The real world of civic republicanism: Making democracy work in Poland and the Czech Republic

Europe - Asia Studies

Volumn 52, Issue 6, 2000, Pages 1043-1068

  Dryzek, John S ^a   Holmes, Leslie ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF MELBOURNE   (Australia)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

DEMOCRACY; DEMOCRATIZATION; POLITICAL SYSTEM; POST-COMMUNISM;

CZECH REPUBLIC; POLAND;

EID: 0034539031     PISSN: 09668136     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/09668130050143824     Document Type: Article

References (91)

1. Giovanni Sartori, 'Rethinking Democracy: Bad Polity and Bad Politics', International Social Science Journal, 129, 1991, pp. 437-450 at p. 437.
2. For an explicit and concise statement of this contrast see Juan J. Linz & Alfred E. Stepan, Problems of Democratic Transition and Consolidation: Southern Europe, South America, and Post-Communist Europe (Baltimore, MD, Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996), p. 272; the actual passage to which we take exception is quoted below.
3. On the relationship between low levels of legitimacy and collapse in the face of crisis, albeit with primary reference to communist systems, see Leslie Holmes, The End of Communist Power: Anti-Corruption Campaigns and Legitimation Crisis (New York, Oxford University Press, 1993), especially pp. 35-44.
4. Denise Powers, 'Authenticating Democratic Transitions: Bringing the Demos (Back) In' (unpublished manuscript, University of Iowa, 1998). For a sense of the wider debates on issues of transition and consolidation see Giuseppe Di Palma, To Craft Democracies (Berkeley, CA, University of California Press, 1990); Samuel Huntington, The Third Wave (Norman, OK, University of Oklahoma Press, 1991), especially pp. 208-279; Philippe Schmitter & Terry Karl, 'The Conceptual Travels of Transitologists and Consolidologists: How Far to the East Should They Attempt to Go?', Slavic Review, 53, 1994, pp. 173-185; Valerie Bunce, 'Should Transitologists be Grounded?', Slavic Review, 54, 1995, pp. 111-127; Valerie Bunce, 'Paper Curtain and Paper Tigers', Slavic Review, 54, 1995, pp. 979-987; Terry Karl & Philippe Schmitter, 'From an Iron Curtain to a Paper Curtain: Grounding Transitologists or Students of Postcommunism?', Slavic Review, 54, 1995, pp. 965-978; Linz & Stepan, Problems of Democratic Transition and Consolidation, especially pp. 3-15; Jon Elster, Claus Offe & Ulrich Preuss (with others), Institutional Design in Post-communist Societies: Rebuilding the Ship at Sea (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1998), especially pp. 27-34.
5. Denise Powers, 'Authenticating Democratic Transitions: Bringing the Demos (Back) In' (unpublished manuscript, University of Iowa, 1998). For a sense of the wider debates on issues of transition and consolidation see Giuseppe Di Palma, To Craft Democracies (Berkeley, CA, University of California Press, 1990); Samuel Huntington, The Third Wave (Norman, OK, University of Oklahoma Press, 1991), especially pp. 208-279; Philippe Schmitter & Terry Karl, 'The Conceptual Travels of Transitologists and Consolidologists: How Far to the East Should They Attempt to Go?', Slavic Review, 53, 1994, pp. 173-185; Valerie Bunce, 'Should Transitologists be Grounded?', Slavic Review, 54, 1995, pp. 111-127; Valerie Bunce, 'Paper Curtain and Paper Tigers', Slavic Review, 54, 1995, pp. 979-987; Terry Karl & Philippe Schmitter, 'From an Iron Curtain to a Paper Curtain: Grounding Transitologists or Students of Postcommunism?', Slavic Review, 54, 1995, pp. 965-978; Linz & Stepan, Problems of Democratic Transition and Consolidation, especially pp. 3-15; Jon Elster, Claus Offe & Ulrich Preuss (with others), Institutional Design in Post-communist Societies: Rebuilding the Ship at Sea (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1998), especially pp. 27-34.
6. Denise Powers, 'Authenticating Democratic Transitions: Bringing the Demos (Back) In' (unpublished manuscript, University of Iowa, 1998). For a sense of the wider debates on issues of transition and consolidation see Giuseppe Di Palma, To Craft Democracies (Berkeley, CA, University of California Press, 1990); Samuel Huntington, The Third Wave (Norman, OK, University of Oklahoma Press, 1991), especially pp. 208-279; Philippe Schmitter & Terry Karl, 'The Conceptual Travels of Transitologists and Consolidologists: How Far to the East Should They Attempt to Go?', Slavic Review, 53, 1994, pp. 173-185; Valerie Bunce, 'Should Transitologists be Grounded?', Slavic Review, 54, 1995, pp. 111-127; Valerie Bunce, 'Paper Curtain and Paper Tigers', Slavic Review, 54, 1995, pp. 979-987; Terry Karl & Philippe Schmitter, 'From an Iron Curtain to a Paper Curtain: Grounding Transitologists or Students of Postcommunism?', Slavic Review, 54, 1995, pp. 965-978; Linz & Stepan, Problems of Democratic Transition and Consolidation, especially pp. 3-15; Jon Elster, Claus Offe & Ulrich Preuss (with others), Institutional Design in Post-communist Societies: Rebuilding the Ship at Sea (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1998), especially pp. 27-34.
