Reading between the welfare lines: Politics and policy structure in post-communist Europe

Europe - Asia Studies

Volumn 52, Issue 7, 2000, Pages 1191-1211

  Lipsmeyer, Christine S ^b  

^a BELMONT UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^b NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

POLICY STRATEGY; POST-COMMUNISM; SOCIAL POLICY; WELFARE PROVISION;

(CENTRAL); (EAST); EUROPE;

EID: 0034543856     PISSN: 09668136     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/713663132     Document Type: Article

References (39)

1. Geoffrey Evans & Stephen Whitefield, 'Identifying the Bases of Party Competition in Eastern Europe', British Journal of Political Science, 23, 4, 1993, pp. 521-548; Geoffrey Evans & Stephen Whitefield, 'Social and Ideological Cleavage Formation in Post-Communist Hungary', Europe-Asia Studies, 47, 7, 1995, pp. 1177-1204; Geoffrey Evans & Stephen Whitefield, 'The Social Bases of Electoral Competition in Eastern Europe', paper prepared for the Annual Meeting of the American Political Science Association, Chicago, IL, 1996; Geoffrey Evans & Stephen Whitefield, 'The Structuring of Political Cleavages in Post-Communist Societies: the Case of the Czech Republic and Slovakia', Political Studies, XLVI, 1998, pp. 115-139; Herbert Kitschelt, 'The Formation of Party Systems in East Central Europe', Politics & Society, 20, 1, 1992, pp. 7-50; Herbert Kitschelt, Zdena Mansfeldova & Gábor Tóka, Post-Communist Party Systems: Competition, Representation, and Inter-Party Cooperation (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1999).
2. Geoffrey Evans & Stephen Whitefield, 'Identifying the Bases of Party Competition in Eastern Europe', British Journal of Political Science, 23, 4, 1993, pp. 521-548; Geoffrey Evans & Stephen Whitefield, 'Social and Ideological Cleavage Formation in Post-Communist Hungary', Europe-Asia Studies, 47, 7, 1995, pp. 1177-1204; Geoffrey Evans & Stephen Whitefield, 'The Social Bases of Electoral Competition in Eastern Europe', paper prepared for the Annual Meeting of the American Political Science Association, Chicago, IL, 1996; Geoffrey Evans & Stephen Whitefield, 'The Structuring of Political Cleavages in Post-Communist Societies: the Case of the Czech Republic and Slovakia', Political Studies, XLVI, 1998, pp. 115-139; Herbert Kitschelt, 'The Formation of Party Systems in East Central Europe', Politics & Society, 20, 1, 1992, pp. 7-50; Herbert Kitschelt, Zdena Mansfeldova & Gábor Tóka, Post-Communist Party Systems: Competition, Representation, and Inter-Party Cooperation (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1999).
3. Geoffrey Evans & Stephen Whitefield, 'Identifying the Bases of Party Competition in Eastern Europe', British Journal of Political Science, 23, 4, 1993, pp. 521-548; Geoffrey Evans & Stephen Whitefield, 'Social and Ideological Cleavage Formation in Post-Communist Hungary', Europe-Asia Studies, 47, 7, 1995, pp. 1177-1204; Geoffrey Evans & Stephen Whitefield, 'The Social Bases of Electoral Competition in Eastern Europe', paper prepared for the Annual Meeting of the American Political Science Association, Chicago, IL, 1996; Geoffrey Evans & Stephen Whitefield, 'The Structuring of Political Cleavages in Post-Communist Societies: the Case of the Czech Republic and Slovakia', Political Studies, XLVI, 1998, pp. 115-139; Herbert Kitschelt, 'The Formation of Party Systems in East Central Europe', Politics & Society, 20, 1, 1992, pp. 7-50; Herbert Kitschelt, Zdena Mansfeldova & Gábor Tóka, Post-Communist Party Systems: Competition, Representation, and Inter-Party Cooperation (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1999).
4. Geoffrey Evans & Stephen Whitefield, 'Identifying the Bases of Party Competition in Eastern Europe', British Journal of Political Science, 23, 4, 1993, pp. 521-548; Geoffrey Evans & Stephen Whitefield, 'Social and Ideological Cleavage Formation in Post-Communist Hungary', Europe-Asia Studies, 47, 7, 1995, pp. 1177-1204; Geoffrey Evans & Stephen Whitefield, 'The Social Bases of Electoral Competition in Eastern Europe', paper prepared for the Annual Meeting of the American Political Science Association, Chicago, IL, 1996; Geoffrey Evans & Stephen Whitefield, 'The Structuring of Political Cleavages in Post-Communist Societies: the Case of the Czech Republic and Slovakia', Political Studies, XLVI, 1998, pp. 115-139; Herbert Kitschelt, 'The Formation of Party Systems in East Central Europe', Politics & Society, 20, 1, 1992, pp. 7-50; Herbert Kitschelt, Zdena Mansfeldova & Gábor Tóka, Post-Communist Party Systems: Competition, Representation, and Inter-Party Cooperation (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1999).
