqu tudi kaiken shulue," 102; Sun Zhanwen, "Qing chu, zhong qi Heilongjiang sheng di tudi kaifa," 100.
45. Guo Songyi, "Qingdai renkou liudong yu bianjiang kaifa," 41; Guo Songyi, "Qingdai di renkou zengzhang he renkou liuqian," 118; Xu Shuming, "Qingdai Dongbei diqu tudi kaiken shulue," 102; Sun Zhanwen, "Qing chu, zhong qi Heilongjiang sheng di tudi kaifa," 100.
46. Guo Songyi, "Qingdai renkou liudong yu bianjiang kaifa," 41; Guo Songyi, "Qingdai di renkou zengzhang he renkou liuqian," 118; Xu Shuming, "Qingdai Dongbei diqu tudi kaiken shulue," 102; Sun Zhanwen, "Qing chu, zhong qi Heilongjiang sheng di tudi kaifa," 100.
47. Guo Songyi, "Qingdai renkou liudong yu bianjiang kaifa," 41; Guo Songyi, "Qingdai di renkou zengzhang he renkou liuqian," 118; Xu Shuming, "Qingdai Dongbei diqu tudi kaiken shulue," 102; Sun Zhanwen, "Qing chu, zhong qi Heilongjiang sheng di tudi kaifa," 100.
48. Wang Yuquan, Zhongguo tunken shi [History of Military Colonies and Land Resettlement in China] (Beijing: Nongye chubanshe, 1991), 336-37, cited in Christopher Mills Isett, "State, Peasant and Agrarian Change on the Manchurian Frontier, 1644-1940," (Ph.D. diss., University of California at Los Angeles, 1998), 41-42.
49. Wang Yuquan, Zhongguo tunken shi [History of Military Colonies and Land Resettlement in China] (Beijing: Nongye chubanshe, 1991), 336-37, cited in Christopher Mills Isett, "State, Peasant and Agrarian Change on the Manchurian Frontier, 1644-1940," (Ph.D. diss., University of California at Los Angeles, 1998), 41-42.
50. Robert Lee, The Manchurian Frontier in Ch'ing History, 23, citing Sa-ying-e, Jilin waiji [Private account of Jilin], 1825.
51. Evariste-Regis Hue and Joseph Gabet, Travels in Tartary, Thibet and China, 1844-1846, trans. William Hazlitt (New York: Dover, 1987), 122.
52. Owen Lattimore, The Mongols of Manchuria, 71-72, 234-41, 249.
53. Yuan Senbo, "Saiwai Chengde senlin lishi bianqian di fansi," 28.
54. Cheng Chongde, "Qingdai qianqi Menggu diqu di nongmuye fazhan ji Qingchao di zhengce" [Development of Agriculture and Pastoralism in the Mongol Areas and Government Policies of the Qing Dynasty during the Early Qing Period], in Qingdai bianjiang kaifa yanjiu [Research on the Development of Border Regions during the Qing Dynasty], ed. Ma Ruheng and Ma Dazheng (Beijing: Zhongguo shekui kexue chubanshe, 1990), 174-75.
55. Guo Songyi, "Qingdai renkou liudong yu bianjiang kaifa," 21-22.
56. Yuan Senbo, "Saiwai Chengde senlin lishi bianqian di fansi," 29.
57. Wang Yuhai, "Qingdai Kalaqin de nongye fazhan he tudi guanxi" [Agricultural Development and Land Relations in Kalaqin during the Qing Dynasty], in Qingdai bianjiang kaifa yanjiu [Research on the Development of Border Regions during the Qing Dynasty], ed. Ma Ruheng and Ma Dazheng (Beijing: Zhongguo shekui kexue chubanshe, 1990), 193-94: Owen Lattimore, The Mongols of Manchuria (1934), 247-49.
58. Wang Yuhai, "Qingdai Kalaqin de nongye fazhan he tudi guanxi" [Agricultural Development and Land Relations in Kalaqin during the Qing Dynasty], in Qingdai bianjiang kaifa yanjiu [Research on the Development of Border Regions during the Qing Dynasty], ed. Ma Ruheng and Ma Dazheng (Beijing: Zhongguo shekui kexue chubanshe, 1990), 193-94: Owen Lattimore, The Mongols of Manchuria (1934), 247-49.
59. Chaoyang: Owen Lattimore, The Mongols of Manchuria, 250-51. Land under cultivation: Ma Ruheng and Cheng Chongde, "Kang Qian shiqi renkou liudong yu changcheng bianwai kaifa" [Population movement during the Kangxi and Qianlong eras and development of the areas outside the Great Wall], Qingshi yanjiu 2 (1990): 12. Tumet: Owen Lattimore, The Mongols of Manchuria, 251-53.
60. Chaoyang: Owen Lattimore, The Mongols of Manchuria, 250-51. Land under cultivation: Ma Ruheng and Cheng Chongde, "Kang Qian shiqi renkou liudong yu changcheng bianwai kaifa" [Population movement during the Kangxi and Qianlong eras and development of the areas outside the Great Wall], Qingshi yanjiu 2 (1990): 12. Tumet: Owen Lattimore, The Mongols of Manchuria, 251-53.
61. Chaoyang: Owen Lattimore, The Mongols of Manchuria, 250-51. Land under cultivation: Ma Ruheng and Cheng Chongde, "Kang Qian shiqi renkou liudong yu changcheng bianwai kaifa" [Population movement during the Kangxi and Qianlong eras and development of the areas outside the Great Wall], Qingshi yanjiu 2 (1990): 12. Tumet: Owen Lattimore, The Mongols of Manchuria, 251-53.
62. Yuan Senbo, "Saiwai Chengde senlin lishi bianqian di fansi," 26-28.
63. Ibid., 28-31. For a description and account of the Mulan Weichang, see Weichang Manzu Mengguzu zizhixian zhi, [Gazetteer of the Weichang Manchu-Mongol Autonomous County] (Shenyang: Liaohai Chubanshe, 1997), 128-49.