7. Denise Powers, 'Authenticating Democratic Transitions: Bringing the Demos (Back) In' (unpublished manuscript, University of Iowa, 1998). For a sense of the wider debates on issues of transition and consolidation see Giuseppe Di Palma, To Craft Democracies (Berkeley, CA, University of California Press, 1990); Samuel Huntington, The Third Wave (Norman, OK, University of Oklahoma Press, 1991), especially pp. 208-279; Philippe Schmitter & Terry Karl, 'The Conceptual Travels of Transitologists and Consolidologists: How Far to the East Should They Attempt to Go?', Slavic Review, 53, 1994, pp. 173-185; Valerie Bunce, 'Should Transitologists be Grounded?', Slavic Review, 54, 1995, pp. 111-127; Valerie Bunce, 'Paper Curtain and Paper Tigers', Slavic Review, 54, 1995, pp. 979-987; Terry Karl & Philippe Schmitter, 'From an Iron Curtain to a Paper Curtain: Grounding Transitologists or Students of Postcommunism?', Slavic Review, 54, 1995, pp. 965-978; Linz & Stepan, Problems of Democratic Transition and Consolidation, especially pp. 3-15; Jon Elster, Claus Offe & Ulrich Preuss (with others), Institutional Design in Post-communist Societies: Rebuilding the Ship at Sea (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1998), especially pp. 27-34.
8. Denise Powers, 'Authenticating Democratic Transitions: Bringing the Demos (Back) In' (unpublished manuscript, University of Iowa, 1998). For a sense of the wider debates on issues of transition and consolidation see Giuseppe Di Palma, To Craft Democracies (Berkeley, CA, University of California Press, 1990); Samuel Huntington, The Third Wave (Norman, OK, University of Oklahoma Press, 1991), especially pp. 208-279; Philippe Schmitter & Terry Karl, 'The Conceptual Travels of Transitologists and Consolidologists: How Far to the East Should They Attempt to Go?', Slavic Review, 53, 1994, pp. 173-185; Valerie Bunce, 'Should Transitologists be Grounded?', Slavic Review, 54, 1995, pp. 111-127; Valerie Bunce, 'Paper Curtain and Paper Tigers', Slavic Review, 54, 1995, pp. 979-987; Terry Karl & Philippe Schmitter, 'From an Iron Curtain to a Paper Curtain: Grounding Transitologists or Students of Postcommunism?', Slavic Review, 54, 1995, pp. 965-978; Linz & Stepan, Problems of Democratic Transition and Consolidation, especially pp. 3-15; Jon Elster, Claus Offe & Ulrich Preuss (with others), Institutional Design in Post-communist Societies: Rebuilding the Ship at Sea (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1998), especially pp. 27-34.
9. Denise Powers, 'Authenticating Democratic Transitions: Bringing the Demos (Back) In' (unpublished manuscript, University of Iowa, 1998). For a sense of the wider debates on issues of transition and consolidation see Giuseppe Di Palma, To Craft Democracies (Berkeley, CA, University of California Press, 1990); Samuel Huntington, The Third Wave (Norman, OK, University of Oklahoma Press, 1991), especially pp. 208-279; Philippe Schmitter & Terry Karl, 'The Conceptual Travels of Transitologists and Consolidologists: How Far to the East Should They Attempt to Go?', Slavic Review, 53, 1994, pp. 173-185; Valerie Bunce, 'Should Transitologists be Grounded?', Slavic Review, 54, 1995, pp. 111-127; Valerie Bunce, 'Paper Curtain and Paper Tigers', Slavic Review, 54, 1995, pp. 979-987; Terry Karl & Philippe Schmitter, 'From an Iron Curtain to a Paper Curtain: Grounding Transitologists or Students of Postcommunism?', Slavic Review, 54, 1995, pp. 965-978; Linz & Stepan, Problems of Democratic Transition and Consolidation, especially pp. 3-15; Jon Elster, Claus Offe & Ulrich Preuss (with others), Institutional Design in Post-communist Societies: Rebuilding the Ship at Sea (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1998), especially pp. 27-34.