5. Geoffrey Evans & Stephen Whitefield, 'Identifying the Bases of Party Competition in Eastern Europe', British Journal of Political Science, 23, 4, 1993, pp. 521-548; Geoffrey Evans & Stephen Whitefield, 'Social and Ideological Cleavage Formation in Post-Communist Hungary', Europe-Asia Studies, 47, 7, 1995, pp. 1177-1204; Geoffrey Evans & Stephen Whitefield, 'The Social Bases of Electoral Competition in Eastern Europe', paper prepared for the Annual Meeting of the American Political Science Association, Chicago, IL, 1996; Geoffrey Evans & Stephen Whitefield, 'The Structuring of Political Cleavages in Post-Communist Societies: the Case of the Czech Republic and Slovakia', Political Studies, XLVI, 1998, pp. 115-139; Herbert Kitschelt, 'The Formation of Party Systems in East Central Europe', Politics & Society, 20, 1, 1992, pp. 7-50; Herbert Kitschelt, Zdena Mansfeldova & Gábor Tóka, Post-Communist Party Systems: Competition, Representation, and Inter-Party Cooperation (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1999).
6. Geoffrey Evans & Stephen Whitefield, 'Identifying the Bases of Party Competition in Eastern Europe', British Journal of Political Science, 23, 4, 1993, pp. 521-548; Geoffrey Evans & Stephen Whitefield, 'Social and Ideological Cleavage Formation in Post-Communist Hungary', Europe-Asia Studies, 47, 7, 1995, pp. 1177-1204; Geoffrey Evans & Stephen Whitefield, 'The Social Bases of Electoral Competition in Eastern Europe', paper prepared for the Annual Meeting of the American Political Science Association, Chicago, IL, 1996; Geoffrey Evans & Stephen Whitefield, 'The Structuring of Political Cleavages in Post-Communist Societies: the Case of the Czech Republic and Slovakia', Political Studies, XLVI, 1998, pp. 115-139; Herbert Kitschelt, 'The Formation of Party Systems in East Central Europe', Politics & Society, 20, 1, 1992, pp. 7-50; Herbert Kitschelt, Zdena Mansfeldova & Gábor Tóka, Post-Communist Party Systems: Competition, Representation, and Inter-Party Cooperation (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1999).
7. Tomasz Inglot, 'The Politics of Social Policy Reform in Post-Communist Poland: Government Responses to the Social Insurance Crisis During 1989-1993', Communist and Post-Communist Studies, 28, 1995, pp. 361-373; Morgan A. Tracy & Martin B. Tracy, 'The Impact of Market Economy Transition on Social Security and Social Welfare in Poland', Journal of Sociology and Social Welfare, 23, 1996, pp. 23-39.
8. Tomasz Inglot, 'The Politics of Social Policy Reform in Post-Communist Poland: Government Responses to the Social Insurance Crisis During 1989-1993', Communist and Post-Communist Studies, 28, 1995, pp. 361-373; Morgan A. Tracy & Martin B. Tracy, 'The Impact of Market Economy Transition on Social Security and Social Welfare in Poland', Journal of Sociology and Social Welfare, 23, 1996, pp. 23-39.
9. The rules differ from country to country and policy to policy, but often governments factor replacement rates on the basis of an average wage over a set number of years. For example, Hungarian pension rules in 1991 set the replacement rate at 33% of the worker's average wage for the highest paid three of the previous five years. Social Security Administration (SSA), Social Security Programs Throughout the World (Washington DC, US Departments of Health and Human Service, 1991), p. 133.
10. See especially Paul Pierson, 'The New Politics of the Welfare State', World Politics, 48, 1996; Paul Pierson, Dismantling the Welfare State (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1994); and Gøsta Esping-Andersen, The Three Worlds of Welfare Capitalism (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1990).
11. See especially Paul Pierson, 'The New Politics of the Welfare State', World Politics, 48, 1996; Paul Pierson, Dismantling the Welfare State (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1994); and Gøsta Esping-Andersen, The Three Worlds of Welfare Capitalism (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1990).
12. See especially Paul Pierson, 'The New Politics of the Welfare State', World Politics, 48, 1996; Paul Pierson, Dismantling the Welfare State (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1994); and Gøsta Esping-Andersen, The Three Worlds of Welfare Capitalism (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1990).
13. See for example Harold Wilensky, The Welfare State and Equality: Structural and Ideological Roots of Public Expenditures (Berkeley, CA, University of California Press, 1975); Francis G. Castles, The Impact of Parties: Politics and Policies in Democratic Capitalist States (London, Sage, 1982); André Biais, Donald Blake & Stéphane Dion, 'Do Parties Make a Difference? Parties and the Size of Government in Liberal Democracies', American Journal of Political Science, 37, 1, 1993, pp. 40-62; Manfred G. Schmidt, 'When Parties Matter: A Review of the Possibilities and Limits of Partisan Influence on Public Policy', European Journal of Political Research, 30, 1996, pp. 155-183.