64. Ibid., 28-31. For a description and account of the Mulan Weichang, see Weichang Manzu Mengguzu zizhixian zhi, [Gazetteer of the Weichang Manchu-Mongol Autonomous County] (Shenyang: Liaohai Chubanshe, 1997), 128-49.
65. Guo Songyi, "Qingdai renkou liudong yu bianjiang kaifa" (1990), 20-21.
66. Figures for 1778 and 1820: Yuan Senbo, "Saiwai Chengde senlin lishi bianqian di fansi," 29. 1827: Guo Songyi, "Qingdai renkou liudong yu bianjiang kaifa," 21. Guo Songyi says that in 1778, when Jehol Subprefecture was reorganized into Chengde Prefecture, the subprefectures in the surrounding area were reorganized as follows: Kalahetun ting became Kangping xian; Siqi fing became Fengning xian; Bagou ting became Pingquan zhou; Wulanhada ting became Chifeng xian; Tazigou ting became Jianchang (later Liaoyuan) xian; Sancuota ting became Chaoyang xian. The Russian traveler, George Timkowski, Travelers of the Russian Mission through Mongolia to China, and Residence in Peking, in the Years 1820-1821, 2 vols. (London: Longman, Rees, Orme, Brown, and Green, 1927), 279-80, who visited this region in 1820, reported that Chengde Prefecture had a population of 558,396 Chinese, occupying an area of 3,444 qing (21,146 ha), in addition to the several Mongol Banners covering 17,791 qing(109,237 ha). Bagou and Jianchang, see also: Wang Yuhai, "Qingdai Kalaqin de nongye fazhan he tudi guanxi," 193.
67. Figures for 1778 and 1820: Yuan Senbo, "Saiwai Chengde senlin lishi bianqian di fansi," 29. 1827: Guo Songyi, "Qingdai renkou liudong yu bianjiang kaifa," 21. Guo Songyi says that in 1778, when Jehol Subprefecture was reorganized into Chengde Prefecture, the subprefectures in the surrounding area were reorganized as follows: Kalahetun ting became Kangping xian; Siqi fing became Fengning xian; Bagou ting became Pingquan zhou; Wulanhada ting became Chifeng xian; Tazigou ting became Jianchang (later Liaoyuan) xian; Sancuota ting became Chaoyang xian. The Russian traveler, George Timkowski, Travelers of the Russian Mission through Mongolia to China, and Residence in Peking, in the Years 1820-1821, 2 vols. (London: Longman, Rees, Orme, Brown, and Green, 1927), 279-80, who visited this region in 1820, reported that Chengde Prefecture had a population of 558,396 Chinese, occupying an area of 3,444 qing (21,146 ha), in addition to the several Mongol Banners covering 17,791 qing(109,237 ha). Bagou and Jianchang, see also: Wang Yuhai, "Qingdai Kalaqin de nongye fazhan he tudi guanxi," 193.
68. Figures for 1778 and 1820: Yuan Senbo, "Saiwai Chengde senlin lishi bianqian di fansi," 29. 1827: Guo Songyi, "Qingdai renkou liudong yu bianjiang kaifa," 21. Guo Songyi says that in 1778, when Jehol Subprefecture was reorganized into Chengde Prefecture, the subprefectures in the surrounding area were reorganized as follows: Kalahetun ting became Kangping xian; Siqi fing became Fengning xian; Bagou ting became Pingquan zhou; Wulanhada ting became Chifeng xian; Tazigou ting became Jianchang (later Liaoyuan) xian; Sancuota ting became Chaoyang xian. The Russian traveler, George Timkowski, Travelers of the Russian Mission through Mongolia to China, and Residence in Peking, in the Years 1820-1821, 2 vols. (London: Longman, Rees, Orme, Brown, and Green, 1927), 279-80, who visited this region in 1820, reported that Chengde Prefecture had a population of 558,396 Chinese, occupying an area of 3,444 qing (21,146 ha), in addition to the several Mongol Banners covering 17,791 qing(109,237 ha). Bagou and Jianchang, see also: Wang Yuhai, "Qingdai Kalaqin de nongye fazhan he tudi guanxi," 193.
69. Figures for 1778 and 1820: Yuan Senbo, "Saiwai Chengde senlin lishi bianqian di fansi," 29. 1827: Guo Songyi, "Qingdai renkou liudong yu bianjiang kaifa," 21. Guo Songyi says that in 1778, when Jehol Subprefecture was reorganized into Chengde Prefecture, the subprefectures in the surrounding area were reorganized as follows: Kalahetun ting became Kangping xian; Siqi fing became Fengning xian; Bagou ting became Pingquan zhou; Wulanhada ting became Chifeng xian; Tazigou ting became Jianchang (later Liaoyuan) xian; Sancuota ting became Chaoyang xian. The Russian traveler, George Timkowski, Travelers of the Russian Mission through Mongolia to China, and Residence in Peking, in the Years 1820-1821, 2 vols. (London: Longman, Rees, Orme, Brown, and Green, 1927), 279-80, who visited this region in 1820, reported that Chengde Prefecture had a population of 558,396 Chinese, occupying an area of 3,444 qing (21,146 ha), in addition to the several Mongol Banners covering 17,791 qing(109,237 ha). Bagou and Jianchang, see also: Wang Yuhai, "Qingdai Kalaqin de nongye fazhan he tudi guanxi," 193.
70. Yuan Senbo, "Saiwai Chengde senlin lishi bianqian di fansi," 30.
71. Sir George Staunton, An Authentic Account of an Embassy from the King of Great Britain to the Emperor of China (London: W., Bulmer and Co., 1797), 216-17.