10. Denise Powers, 'Authenticating Democratic Transitions: Bringing the Demos (Back) In' (unpublished manuscript, University of Iowa, 1998). For a sense of the wider debates on issues of transition and consolidation see Giuseppe Di Palma, To Craft Democracies (Berkeley, CA, University of California Press, 1990); Samuel Huntington, The Third Wave (Norman, OK, University of Oklahoma Press, 1991), especially pp. 208-279; Philippe Schmitter & Terry Karl, 'The Conceptual Travels of Transitologists and Consolidologists: How Far to the East Should They Attempt to Go?', Slavic Review, 53, 1994, pp. 173-185; Valerie Bunce, 'Should Transitologists be Grounded?', Slavic Review, 54, 1995, pp. 111-127; Valerie Bunce, 'Paper Curtain and Paper Tigers', Slavic Review, 54, 1995, pp. 979-987; Terry Karl & Philippe Schmitter, 'From an Iron Curtain to a Paper Curtain: Grounding Transitologists or Students of Postcommunism?', Slavic Review, 54, 1995, pp. 965-978; Linz & Stepan, Problems of Democratic Transition and Consolidation, especially pp. 3-15; Jon Elster, Claus Offe & Ulrich Preuss (with others), Institutional Design in Post-communist Societies: Rebuilding the Ship at Sea (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1998), especially pp. 27-34.
11. Denise Powers, 'Authenticating Democratic Transitions: Bringing the Demos (Back) In' (unpublished manuscript, University of Iowa, 1998). For a sense of the wider debates on issues of transition and consolidation see Giuseppe Di Palma, To Craft Democracies (Berkeley, CA, University of California Press, 1990); Samuel Huntington, The Third Wave (Norman, OK, University of Oklahoma Press, 1991), especially pp. 208-279; Philippe Schmitter & Terry Karl, 'The Conceptual Travels of Transitologists and Consolidologists: How Far to the East Should They Attempt to Go?', Slavic Review, 53, 1994, pp. 173-185; Valerie Bunce, 'Should Transitologists be Grounded?', Slavic Review, 54, 1995, pp. 111-127; Valerie Bunce, 'Paper Curtain and Paper Tigers', Slavic Review, 54, 1995, pp. 979-987; Terry Karl & Philippe Schmitter, 'From an Iron Curtain to a Paper Curtain: Grounding Transitologists or Students of Postcommunism?', Slavic Review, 54, 1995, pp. 965-978; Linz & Stepan, Problems of Democratic Transition and Consolidation, especially pp. 3-15; Jon Elster, Claus Offe & Ulrich Preuss (with others), Institutional Design in Post-communist Societies: Rebuilding the Ship at Sea (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1998), especially pp. 27-34.
12. Denise Powers, 'Authenticating Democratic Transitions: Bringing the Demos (Back) In' (unpublished manuscript, University of Iowa, 1998). For a sense of the wider debates on issues of transition and consolidation see Giuseppe Di Palma, To Craft Democracies (Berkeley, CA, University of California Press, 1990); Samuel Huntington, The Third Wave (Norman, OK, University of Oklahoma Press, 1991), especially pp. 208-279; Philippe Schmitter & Terry Karl, 'The Conceptual Travels of Transitologists and Consolidologists: How Far to the East Should They Attempt to Go?', Slavic Review, 53, 1994, pp. 173-185; Valerie Bunce, 'Should Transitologists be Grounded?', Slavic Review, 54, 1995, pp. 111-127; Valerie Bunce, 'Paper Curtain and Paper Tigers', Slavic Review, 54, 1995, pp. 979-987; Terry Karl & Philippe Schmitter, 'From an Iron Curtain to a Paper Curtain: Grounding Transitologists or Students of Postcommunism?', Slavic Review, 54, 1995, pp. 965-978; Linz & Stepan, Problems of Democratic Transition and Consolidation, especially pp. 3-15; Jon Elster, Claus Offe & Ulrich Preuss (with others), Institutional Design in Post-communist Societies: Rebuilding the Ship at Sea (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1998), especially pp. 27-34.
13. Ken Jowitt, New World Disorder (Berkeley, CA, University of California Press, 1992), especially pp. 284-305; George Schöpflin, 'Culture and Identity in Post-Communist Europe', in S. White, J. Batt & P. Lewis (eds), Developments in East European Politics (London, Macmillan, 1993), pp. 16-34. Jowitt is more upbeat about Poland than about any other post-communist country; ultimately, however, his position on Poland remains at best ambiguous, not clearly optimistic.
14. Ken Jowitt, New World Disorder (Berkeley, CA, University of California Press, 1992), especially pp. 284-305; George Schöpflin, 'Culture and Identity in Post-Communist Europe', in S. White, J. Batt & P. Lewis (eds), Developments in East European Politics (London, Macmillan, 1993), pp. 16-34. Jowitt is more upbeat about Poland than about any other post-communist country; ultimately, however, his position on Poland remains at best ambiguous, not clearly optimistic.
15. See, for example, Grzegorz Ekiert, 'Democratization Processes in East Central Europe: A Theoretical Reconsideration', British Journal of Political Science, 21, 1991, pp. 285-313; Jan Kubik, The Power of Symbols against the Symbols of Power: The Rise of Solidarity and the Fall of State Socialism in Poland (University Park, PA, Pennsylvania State University Press, 1994).