14. See for example Harold Wilensky, The Welfare State and Equality: Structural and Ideological Roots of Public Expenditures (Berkeley, CA, University of California Press, 1975); Francis G. Castles, The Impact of Parties: Politics and Policies in Democratic Capitalist States (London, Sage, 1982); André Biais, Donald Blake & Stéphane Dion, 'Do Parties Make a Difference? Parties and the Size of Government in Liberal Democracies', American Journal of Political Science, 37, 1, 1993, pp. 40-62; Manfred G. Schmidt, 'When Parties Matter: A Review of the Possibilities and Limits of Partisan Influence on Public Policy', European Journal of Political Research, 30, 1996, pp. 155-183.
15. See for example Harold Wilensky, The Welfare State and Equality: Structural and Ideological Roots of Public Expenditures (Berkeley, CA, University of California Press, 1975); Francis G. Castles, The Impact of Parties: Politics and Policies in Democratic Capitalist States (London, Sage, 1982); André Biais, Donald Blake & Stéphane Dion, 'Do Parties Make a Difference? Parties and the Size of Government in Liberal Democracies', American Journal of Political Science, 37, 1, 1993, pp. 40-62; Manfred G. Schmidt, 'When Parties Matter: A Review of the Possibilities and Limits of Partisan Influence on Public Policy', European Journal of Political Research, 30, 1996, pp. 155-183.
16. See for example Harold Wilensky, The Welfare State and Equality: Structural and Ideological Roots of Public Expenditures (Berkeley, CA, University of California Press, 1975); Francis G. Castles, The Impact of Parties: Politics and Policies in Democratic Capitalist States (London, Sage, 1982); André Biais, Donald Blake & Stéphane Dion, 'Do Parties Make a Difference? Parties and the Size of Government in Liberal Democracies', American Journal of Political Science, 37, 1, 1993, pp. 40-62; Manfred G. Schmidt, 'When Parties Matter: A Review of the Possibilities and Limits of Partisan Influence on Public Policy', European Journal of Political Research, 30, 1996, pp. 155-183.
17. See Esping-Andersen, The Three Worlds ..., pp. 126-128; Evelyne Huber & John D. Stephens, 'The Politics of the Welfare State After the Golden Age: Quantitative Evidence', paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Political Science Association, Washington DC, 28-31 August 1997. Huber & Stevens do note that changes in the United States and British cases have been more ideologically driven than in other countries, where partisan effects are in decline.
18. See Esping-Andersen, The Three Worlds ..., pp. 126-128; Evelyne Huber & John D. Stephens, 'The Politics of the Welfare State After the Golden Age: Quantitative Evidence', paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Political Science Association, Washington DC, 28-31 August 1997. Huber & Stevens do note that changes in the United States and British cases have been more ideologically driven than in other countries, where partisan effects are in decline.
19. SSA, Social Security Programs Throughout the World (Washington, DC, US Department of Health and Human Services, 1991, 1993, 1995, 1997).
20. SSA, Social Security Programs ... (1991), p. v.
21. He states that 'de-commodification occurs when a service is rendered as a matter of right, and when a person can maintain a livelihood without reliance on the market'. Esping-Andersen, The Three Worlds ..., pp. 21-22.
22. Slovenia is the only case of means-testing for unemployment benefits.
23. The executive branches in these post-communist countries vary in their constitutional and empirical power and these differences may affect the structural aspects of public policies, but owing to their length and complexity this possible influence requires an analysis of its own.
24. For specific works see note 1.
25. See Castles, The Impact of Parties.
26. Dates for the first post-communist unemployment laws are: Czech Republic 1991; Estonia 1991; Hungary 1989; Poland 1989; Slovakia 1991; Slovenia 1991. The first unemployment protection in Slovenia dates back to 1952, but the current system is from 1974. World Bank, Slovenia: Labor Market Issues (Washington DC, World Bank, 1999), p. 34. In December 1988 the Hungarian government guaranteed workers the right to unemployment aid for those laid off due to economic restructuring, Centre for Co-operation with the Economies in Transition (CCET), Social and Labour Market Policies in Hungary (Paris, OECD, 1995), p. 70.