72. Evariste-Regis Huc and Joseph Gabet, Travels in Tartary, Thibet and China, 1844-1846, 19.
73. In 1907, an official survey of Bahn Right Banner, Alukeerqin Banner, and Zhalute Left and Right Banners, north of the Xilamulun River, found limited scope for agriculture. See Wang Bingming, "Qingmo xinzheng yu beibu bianjiang kaifa" [The New Policies of the late Qing and development of the northern border], Qingdai bianjiang kaifa yanjiu [Research on the development of border regions during the Qing Dynasty], ed. Ma Ruheng and Ma Dazheng (Beijing: Zhongguo shekui kexue chubanshe, 1990), 71.
74. Aohan: Ma Ruheng and Cheng Chongde, "Kang Qian shiqi renkou liudong yu changcheng bianwai kaifa," 16-17. Other details: Kuang Haolin, "Pingshuo Qingdai Neimenggu diqu kenzhi di deshi" [Evaluation of the gains and losses in the colonization of the Inner Mongolian region during the Qing Dynasty], Minzu yanjiu, (1985), 1:47; Hu Zhiyu, "Ke'erqin nanbu caoyuan shamohua di yanbian guocheng ji qi zhengzhi tujing" [The process of desertification in the southern Keerqin grasslands and methods of controlling it], Zhongguo caoyuan jikan [China Grassland Quarterly] 2 (1984): 67; Cheng Chongde, "Qingdai qianqi Menggu diqu di nongmuye fazhan ji Qingchao di zhengce" 173-74; Owen Lattimore, The Mongols of Manchuria, 239-40.
75. Aohan: Ma Ruheng and Cheng Chongde, "Kang Qian shiqi renkou liudong yu changcheng bianwai kaifa," 16-17. Other details: Kuang Haolin, "Pingshuo Qingdai Neimenggu diqu kenzhi di deshi" [Evaluation of the gains and losses in the colonization of the Inner Mongolian region during the Qing Dynasty], Minzu yanjiu, (1985), 1:47; Hu Zhiyu, "Ke'erqin nanbu caoyuan shamohua di yanbian guocheng ji qi zhengzhi tujing" [The process of desertification in the southern Keerqin grasslands and methods of controlling it], Zhongguo caoyuan jikan [China Grassland Quarterly] 2 (1984): 67; Cheng Chongde, "Qingdai qianqi Menggu diqu di nongmuye fazhan ji Qingchao di zhengce" 173-74; Owen Lattimore, The Mongols of Manchuria, 239-40.
76. Aohan: Ma Ruheng and Cheng Chongde, "Kang Qian shiqi renkou liudong yu changcheng bianwai kaifa," 16-17. Other details: Kuang Haolin, "Pingshuo Qingdai Neimenggu diqu kenzhi di deshi" [Evaluation of the gains and losses in the colonization of the Inner Mongolian region during the Qing Dynasty], Minzu yanjiu, (1985), 1:47; Hu Zhiyu, "Ke'erqin nanbu caoyuan shamohua di yanbian guocheng ji qi zhengzhi tujing" [The process of desertification in the southern Keerqin grasslands and methods of controlling it], Zhongguo caoyuan jikan [China Grassland Quarterly] 2 (1984): 67; Cheng Chongde, "Qingdai qianqi Menggu diqu di nongmuye fazhan ji Qingchao di zhengce" 173-74; Owen Lattimore, The Mongols of Manchuria, 239-40.
77. Aohan: Ma Ruheng and Cheng Chongde, "Kang Qian shiqi renkou liudong yu changcheng bianwai kaifa," 16-17. Other details: Kuang Haolin, "Pingshuo Qingdai Neimenggu diqu kenzhi di deshi" [Evaluation of the gains and losses in the colonization of the Inner Mongolian region during the Qing Dynasty], Minzu yanjiu, (1985), 1:47; Hu Zhiyu, "Ke'erqin nanbu caoyuan shamohua di yanbian guocheng ji qi zhengzhi tujing" [The process of desertification in the southern Keerqin grasslands and methods of controlling it], Zhongguo caoyuan jikan [China Grassland Quarterly] 2 (1984): 67; Cheng Chongde, "Qingdai qianqi Menggu diqu di nongmuye fazhan ji Qingchao di zhengce" 173-74; Owen Lattimore, The Mongols of Manchuria, 239-40.
78. Aohan: Ma Ruheng and Cheng Chongde, "Kang Qian shiqi renkou liudong yu changcheng bianwai kaifa," 16-17. Other details: Kuang Haolin, "Pingshuo Qingdai Neimenggu diqu kenzhi di deshi" [Evaluation of the gains and losses in the colonization of the Inner Mongolian region during the Qing Dynasty], Minzu yanjiu, (1985), 1:47; Hu Zhiyu, "Ke'erqin nanbu caoyuan shamohua di yanbian guocheng ji qi zhengzhi tujing" [The process of desertification in the southern Keerqin grasslands and methods of controlling it], Zhongguo caoyuan jikan [China Grassland Quarterly] 2 (1984): 67; Cheng Chongde, "Qingdai qianqi Menggu diqu di nongmuye fazhan ji Qingchao di zhengce" 173-74; Owen Lattimore, The Mongols of Manchuria, 239-40.
79. Evariste-Regis Hue and Joseph Gabet, Travels in Tartary, Thibet and China, 1844-1846, 4.
80. Tian Zhihe, "Qingdai Ke'erqin Mengdi kaifa shulue" [Brief account of the development of Mongol territories of the Keerqin during the Qing dynasty], Shehui kexue zhanxian (Changchun: Jilin renmin chubanshe, 1982), 2:187.