16. See, for example, Grzegorz Ekiert, 'Democratization Processes in East Central Europe: A Theoretical Reconsideration', British Journal of Political Science, 21, 1991, pp. 285-313; Jan Kubik, The Power of Symbols against the Symbols of Power: The Rise of Solidarity and the Fall of State Socialism in Poland (University Park, PA, Pennsylvania State University Press, 1994).
17. Both Ekiert and Kubik acknowledge the long-standing democratic tradition in Poland. However, they also see this as geared toward strengthening the central authorities (e.g. Kubik, The Power of Symbols, p. 88), which is different from the civic republicanism we identify here. Moreover, they highlight fundamental conflicts within society that encourage fragmentation. Their essentially pessimistic conclusions are also very different from our more positive ones.
18. We have considerable respect for both the scholarship and the arguments of those we have cited in the preceding paragraphs. It is the gloomier and more restrictive aspects of their conclusions that our findings and hence argument challenge.
19. Claus Offe, Der Tunnel am Ende des Lichts (Frankfurt, Campus, 1994), pp. 241-249; Herbert Kitschelt, 'Formation of Party Cleavages in Post-Communist Democracies: Theoretical Propositions', Party Politics, 1, 1995, pp. 447-472. These comparative pairings are highlighted in Karen Henderson & Neil Robinson, Post-Communist Politics: An Introduction (London, Prentice Hall, 1997), pp. 34-8. As Henderson & Robinson also point out, Huntington (The Third Wave, pp. 109-163) is unusual in placing Poland and Czecho-Slovakia in the same 'transplacement' category (under which democratisation is produced by the combined actions of government and opposition).
20. Claus Offe, Der Tunnel am Ende des Lichts (Frankfurt, Campus, 1994), pp. 241-249; Herbert Kitschelt, 'Formation of Party Cleavages in Post-Communist Democracies: Theoretical Propositions', Party Politics, 1, 1995, pp. 447-472. These comparative pairings are highlighted in Karen Henderson & Neil Robinson, Post-Communist Politics: An Introduction (London, Prentice Hall, 1997), pp. 34-8. As Henderson & Robinson also point out, Huntington (The Third Wave, pp. 109-163) is unusual in placing Poland and Czecho-Slovakia in the same 'transplacement' category (under which democratisation is produced by the combined actions of government and opposition).
21. Claus Offe, Der Tunnel am Ende des Lichts (Frankfurt, Campus, 1994), pp. 241-249; Herbert Kitschelt, 'Formation of Party Cleavages in Post-Communist Democracies: Theoretical Propositions', Party Politics, 1, 1995, pp. 447-472. These comparative pairings are highlighted in Karen Henderson & Neil Robinson, Post-Communist Politics: An Introduction (London, Prentice Hall, 1997), pp. 34-8. As Henderson & Robinson also point out, Huntington (The Third Wave, pp. 109-163) is unusual in placing Poland and Czecho-Slovakia in the same 'transplacement' category (under which democratisation is produced by the combined actions of government and opposition).
22. Claus Offe, Der Tunnel am Ende des Lichts (Frankfurt, Campus, 1994), pp. 241-249; Herbert Kitschelt, 'Formation of Party Cleavages in Post-Communist Democracies: Theoretical Propositions', Party Politics, 1, 1995, pp. 447-472. These comparative pairings are highlighted in Karen Henderson & Neil Robinson, Post-Communist Politics: An Introduction (London, Prentice Hall, 1997), pp. 34-8. As Henderson & Robinson also point out, Huntington (The Third Wave, pp. 109-163) is unusual in placing Poland and Czecho-Slovakia in the same 'transplacement' category (under which democratisation is produced by the combined actions of government and opposition).
23. Joseph A. Schumpeter, Capitalism, Socialism, and Democracy (New York, Harper, 1942).
24. Robert A. Dahl, A Preface to Democratic Theory (Chicago, University of Chicago Press, 1956).
25. Robert A. Dahl, Democracy and its Critics (New Haven, CT, Yale University Press, 1989).
26. See, for example, Huntington, The Third Wave.
27. John Mueller, 'Democracy, Capitalism and the End of Transition', in Michael Mandelbaum (ed.), Postcommunism: Four Perspectives (New York, Council on Foreign Relations, 1996), pp. 102-103.
28. Margaret E. Canovan, 'Republicanism', in David Miller (ed.), The Blackwell Encyclopaedia of Political Thought (Oxford, Basil Blackwell, 1987), pp. 433-436.
29. See especially Hannah Arendt, The Human Condition (Chicago, University of Chicago Press, 1958).
30. For example, Michael J. Sandel, Democracy's Discontent: America in Search of a Public Philosophy (Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press, 1996); Cass R. Sunstein, 'Beyond the Republican Revival', Yale Law Journal, 97, 1988, pp. 1539-1590.
31. For example, Michael J. Sandel, Democracy's Discontent: America in Search of a Public Philosophy (Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press, 1996); Cass R. Sunstein, 'Beyond the Republican Revival', Yale Law Journal, 97, 1988, pp. 1539-1590.