27. Dates for the first post-communist unemployment laws are: Czech Republic 1991; Estonia 1991; Hungary 1989; Poland 1989; Slovakia 1991; Slovenia 1991. The first unemployment protection in Slovenia dates back to 1952, but the current system is from 1974. World Bank, Slovenia: Labor Market Issues (Washington DC, World Bank, 1999), p. 34. In December 1988 the Hungarian government guaranteed workers the right to unemployment aid for those laid off due to economic restructuring, Centre for Co-operation with the Economies in Transition (CCET), Social and Labour Market Policies in Hungary (Paris, OECD, 1995), p. 70.
28. See for example David Fretwell & Richard Jackman, 'Labour Markets: Unemployment', in Nicholas Barr (ed.), Labour Markets and Social Policy in Central and Eastern Europe: The Transition and Beyond (Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1994); Giovanni Andrea Cornia, Gaspar Fajth, Albert Motivans, Renato Panicciá & Enrico Sborgi, 'Policy, Poverty and Capabilities in the Economies in Transition', MOCT-MOST, 6, 1, 1996, pp. 149-172; Mark Kramer, 'Social Protection and Safety Nets in East-Central Europe: Dilemmas of the Postcommunist Transformation', in Ethan B. Kapstein & Michael Mandelbaum (eds), Sustaining the Transition: The Social Safety Net in Postcommunist Europe (New York, Council on Foreign Relations, 1997).
29. See for example David Fretwell & Richard Jackman, 'Labour Markets: Unemployment', in Nicholas Barr (ed.), Labour Markets and Social Policy in Central and Eastern Europe: The Transition and Beyond (Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1994); Giovanni Andrea Cornia, Gaspar Fajth, Albert Motivans, Renato Panicciá & Enrico Sborgi, 'Policy, Poverty and Capabilities in the Economies in Transition', MOCT-MOST, 6, 1, 1996, pp. 149-172; Mark Kramer, 'Social Protection and Safety Nets in East-Central Europe: Dilemmas of the Postcommunist Transformation', in Ethan B. Kapstein & Michael Mandelbaum (eds), Sustaining the Transition: The Social Safety Net in Postcommunist Europe (New York, Council on Foreign Relations, 1997).
30. See for example David Fretwell & Richard Jackman, 'Labour Markets: Unemployment', in Nicholas Barr (ed.), Labour Markets and Social Policy in Central and Eastern Europe: The Transition and Beyond (Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1994); Giovanni Andrea Cornia, Gaspar Fajth, Albert Motivans, Renato Panicciá & Enrico Sborgi, 'Policy, Poverty and Capabilities in the Economies in Transition', MOCT-MOST, 6, 1, 1996, pp. 149-172; Mark Kramer, 'Social Protection and Safety Nets in East-Central Europe: Dilemmas of the Postcommunist Transformation', in Ethan B. Kapstein & Michael Mandelbaum (eds), Sustaining the Transition: The Social Safety Net in Postcommunist Europe (New York, Council on Foreign Relations, 1997).
31. See for example lain Batty, Radomil Stumpa & István Kovari, 'Pension Reform in Eastern Europe: Hungary and Czech Republic Lead the Way', Benefits and Compensation International, 23, 1994, pp. 8-14.
32. The Czech Republic is gradually increasing the retirement age from 1 January 1996 to 31 December 2006 by two months per year for men and four months per year for women. The final outcome is age 62 for men and 57-61 for women. In Hungary the government is raising the retirement age in stages for women to age 60 by 2003. Then the sexes will have the same retirement age. SSA, Social Security Programs ..., 1997, p. 100.
33. Ellen Goldstein, Alexander S. Preker, Olusoji Adeyi & Gnanaraj Chellaraj, 'Trends in Health Status, Services, and Finance, Vol. 1', World Bank Technical Paper No. 341: Social Challenges of Transition Series. (Washington DC, The World Bank, 1996).
34. The dates of the first health care law in each country after communism are: the Czech Republic 1992; Estonia 1991; Hungary 1992; Poland still uses a 1974 law with modifications; Slovakia 1992; Slovenia 1992.
35. SSA, Social Security Programs ..., 1993, p. 147.
36. The Hungarian system is unique among these countries in that it calculates the replacement rate on the basis of the employee's days of insurance instead of only on her average wage: '100% of daily average net earnings if 270 days of insurance within last 2 years before confinement, or 60% if at least 180 days insurance', SSA, Social Security Programs ..., 1997, p. 165.
37. Poland initiated a system that distinguishes between first births, subsequent births and multiple births: '100% of earnings, payable for 16 weeks for first birth, 18 weeks for subsequent births, and 26 weeks for multiple births'. SSA, Social Security Programs ..., 1997, p. 287.
38. Cornia et al., 'Policy, Poverty and Capabilities in the Economies in Transition', argue that governments expanded family benefits at the beginning of the transition (1989-91) in order to counteract the removal of price subsidies, although I find that the initial budgetary shift toward the state occurred later in some countries (1993-95).
39. SSA, Social Security Programs ..., 1997, p. 122.