81. Ma Ruheng and Cheng Chongde, "Kang Qian shiqi renkou liudong yu changcheng bianwai kaifa," 17; Guo Songyi, "Qingdai renkou liudong yu bianjiang kaifa," 19; Sun Zhanwen, "Qing chu, zhong qi Heilongjiang sheng di tudi kaifa," 100; Tian Zhihe, "Qingdai Dongbei Mengdi kaifa shuyao" [General account of land reclamation in the Mongol regions of the Northeast during the Qing Dynasty], Dongbei shida xuebao, zhexue shehui kexue ban [Journal of Northeast Normal University, Philosophy and Social Science Section] 1 (1984): 88.
82. Ma Ruheng and Cheng Chongde, "Kang Qian shiqi renkou liudong yu changcheng bianwai kaifa," 17; Guo Songyi, "Qingdai renkou liudong yu bianjiang kaifa," 19; Sun Zhanwen, "Qing chu, zhong qi Heilongjiang sheng di tudi kaifa," 100; Tian Zhihe, "Qingdai Dongbei Mengdi kaifa shuyao" [General account of land reclamation in the Mongol regions of the Northeast during the Qing Dynasty], Dongbei shida xuebao, zhexue shehui kexue ban [Journal of Northeast Normal University, Philosophy and Social Science Section] 1 (1984): 88.
83. Ma Ruheng and Cheng Chongde, "Kang Qian shiqi renkou liudong yu changcheng bianwai kaifa," 17; Guo Songyi, "Qingdai renkou liudong yu bianjiang kaifa," 19; Sun Zhanwen, "Qing chu, zhong qi Heilongjiang sheng di tudi kaifa," 100; Tian Zhihe, "Qingdai Dongbei Mengdi kaifa shuyao" [General account of land reclamation in the Mongol regions of the Northeast during the Qing Dynasty], Dongbei shida xuebao, zhexue shehui kexue ban [Journal of Northeast Normal University, Philosophy and Social Science Section] 1 (1984): 88.
84. Ma Ruheng and Cheng Chongde, "Kang Qian shiqi renkou liudong yu changcheng bianwai kaifa," 17; Guo Songyi, "Qingdai renkou liudong yu bianjiang kaifa," 19; Sun Zhanwen, "Qing chu, zhong qi Heilongjiang sheng di tudi kaifa," 100; Tian Zhihe, "Qingdai Dongbei Mengdi kaifa shuyao" [General account of land reclamation in the Mongol regions of the Northeast during the Qing Dynasty], Dongbei shida xuebao, zhexue shehui kexue ban [Journal of Northeast Normal University, Philosophy and Social Science Section] 1 (1984): 88.
85. Ma Ruheng and Cheng Chongde, "Kang Qian shiqi renkou liudong yu changcheng bianwai kaifa," 17; Sun Zhanwen, "Qing chu, zhong qi Heilongjiang sheng di tudi kaifa," 100. See also: Guo Songyi, "Qingdai renkou liudong yu bianjiang kaifa," 19; Tian Zhihe, "Qingdai Dongbei Mengdi kaifa shuyao," 88.
86. Ma Ruheng and Cheng Chongde, "Kang Qian shiqi renkou liudong yu changcheng bianwai kaifa," 17; Sun Zhanwen, "Qing chu, zhong qi Heilongjiang sheng di tudi kaifa," 100. See also: Guo Songyi, "Qingdai renkou liudong yu bianjiang kaifa," 19; Tian Zhihe, "Qingdai Dongbei Mengdi kaifa shuyao," 88.
87. Ma Ruheng and Cheng Chongde, "Kang Qian shiqi renkou liudong yu changcheng bianwai kaifa," 17; Sun Zhanwen, "Qing chu, zhong qi Heilongjiang sheng di tudi kaifa," 100. See also: Guo Songyi, "Qingdai renkou liudong yu bianjiang kaifa," 19; Tian Zhihe, "Qingdai Dongbei Mengdi kaifa shuyao," 88.
88. Ma Ruheng and Cheng Chongde, "Kang Qian shiqi renkou liudong yu changcheng bianwai kaifa," 17; Sun Zhanwen, "Qing chu, zhong qi Heilongjiang sheng di tudi kaifa," 100. See also: Guo Songyi, "Qingdai renkou liudong yu bianjiang kaifa," 19; Tian Zhihe, "Qingdai Dongbei Mengdi kaifa shuyao," 88.
89. Owen Lattimore, The Mongols of Manchuria, 202-3, citing Menggu yu-mu chi [Record of the Mongol Pastures], (1859).
90. Ma Ruheng and Cheng Chongde, "Kang Qian shiqi renkou liudong yu changcheng bianwai kaifa," 17; Kuang Haolin, "Pingshuo Qingdai Neimenggu diqu kenzhi di deshi," 47.
91. Ma Ruheng and Cheng Chongde, "Kang Qian shiqi renkou liudong yu changcheng bianwai kaifa," 17; Kuang Haolin, "Pingshuo Qingdai Neimenggu diqu kenzhi di deshi," 47.
92. Center Banner: Hu Zhiyu, "Ke'erqin nanbu caoyuan shamohua di yanbian guocheng ji qi zhengzhi tujing," 67; Tian Zhihe, "Qingdai Ke'erqin Mengdi kaifa shulue," 187-88; Tian Zhihe, "Qingdai Dongbei Mengdi kaifa shuyao," 88. Front Banner: Ma Ruheng and Cheng Chongde, "Kang Qian shiqi renkou liudong yu changcheng bianwai kaifa," 17.
93. Center Banner: Hu Zhiyu, "Ke'erqin nanbu caoyuan shamohua di yanbian guocheng ji qi zhengzhi tujing," 67; Tian Zhihe, "Qingdai Ke'erqin Mengdi kaifa shulue," 187-88; Tian Zhihe, "Qingdai Dongbei Mengdi kaifa shuyao," 88. Front Banner: Ma Ruheng and Cheng Chongde, "Kang Qian shiqi renkou liudong yu changcheng bianwai kaifa," 17.