32. For example, Joshua Cohen, 'Deliberation and Democratic Legitimacy', in Alan Hamlin & Philip Pettit (eds), The Good Polity (Oxford, Basil Blackwell, 1989), pp. 17-34; Jürgen Habermas, Between Facts and Norms: Contributions to a Discourse Theory of Law and Ethics (Cambridge, MA, MIT Press, 1996).
33. For example, Joshua Cohen, 'Deliberation and Democratic Legitimacy', in Alan Hamlin & Philip Pettit (eds), The Good Polity (Oxford, Basil Blackwell, 1989), pp. 17-34; Jürgen Habermas, Between Facts and Norms: Contributions to a Discourse Theory of Law and Ethics (Cambridge, MA, MIT Press, 1996).
34. Andrzej Walicki, The Enlightenment and the Birth of Modern Nationhood: Polish Political Thought from Noble Republicanism to Tadeusz Kosciuszko (Notre Dame, IN, University of Notre Dame Press, 1989), p. 6.
35. Daniel Z. Stone, 'Democratic Thought in Eighteenth Century Poland', in M. B. Biskupski & James S. Pula (eds), Polish Democratic Thought from the Renaissance to the Great Emigration (New York, Columbia University Press, 1990), pp. 56-57.
36. V. Beneš, 'Czechoslovak Democracy and its Problems 1918-20', in V. Mamatey & R. Luža (eds), A History of the Czechoslovak Republic 1918-1948 (Princeton, NJ, Princeton University Press, 1973), especially pp. 87-89.
37. Archie Brown & Gordon Wightman, 'Czechoslovakia: Revival and Retreat', in Archie Brown & Jack Gray (eds), Political Culture and Political Change in Communist States (London, Macmillan, 1977), especially pp. 179-180.
38. Brown & Wightman, 'Czechoslovakia', p. 173.
39. Adam Przeworski, Adam Alvarez, Jose Antonio Cheibub & Fernando Limongi, 'What Makes Democracies Endure?', Journal of Democracy, 7, 1996, pp. 39-55 at p. 43. This argument could be seen as another form of cultural determinism, though we will not pursue this point.
40. Robert D. Putnam, Making Democracy Work: Civic Traditions in Modern Italy (Princeton, NJ, Princeton University Press, 1993).
41. John S. Dryzek & Jeffrey Berejikian, 'Reconstructive Democratic Theory', American Political Science Review, 87, 1993, pp. 48-60; John S. Dryzek, 'Australian Discourses of Democracy', Australian Journal of Political Science, 29, 1994, pp. 221-39; John S. Dryzek, Democracy in Capitalist Times: Ideals, Limits, and Struggles (New York, Oxford University Press, 1996), pp. 124-127; on the basics of Q methodology itself see Steven R. Brown, 'Q Technique and Method: Principles and Procedures', in William D. Berry & Michael S. Lewis-Beck (eds), New Tools for Social Scientists (Beverly Hills, CA, Sage, 1986).
42. John S. Dryzek & Jeffrey Berejikian, 'Reconstructive Democratic Theory', American Political Science Review, 87, 1993, pp. 48-60; John S. Dryzek, 'Australian Discourses of Democracy', Australian Journal of Political Science, 29, 1994, pp. 221-39; John S. Dryzek, Democracy in Capitalist Times: Ideals, Limits, and Struggles (New York, Oxford University Press, 1996), pp. 124-127; on the basics of Q methodology itself see Steven R. Brown, 'Q Technique and Method: Principles and Procedures', in William D. Berry & Michael S. Lewis-Beck (eds), New Tools for Social Scientists (Beverly Hills, CA, Sage, 1986).
43. John S. Dryzek & Jeffrey Berejikian, 'Reconstructive Democratic Theory', American Political Science Review, 87, 1993, pp. 48-60; John S. Dryzek, 'Australian Discourses of Democracy', Australian Journal of Political Science, 29, 1994, pp. 221-39; John S. Dryzek, Democracy in Capitalist Times: Ideals, Limits, and Struggles (New York, Oxford University Press, 1996), pp. 124-127; on the basics of Q methodology itself see Steven R. Brown, 'Q Technique and Method: Principles and Procedures', in William D. Berry & Michael S. Lewis-Beck (eds), New Tools for Social Scientists (Beverly Hills, CA, Sage, 1986).
44. John S. Dryzek & Jeffrey Berejikian, 'Reconstructive Democratic Theory', American Political Science Review, 87, 1993, pp. 48-60; John S. Dryzek, 'Australian Discourses of Democracy', Australian Journal of Political Science, 29, 1994, pp. 221-39; John S. Dryzek, Democracy in Capitalist Times: Ideals, Limits, and Struggles (New York, Oxford University Press, 1996), pp. 124-127; on the basics of Q methodology itself see Steven R. Brown, 'Q Technique and Method: Principles and Procedures', in William D. Berry & Michael S. Lewis-Beck (eds), New Tools for Social Scientists (Beverly Hills, CA, Sage, 1986).
45. It is possible for any particular statement to show up in more than one narrative; the narratives remain distinct, even if they share a statement in common.
46. The Polish versions are available on request from the authors.
47. See Jeffrey Isaac, 'Oases in the Desert: Hannah Arendt on Democratic Politics', American Political Science Review, 88, 1994, pp. 156-168.
48. Stone, 'Democratic Thought', pp. 69-70.
49. This resonates with the theoretical argument of Leslie Holmes, 'The Democratic State or State Democracy? Problems of Post-Communist Transition', Jean Monnet Chair Papers, No. 48 (Florence, European University Institute, 1998).
50. Holmes, 'The Democratic State'.
51. Linz & Stepan, Problems of Democratic Transition and Consolidation, p. 272.
52. The term 'anti-politics' has a variety of meanings in the history of CEE dissidence during the communist era. The dominant one, associated with people such as Václav Havel in Czechoslovakia and Adam Michnik in Poland, refers to the criticisms of the corrupt and opaque politics of the communists; it advocates a more open and honest (virtuous) politics, plus greater freedom for citizens. See Václav Havel et al., The Power of the Powerless: Citizens against the State (Armonk, NY, Sharpe, 1985). While it is critical of politics and is based on a 'them' and 'us' perception of the world, much of this is contextual. A more negative form of 'anti-polities' can be found in the ideas of the Hungarian György Konrád, Antipolitics (Boca Raton, CRC Press, 1984). On the controversial legacy of anti-politics and its different meanings see Vladimir Tismaneanu, Fantasies of Salvation: Democracy, Nationalism, and Myth in Post-Communist Europe (Princeton, NJ, Princeton University Press, 1998), especially pp. 17-20 and 141-152.
53. The term 'anti-politics' has a variety of meanings in the history of CEE dissidence during the communist era. The dominant one, associated with people such as Václav Havel in Czechoslovakia and Adam Michnik in Poland, refers to the criticisms of the corrupt and opaque politics of the communists; it advocates a more open and honest (virtuous) politics, plus greater freedom for citizens. See Václav Havel et al., The Power of the Powerless: Citizens against the State (Armonk, NY, Sharpe, 1985). While it is critical of politics and is based on a 'them' and 'us' perception of the world, much of this is contextual. A more negative form of 'anti-polities' can be found in the ideas of the Hungarian György Konrád, Antipolitics (Boca Raton, CRC Press, 1984). On the controversial legacy of anti-politics and its different meanings see Vladimir Tismaneanu, Fantasies of Salvation: Democracy, Nationalism, and Myth in Post-Communist Europe (Princeton, NJ, Princeton University Press, 1998), especially pp. 17-20 and 141-152.
54. The term 'anti-politics' has a variety of meanings in the history of CEE dissidence during the communist era. The dominant one, associated with people such as Václav Havel in Czechoslovakia and Adam Michnik in Poland, refers to the criticisms of the corrupt and opaque politics of the communists; it advocates a more open and honest (virtuous) politics, plus greater freedom for citizens. See Václav Havel et al., The Power of the Powerless: Citizens against the State (Armonk, NY, Sharpe, 1985). While it is critical of politics and is based on a 'them' and 'us' perception of the world, much of this is contextual. A more negative form of 'anti-polities' can be found in the ideas of the Hungarian György Konrád, Antipolitics (Boca Raton, CRC Press, 1984). On the controversial legacy of anti-politics and its different meanings see Vladimir Tismaneanu, Fantasies of Salvation: Democracy, Nationalism, and Myth in Post-Communist Europe (Princeton, NJ, Princeton University Press, 1998), especially pp. 17-20 and 141-152.
55. Linz & Stepan, Problems of Democratic Transition and Consolidation, p. 273.
56. Linz & Stepan, Problems of Democratic Transition and Consolidation, p. 275.
57. Linz & Stepan, Problems of Democratic Transition and Consolidation, p. 275.
58. See also Andrzej Korbonski, 'From Annus Mirabilis to Annus Horribilis? Poland 1989-93', in Joan Serafin (ed.), East-Central Europe in the 1990s (Boulder, CO, Westview, 1994), pp. 225-230. Unlike Linz & Stepan, Korbonski concludes on a cautiously optimistic note about the future. But his argument (especially p. 229) that Poles 'distrust and dislike' politics is clearly at odds with our findings.
59. In our opinion, many of the criticisms that have been made of Walesa go too far. His negative attitudes towards the concept of a political party were common enough in the early post-communist world, and related largely to bad memories of 'the' (i.e. the communist) party, as well as to the constant squabbling within his own former power-base, Solidarity. It is true that Walesa shut down the parliament in May 1993. But he did so peacefully (the constitutionality is debatable) - unlike the situation in Russia later in the year. Moreover, he soon convened new elections (September 1993) and accepted the results of these, even though they were clearly not to his liking. Finally, although he criticised aspects of the 1995 presidential election that replaced him, he did reluctantly accept the result; being a grumpy bad loser does not make one an authoritarian anti-democrat.