94. Center Banner: Hu Zhiyu, "Ke'erqin nanbu caoyuan shamohua di yanbian guocheng ji qi zhengzhi tujing," 67; Tian Zhihe, "Qingdai Ke'erqin Mengdi kaifa shulue," 187-88; Tian Zhihe, "Qingdai Dongbei Mengdi kaifa shuyao," 88. Front Banner: Ma Ruheng and Cheng Chongde, "Kang Qian shiqi renkou liudong yu changcheng bianwai kaifa," 17.
95. Center Banner: Hu Zhiyu, "Ke'erqin nanbu caoyuan shamohua di yanbian guocheng ji qi zhengzhi tujing," 67; Tian Zhihe, "Qingdai Ke'erqin Mengdi kaifa shulue," 187-88; Tian Zhihe, "Qingdai Dongbei Mengdi kaifa shuyao," 88. Front Banner: Ma Ruheng and Cheng Chongde, "Kang Qian shiqi renkou liudong yu changcheng bianwai kaifa," 17.
96. Ma Ruheng and Cheng Chongde, "Kang Qian shiqi renkou liudong yu changcheng bianwai kaifa," 17.
97. Hu Zhiyu, "Ke'erqin nanbu caoyuan shamohua di yanbian guocheng ji qi zhengzhi tujing," 67. Note: Flemming Christiansen, "New Land in China, 1900-1937: State Intervention and Land Reclamation," Leeds East Asia Papers, No. 10 (Leeds: Department of East Asian Studies, University of Leeds, 1992), 29, translates the expression fangken as "assign for reclamation," as distinct from actually under cultivation.
98. Hu Zhiyu, "Ke'erqin nanbu caoyuan shamohua di yanbian guocheng ji qi zhengzhi tujing," 67. Note: Flemming Christiansen, "New Land in China, 1900-1937: State Intervention and Land Reclamation," Leeds East Asia Papers, No. 10 (Leeds: Department of East Asian Studies, University of Leeds, 1992), 29, translates the expression fangken as "assign for reclamation," as distinct from actually under cultivation.
99. Ma Yongshan and Zhao Yi, "Qingchao guanyu Neimenggu diqu jinken fangken zhengce di yanbian" [Evolution of policies regarding land reclamation in the region of Inner Mongolia during the Qing Dynasty], Shehui kexue jikan 5 (1992): 89.
100. Xu Shuming, "Qingdai Dongbei diqu tudi kaiken shulue," 101, 112-14; and Sun Zhanwen, "Qing chu, zhong qi Heilongjiang sheng di tudi kaifa," 100, citing the Jilin tongzhi [Jilin Gazette]. Sun Zhanwen, "Qing chu, zhong qi Heilongjiang sheng di tudi kaifa," 93-94, 96, lists figures (below) for cultivated land in Heilongjiang, various years, 1625-1860. The actual figures must have been higher: first, because there was an incentive to conceal land holdings to avoid taxes, and second, because the statistics represent snapshots of particular times and places, rather than running totals for the region as a whole. Category Shang hectacre equivalent Bannerland 282,403 173,395 "Official farm" [guanzhuang] 17,080 10,487 Suiquedi * 6,740 4,138 "Courier station" [taizhan dingdli] 31,782 19,514 "Public land" [gongtian] 9,723 5,970 Shuangcheng [tuntian] 31,000 19,034 "People's land" [mintian] 9,200 5,649 TOTAL 387,928 238,188 * Military land established under the Kangxi Emperor.
101. Xu Shuming, "Qingdai Dongbei diqu tudi kaiken shulue," 101, 112-14; and Sun Zhanwen, "Qing chu, zhong qi Heilongjiang sheng di tudi kaifa," 100, citing the Jilin tongzhi [Jilin Gazette]. Sun Zhanwen, "Qing chu, zhong qi Heilongjiang sheng di tudi kaifa," 93-94, 96, lists figures (below) for cultivated land in Heilongjiang, various years, 1625-1860. The actual figures must have been higher: first, because there was an incentive to conceal land holdings to avoid taxes, and second, because the statistics represent snapshots of particular times and places, rather than running totals for the region as a whole. Category Shang hectacre equivalent Bannerland 282,403 173,395 "Official farm" [guanzhuang] 17,080 10,487 Suiquedi * 6,740 4,138 "Courier station" [taizhan dingdli] 31,782 19,514 "Public land" [gongtian] 9,723 5,970 Shuangcheng [tuntian] 31,000 19,034 "People's land" [mintian] 9,200 5,649 TOTAL 387,928 238,188 * Military land established under the Kangxi Emperor.
102. Xu Shuming, "Qingdai Dongbei diqu tudi kaiken shulue," 101, 112-14; and Sun Zhanwen, "Qing chu, zhong qi Heilongjiang sheng di tudi kaifa," 100, citing the Jilin tongzhi [Jilin Gazette]. Sun Zhanwen, "Qing chu, zhong qi Heilongjiang sheng di tudi kaifa," 93-94, 96, lists figures (below) for cultivated land in Heilongjiang, various years, 1625-1860. The actual figures must have been higher: first, because there was an incentive to conceal land holdings to avoid taxes, and second, because the statistics represent snapshots of particular times and places, rather than running totals for the region as a whole. Category Shang hectacre equivalent Bannerland 282,403 173,395 "Official farm" [guanzhuang] 17,080 10,487 Suiquedi * 6,740 4,138 "Courier station" [taizhan dingdli] 31,782 19,514 "Public land" [gongtian] 9,723 5,970 Shuangcheng [tuntian] 31,000 19,034 "People's land" [mintian] 9,200 5,649 TOTAL 387,928 238,188 * Military land established under the Kangxi Emperor.
103. Tian Zhihe, "Qingdai Ke'erqin Mengdi kaifa shulue," 190-91; Tian Zhihe, "Qingdai Dongbei Mengdi kaifa shuyao," 89, 92-93. Note that the figures for 1800-1902, are for land "reclaimed and colonized" [kenzhi] or "reclaimed" [kaiken], which implies that the land was actually under cultivation, while figures for 1902-12 are for land "surveyed" [zhangfang], suggesting that it was in process of being reclaimed, but perhaps not yet under cultivation. Unfortunately, Tian does not cite sources for these data. Kuang Haolin, "Pingshuo Qingdai Neimenggu diqu kenzhi di deshi," 47-48, and Wang Bingming, "Qingmo xinzheng yu beibu bianjiang kaifa," 71, provide comparable figures and sources for various banners in both time periods. According to Kuang, prior to 1902, the total area of land assigned for reclamation [fangken tudi] in Gorlos Front Banner and the three Keerqin Left Banners was more than 1,873,000 shang (1,150, 022 ha), not including privately reclaimed land [siken]. Wang says that during the period, 1902-1912, offices established by the central government reclaimed more than 3,600,000 shang (2,210,400 ha) in Zhelimu League and 16,000 qing in Zhaowuda Leagues.
104. Tian Zhihe, "Qingdai Ke'erqin Mengdi kaifa shulue," 190-91; Tian Zhihe, "Qingdai Dongbei Mengdi kaifa shuyao," 89, 92-93. Note that the figures for 1800-1902, are for land "reclaimed and colonized" [kenzhi] or "reclaimed" [kaiken], which implies that the land was actually under cultivation, while figures for 1902-12 are for land "surveyed" [zhangfang], suggesting that it was in process of being reclaimed, but perhaps not yet under cultivation. Unfortunately, Tian does not cite sources for these data. Kuang Haolin, "Pingshuo Qingdai Neimenggu diqu kenzhi di deshi," 47-48, and Wang Bingming, "Qingmo xinzheng yu beibu bianjiang kaifa," 71, provide comparable figures and sources for various banners in both time periods. According to Kuang, prior to 1902, the total area of land assigned for reclamation [fangken tudi] in Gorlos Front Banner and the three Keerqin Left Banners was more than 1,873,000 shang (1,150, 022 ha), not including privately reclaimed land [siken]. Wang says that during the period, 1902-1912, offices established by the central government reclaimed more than 3,600,000 shang (2,210,400 ha) in Zhelimu League and 16,000 qing in Zhaowuda Leagues.
105. Tian Zhihe, "Qingdai Ke'erqin Mengdi kaifa shulue," 190-91; Tian Zhihe, "Qingdai Dongbei Mengdi kaifa shuyao," 89, 92-93. Note that the figures for 1800-1902, are for land "reclaimed and colonized" [kenzhi] or "reclaimed" [kaiken], which implies that the land was actually under cultivation, while figures for 1902-12 are for land "surveyed" [zhangfang], suggesting that it was in process of being reclaimed, but perhaps not yet under cultivation. Unfortunately, Tian does not cite sources for these data. Kuang Haolin, "Pingshuo Qingdai Neimenggu diqu kenzhi di deshi," 47-48, and Wang Bingming, "Qingmo xinzheng yu beibu bianjiang kaifa," 71, provide comparable figures and sources for various banners in both time periods. According to Kuang, prior to 1902, the total area of land assigned for reclamation [fangken tudi] in Gorlos Front Banner and the three Keerqin Left Banners was more than 1,873,000 shang (1,150, 022 ha), not including privately reclaimed land [siken]. Wang says that during the period, 1902-1912, offices established by the central government reclaimed more than 3,600,000 shang (2,210,400 ha) in Zhelimu League and 16,000 qing in Zhaowuda Leagues.
106. Tian Zhihe, "Qingdai Ke'erqin Mengdi kaifa shulue," 190-91; Tian Zhihe, "Qingdai Dongbei Mengdi kaifa shuyao," 89, 92-93. Note that the figures for 1800-1902, are for land "reclaimed and colonized" [kenzhi] or "reclaimed" [kaiken], which implies that the land was actually under cultivation, while figures for 1902-12 are for land "surveyed" [zhangfang], suggesting that it was in process of being reclaimed, but perhaps not yet under cultivation. Unfortunately, Tian does not cite sources for these data. Kuang Haolin, "Pingshuo Qingdai Neimenggu diqu kenzhi di deshi," 47-48, and Wang Bingming, "Qingmo xinzheng yu beibu bianjiang kaifa," 71, provide comparable figures and sources for various banners in both time periods. According to Kuang, prior to 1902, the total area
107. Xu Shuming, "Qingdai Dongbei diqu tudi kaiken shulue," 119.
108. Ma Ruheng and Cheng Chongde, "Kang Qian shiqi renkou liudong yu changcheng bianwai kaifa," 16.
109. Wang Yuhai, "Qingdai Kalaqin di nongye fazhan he tudi guanxi," 197.
110. Hu Zhiyu, "Ke'erqin nanbu caoyuan shamohua di yanbian guocheng ji qi zhengzhi tujing," 67.
111. Owen Lattimore, The Mongols of Manchuria, 204-5. NOTE: Details on government intervention in the disposition and use of land in Inner Mongolia after 1902 are more complete for the western than the eastern banners. This may be because of differences in conditions in the two areas, or because of greater documentation and research on the western region. A subsequent study by this author, describing changes that occurred in western Inner Mongolia during the last decade of the Qing, will confirm the picture presented here.