60. These interpretations were produced with the assistance of Stanislava Benesova, to whom we are grateful.
61. See, for example, Brown & Wightman, 'Czechoslovakia', who, however, also point out that many Czechs became disillusioned with the First Republic in light of the events of 1938. For arguments that explicitly downplay such history see Mueller, 'Democracy, Capitalism and the End of Transition', especially p. 103; and Stephen Holmes, 'Cultural Legacies or State Collapse? Probing the Postcommunist Dilemma', in Mandelbaum (ed.), Postcommunism, pp. 22-76.
62. See, for example, Brown & Wightman, 'Czechoslovakia', who, however, also point out that many Czechs became disillusioned with the First Republic in light of the events of 1938. For arguments that explicitly downplay such history see Mueller, 'Democracy, Capitalism and the End of Transition', especially p. 103; and Stephen Holmes, 'Cultural Legacies or State Collapse? Probing the Postcommunist Dilemma', in Mandelbaum (ed.), Postcommunism, pp. 22-76.
63. Linz & Stepan, Problems of Democratic Transition and Consolidation, especially pp. 316 and 328.
64. George Kolankiewicz & Ray Taras, 'Poland: Socialism for Everyman?', in Brown & Gray (eds), Political Culture and Political Change in Communist States, especially p. 103.
65. Steve Kettle, 'Of Money and Morality', Transition, 1, 1995, pp. 36-39.
66. The only other Central Europeans with a similar memory are the Hungarians. In terms of lives lost, they suffered considerably more than the Czechs when their country was invaded by the Soviet army. On the events of 1968 see H. Gordon Skilling, Czechoslovakia's Interrupted Revolution (Princeton, NJ, Princeton University Press, 1976); on 'normalisation' see Jacques Rupnik, 'The Restoration of the Party-State in Czechoslovakia Since 1968', in Leslie Holmes (ed.), The Withering Away of the State? Party and State under Communism (London, Sage, 1981), pp. 105-124; and Milan Šimečka, The Restoration of Order: The Normalization of Czechoslovakia 1969-1976 (London, Verso, 1984).
67. The only other Central Europeans with a similar memory are the Hungarians. In terms of lives lost, they suffered considerably more than the Czechs when their country was invaded by the Soviet army. On the events of 1968 see H. Gordon Skilling, Czechoslovakia's Interrupted Revolution (Princeton, NJ, Princeton University Press, 1976); on 'normalisation' see Jacques Rupnik, 'The Restoration of the Party-State in Czechoslovakia Since 1968', in Leslie Holmes (ed.), The Withering Away of the State? Party and State under Communism (London, Sage, 1981), pp. 105-124; and Milan Šimečka, The Restoration of Order: The Normalization of Czechoslovakia 1969-1976 (London, Verso, 1984).
68. The only other Central Europeans with a similar memory are the Hungarians. In terms of lives lost, they suffered considerably more than the Czechs when their country was invaded by the Soviet army. On the events of 1968 see H. Gordon Skilling, Czechoslovakia's Interrupted Revolution (Princeton, NJ, Princeton University Press, 1976); on 'normalisation' see Jacques Rupnik, 'The Restoration of the Party-State in Czechoslovakia Since 1968', in Leslie Holmes (ed.), The Withering Away of the State? Party and State under Communism (London, Sage, 1981), pp. 105-124; and Milan Šimečka, The Restoration of Order: The Normalization of Czechoslovakia 1969-1976 (London, Verso, 1984).
69. Linz & Stepan, Problems of Democratic Transition and Consolidation, p. 316.
70. Linz & Stepan, Problems of Democratic Transition and Consolidation, p. 321.
71. Linz & Stepan, Problems of Democratic Transition and Consolidation, p. 332, acknowledge that Havel had already changed his position on this by 1991, by which time he was making strenuous efforts to change the constitution. According to the logic of their argument, therefore, it seems that, in the heady period following the collapse of the communist system, leaders were supposed to make major institutional decisions almost instantaneously! Stephen Holmes, 'Conceptions of Democracy in the Draft Constitutions of Post-Communist Countries', in Beverley Crawford (ed.), Markets, States and Democracy (Boulder, CO, Westview, 1995), pp. 71-81, explicitly argues against the rapid adoption of new constitutions in post-communist countries (but for a counter-argument see Joel Hellman, 'Constitutions and Economic Reform in the Postcommunist Transitions', East European Constitutional Review, 5, 1996, pp. 46-56).
72. Linz & Stepan, Problems of Democratic Transition and Consolidation, p. 332, acknowledge that Havel had already changed his position on this by 1991, by which time he was making strenuous efforts to change the constitution. According to the logic of their argument, therefore, it seems that, in the heady period following the collapse of the communist system, leaders were supposed to make major institutional decisions almost instantaneously! Stephen Holmes, 'Conceptions of Democracy in the Draft Constitutions of Post-Communist Countries', in Beverley Crawford (ed.), Markets, States and Democracy (Boulder, CO, Westview, 1995), pp. 71-81, explicitly argues against the rapid adoption of new constitutions in post-communist countries (but for a counter-argument see Joel Hellman, 'Constitutions and Economic Reform in the Postcommunist Transitions', East European Constitutional Review, 5, 1996, pp. 46-56).