112. Owen Lattimore, The Mongols of Manchuria, 202, 221-22.
113. Hu Zhiyu, "Ke'erqin nanbu caoyuan shamohua di yanbian guocheng ji qi zhengzhi tujing," 67-68. Hu reports the following area of land reclaimed on the Yangxumu Livestock Farm, 1805-1906: Year mu hectacre equivalent 1805 146,000 8,906 1813 168,000 10,248 1897 1,540400 93,964 1898-1906 782,000 47,702 TOTAL 2,637,000 160,857
114. Owen Lattimore, The Mongols of Manchuria, 223.
115. Tian Zhihe, "Qingdai Ke'erqin Mengdi kaifa shulue," 188; Tian Zhihe, "Qingdai Dongbei Mengdi kaifa shuyao," 89. Technically, Liaoyuan was a department [zhou], from 1902 until 1913, at which time its status was changed to county [xian].
116. Tian Zhihe, "Qingdai Ke'erqin Mengdi kaifa shulue," 188; Tian Zhihe, "Qingdai Dongbei Mengdi kaifa shuyao," 89. Technically, Liaoyuan was a department [zhou], from 1902 until 1913, at which time its status was changed to county [xian].
117. Quotation: Henry James, The Long White Mountain or a Journey in Manchuria (London: Longmans, Gree and Co., 1888; reprinted New York: Greenwood Press, 1968), 11. Other details on agriculture in central Manchuria: Henry James, The Long White Mountain, 370-86, and Francis Edward Younghusband, Among the Celestials: A Narrative of Travels in Manchuria, Across the Gobi Desert, Through the Himalayas to India (London: John Murray, 1898), 56
118. Quotation: Henry James, The Long White Mountain or a Journey in Manchuria (London: Longmans, Gree and Co., 1888; reprinted New York: Greenwood Press, 1968), 11. Other details on agriculture in central Manchuria: Henry James, The Long White Mountain, 370-86, and Francis Edward Younghusband, Among the Celestials: A Narrative of Travels in Manchuria, Across the Gobi Desert, Through the Himalayas to India (London: John Murray, 1898), 56
119. Quotation: Henry James, The Long White Mountain or a Journey in Manchuria (London: Longmans, Gree and Co., 1888; reprinted New York: Greenwood Press, 1968), 11. Other details on agriculture in central Manchuria: Henry James, The Long White Mountain, 370-86, and Francis Edward Younghusband, Among the Celestials: A Narrative of Travels in Manchuria, Across the Gobi Desert, Through the Himalayas to India (London: John Murray, 1898), 56
120. Francis Edward Younghusband, Among the Celestials, 16-17.
121. Ibid., 13; Henry James, The Long White Mountain, 232.
122. Ibid., 13; Henry James, The Long White Mountain, 232.
123. Francis Edward Younghusband, Among the Celestials, 17; Henry James, The Long White Mountain, 233, 241, 251-54.
124. Francis Edward Younghusband, Among the Celestials, 17; Henry James, The Long White Mountain, 233, 241, 251-54.
125. The terminus of cultivation on the upper Sungari, referred to by Henry James, The Long White Mountain, 274-48, as T'ang-ho-k'ou, is located at the juncture of the tributaries, now called the Toudao and Erdao Rivers [Jiang]. See also Francis Edward Younghusband, Among the Celestials, 27-29.
126. The terminus of cultivation on the upper Sungari, referred to by Henry James, The Long White Mountain, 274-48, as T'ang-ho-k'ou, is located at the juncture of the tributaries, now called the Toudao and Erdao Rivers [Jiang]. See also Francis Edward Younghusband, Among the Celestials, 27-29.
127. Francis Edward Younghusband, Among the Celestials, 33-34. Note: They report similarly dense cultivation along the parallel route from Changchun south to Newchuang. See: Henry James, The Long White Mountain, 370-84; Francis Edward Younghusband, Among the Celestials, 56.
128. Francis Edward Younghusband, Among the Celestials, 33-34. Note: They report similarly dense cultivation along the parallel route from Changchun south to Newchuang. See: Henry James, The Long White Mountain, 370-84; Francis Edward Younghusband, Among the Celestials, 56.
129. Francis Edward Younghusband, Among the Celestials, 33-34. Note: They report similarly dense cultivation along the parallel route from Changchun south to Newchuang. See: Henry James, The Long White Mountain, 370-84; Francis Edward Younghusband, Among the Celestials, 56.
130. Henry James, The Long White Mountain, 293-94.
131. Ibid., 298.
132. Francis Edward Younghusband, Among the Celestials, 35.
133. Henry James, The Long White Mountain, 308-9, citing Archimandrite.
134. Tian Zhihe, "Qingdai Ke'erqin Mengdi kaifa shulue,"188, 190. Tian Zhihe, "Qingdai Dongbei Mengdi kaifa shuyao," 88. Tian, 190, says that the prince [jasagh] "opened" 1,016,000 shang (623,824 ha) of "wasteland"[chuhuang], which indicates that the land was made available for reclamation, not that it was in fact put under cultivation. Tian, 190, cites this figure (Table 3) as the total amount of land in Keerqin Right Front Banner that was "reclaimed" by 1912, which is consistent with other indications that the numbers in this table represent land "assigned for reclamation" [fangken], as well as land already reclaimed.
135. Tian Zhihe, "Qingdai Ke'erqin Mengdi kaifa shulue,"188, 190. Tian Zhihe, "Qingdai Dongbei Mengdi kaifa shuyao," 88. Tian, 190, says that the prince [jasagh] "opened" 1,016,000 shang (623,824 ha) of "wasteland"[chuhuang], which indicates that the land was made available for reclamation, not that it was in fact put under cultivation. Tian, 190, cites this figure (Table 3) as the total amount of land in Keerqin Right Front Banner that was "reclaimed" by 1912, which is consistent with other indications that the numbers in this table represent land "assigned for reclamation" [fangken], as well as land already reclaimed.
136. Tian Zhihe, "Qingdai Ke'erqin Mengdi kaifa shulue,"188. For an account of Mongol rebellion in Zhuosutu League in 1891, which led to migration of Mongol farmers to Tao'er River, see: Owen Lattimore, The Mongols of Manchuria, 115-16.