73. Linz & Stepan, Problems of Democratic Transition and Consolidation, p. 332, acknowledge that Havel had already changed his position on this by 1991, by which time he was making strenuous efforts to change the constitution. According to the logic of their argument, therefore, it seems that, in the heady period following the collapse of the communist system, leaders were supposed to make major institutional decisions almost instantaneously! Stephen Holmes, 'Conceptions of Democracy in the Draft Constitutions of Post-Communist Countries', in Beverley Crawford (ed.), Markets, States and Democracy (Boulder, CO, Westview, 1995), pp. 71-81, explicitly argues against the rapid adoption of new constitutions in post-communist countries (but for a counter-argument see Joel Hellman, 'Constitutions and Economic Reform in the Postcommunist Transitions', East European Constitutional Review, 5, 1996, pp. 46-56).
74. This explanation overlooks the fact that the dissolution of Czechoslovakia, essentially because of differences between Klaus and Mečiar, was in fact unconstitutional, as President Havel pointed out. See Jifi Musil (ed.), The End of Czechoslovakia (Budapest, Central European University Press, 1995).
75. Linz & Stepan, Problems of Democratic Transition and Consolidation, p. 332. This perception of the role of the president is familiar enough in Western countries such as Germany, of course.
76. http:;dRwww/hrad.cz/president/Masaryk/index.uk/html.
77. Sharon Wolchik, 'The Politics of Transition and the Break-Up of Czechoslovakia', in Musil (ed.), The End of Czechoslovakia, pp. 225-244. Linz & Stepan also appear to acknowledge these factors on occasions, but this merely muddies their argument, and there remains a real tension between their neo-institutionalism and advocacy of pragmatic (interest-based) politics, on the one hand, and their commitment to culturalist explanations on the other. All we seek from other analysts is more open acknowledgement of two large problems. The first is in analysing the interactivity of synchronie and diachronic variables. The second is of predicting which factors in perceived political history (culture) will become salient under which conditions.
78. Recall one of Barrington Moore's main conclusions to his comparative study of democracy and dictatorship: 'No bourgeois, no democracy'. Barrington Moore, The Social Origins of Dictatorship and Democracy (Harmondsworth, Penguin, 1967), p. 418.
79. Václav Zak, 'The Velvet Divorce - Institutional Foundations', in Musil (ed.), The End of Czechoslovakia, especially p. 265.
80. These results are currently being prepared for publication. In the meantime the results for the countries we have mentioned are available on request from the authors.
81. Putnam, Making Democracy Work, p. 183.
82. The standard work on the post-1968 Czech opposition is H. Gordon Skilling, Charter 77 and Human Rights in Czechoslovakia (London, Alien and Unwin, 1981).
83. Claus Offe. 'Consolidation and the Cleavages of Ideology and Identity', in Elster, Offe & Preuss, Institutional Design in Post-communist Societies, pp. 247-270. In this light, the dissolution of Czccho-Slovakia could be seen, from the Czech perspective, as conducive to successful transformation, while the greater problems of democratisation in Slovakia could be traced in part to its ethnic heterogeneity. We would not push the case this far, however.
84. The ethnic breakdown of Belarus is 78% Belarusian, 13.5% Russian and 3% Ukrainian. However, given that most Belarusians (and many Ukrainians and Russians) perceive no meaningful ethnic difference between the three groups, Belarus is in effect ethnically homogeneous.
85. Dryzek & Berejikian, 'Reconstructive Democratic Theory', pp. 52-55.
86. Steven Kelman, Making Public Policy: A Hopeful View of American Government (New York, Basic Books, 1987).
87. Dryzek, 'Australian Discourses of Democracy', pp. 226-227.
88. Anthony Downs, The Evolution of Democracy', Daedalus, 116, 1987, pp. 119-148 at p. 146; Michael Lienesch, 'Wo(e)begon(e) Democracy', American Journal of Political Science, 36, 1992, pp. 1004-1014 at p. 1012.
89. Anthony Downs, The Evolution of Democracy', Daedalus, 116, 1987, pp. 119-148 at p. 146; Michael Lienesch, 'Wo(e)begon(e) Democracy', American Journal of Political Science, 36, 1992, pp. 1004-1014 at p. 1012.
90. The optimists include Michael McFaul, Post-Communist Politics (Washington, DC, Center for Strategic and International Studies, 1993). The pessimists include Jowitt, New World Disorder.
91. The optimists include Michael McFaul, Post-Communist Politics (Washington, DC, Center for Strategic and International Studies, 1993). The pessimists include Jowitt, New World Disorder.