137. Tian Zhihe, "Qingdai Ke'erqin Mengdi kaifa shulue,"188. For an account of Mongol rebellion in Zhuosutu League in 1891, which led to migration of Mongol farmers to Tao'er River, see: Owen Lattimore, The Mongols of Manchuria, 115-16.
138. Lieutenant G.C. Binsteed, "The Tribal and Administrative system of Mongolia," The Far Eastern Review 10, no. 2 (1913): 43-45.
139. Wang Bingming, "Qingmo xinzheng yu beibu bianjiang kaifa," 69-70.
140. Ibid., 70.
141. Tian Zhihe, "Qingdai Ke'erqin Mengdi kaifa shulue,"190; Tian Zhihe, "Qingdai Dongbei Mengdi kaifa shuyao," 93. Technically, Liaoyuan was a department [zhou], a unit at the same level as a county [xian]. Lieutenant G.C. Binsteed, "The Tribal and Administrative system of Mongolia," 43-45.
142. Tian Zhihe, "Qingdai Ke'erqin Mengdi kaifa shulue,"190; Tian Zhihe, "Qingdai Dongbei Mengdi kaifa shuyao," 93. Technically, Liaoyuan was a department [zhou], a unit at the same level as a county [xian]. Lieutenant G.C. Binsteed, "The Tribal and Administrative system of Mongolia," 43-45.
143. Tian Zhihe, "Qingdai Ke'erqin Mengdi kaifa shulue,"190; Tian Zhihe, "Qingdai Dongbei Mengdi kaifa shuyao," 93. Technically, Liaoyuan was a department [zhou], a unit at the same level as a county [xian]. Lieutenant G.C. Binsteed, "The Tribal and Administrative system of Mongolia," 43-45.
144. C. Walter Young, "Chinese Colonization in Manchuria," The Far Eastern Review 24, no. 7 (July 1928): 300. Owen Lattimore, The Mongols of Manchuria, 115-16, took a more positive view of developments in this area. However, my visits to the region, interviews with local residents and discussions with Chinese scientists who are studying the impact of alkalization on the region surrounding Changling, a research site south of the Tao'er River, confirm the view that the potential for agriculture in this area is limited.
145. C. Walter Young, "Chinese Colonization in Manchuria," The Far Eastern Review 24, no. 7 (July 1928): 300. Owen Lattimore, The Mongols of Manchuria, 115-16, took a more positive view of developments in this area. However, my visits to the region, interviews with local residents and discussions with Chinese scientists who are studying the impact of alkalization on the region surrounding Changling, a research site south of the Tao'er River, confirm the view that the potential for agriculture in this area is limited.
146. Henry James, The Long White Mountain, 310.
147. Xu Shuming, "Qingdai Dongbei diqu tudi kaiken shulue," 109-111; Robert Lee, The Manchurian Frontier in Ch'ing History, 128.
148. Xu Shuming, "Qingdai Dongbei diqu tudi kaiken shulue," 109-111; Robert Lee, The Manchurian Frontier in Ch'ing History, 128.
149. Francis Edward Younghusband, The Heart of a Continent: A Narrative of Travels in Manchuria, Across the Gobi Dsert, Through the Himalayas, the Pamirs, and Hunza, 1884-1894 (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1904), 24.
150. Henry James, The Long White Mountain, 315-16.
151. Wang Bingming, "Qingmo xinzheng yu beibu bianjiang kaifa," 67-68.
152. Ibid., 68. Wang give the following breakdown of reclaimed areas (in 1,000 shang): Jalait, 470; Durbet, 380; Gorlos Rear, 630; Total, 1,480. Tian Zhihe, "Lun Qingmo dongbu Mengqi diqu di yimin shibian wenti" [On the problem of "Moving population to strengthen the border" in the eastern Mongol banner region during the late Qing], Beifang wenwu [Northern letters and artifacts] 2 (1987): 85-86, provides a similar account, but with slightly different and more complete figures for the area (in 1,000 shang) of land surveyed in six banners of Zhelimu, 1902-1906: Jalait, 487; Durbet, 258; Gorlos Rear, 571; Keerqin Right Front, 625; Keerqin Right Rear, 241; Keerqin Right Middle, 750; Total, 2,932. Dalai (1904), Anda (1904), and Zhaozhou (1906) were initially designated subprefectures [ting] and made counties [xian] in 1913.
153. Ibid., 68. Wang give the following breakdown of reclaimed areas (in 1,000 shang): Jalait, 470; Durbet, 380; Gorlos Rear, 630; Total, 1,480. Tian Zhihe, "Lun Qingmo dongbu Mengqi diqu di yimin shibian wenti" [On the problem of "Moving population to strengthen the border" in the eastern Mongol banner region during the late Qing], Beifang wenwu [Northern letters and artifacts] 2 (1987): 85-86, provides a similar account, but with slightly different and more complete figures for the area (in 1,000 shang) of land surveyed in six banners of Zhelimu, 1902-1906: Jalait, 487; Durbet, 258; Gorlos Rear, 571; Keerqin Right Front, 625; Keerqin Right Rear, 241; Keerqin Right Middle, 750; Total, 2,932. Dalai (1904), Anda (1904), and Zhaozhou (1906) were initially designated subprefectures [ting] and made counties [xian] in 1913.
154. C. Walter Young, "Chinese Colonization in Manchuria," 296-303.
155. Henry James, The Long White Mountain, 327-29.
156. Account by Catholic Missionary, M. de la Bruniere, 1845, cited in Henry James, The Long White Mountain, 424.
157. Francis Edward Younghusband, Among the Celestials, 41, Henry James, The Long White Mountain, 330-32, 426-32.
158. Francis Edward Younghusband, Among the Celestials, 41, Henry James, The Long White Mountain, 330-32, 426-32.
159. Henry James, The Long White Mountain, 339, 340, 437-38.