The ‘Post-Holocaust Jew’ and the instrumentalization of philosemitism

Patterns of Prejudice

Volumn 34, Issue 2, 2000, Pages 41-56

  Altfelix, Thomas ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF POTSDAM   (Germany)

Author keywords

Antisemitism; Ausl nderfreundlichkeit; Exclusion; Holocaust; In group; Inclusion; Philosemitism; The Other; Xenophilia; Xenophobia

Indexed keywords

EID: 0034420160     PISSN: 0031322X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/00313220008559139     Document Type: Article

References (126)

1. M. Brenner, '"Gott schütze uns vor unseren Freunden" - zur Ambivalenz des Philosemitismus im Kaiserreich', in W. Benz (ed.), Jahrbuch für Antisemitismusforschung, no. 2 (Frankfurt: Campus 1993), 174.
2. W. E. Connolly, The Terms of Political Discourse (Lexington, MA: D. C. Health 1983), 23. This is an intrinsically 'political' process in the broadest sense of the term, since 'politics' is the realm of conflict and consensus-building in which interests are negotiated. For a more detailed insight into definitions, see: A. Goerlitz and R. Praetorius (eds), Handbuch Politikwissenschaft: Grundlagen - Forschungsstand - Perspektiven (Reinbek: Rowohlt 1987), 393-7; D. Noblen (ed.), Wörterbuch Staat und Politik (Bonn: Bundeszentrale für politische Bildung 1991), 490-2; W. W. Mickel (ed.), Handlexikon zur Politikwissenschaft (Bonn: Bundeszentrale für politische Bildung 1986), 349-53.
3. W. E. Connolly, The Terms of Political Discourse (Lexington, MA: D. C. Health 1983), 23. This is an intrinsically 'political' process in the broadest sense of the term, since 'politics' is the realm of conflict and consensus-building in which interests are negotiated. For a more detailed insight into definitions, see: A. Goerlitz and R. Praetorius (eds), Handbuch Politikwissenschaft: Grundlagen - Forschungsstand - Perspektiven (Reinbek: Rowohlt 1987), 393-7; D. Noblen (ed.), Wörterbuch Staat und Politik (Bonn: Bundeszentrale für politische Bildung 1991), 490-2; W. W. Mickel (ed.), Handlexikon zur Politikwissenschaft (Bonn: Bundeszentrale für politische Bildung 1986), 349-53.
4. W. E. Connolly, The Terms of Political Discourse (Lexington, MA: D. C. Health 1983), 23. This is an intrinsically 'political' process in the broadest sense of the term, since 'politics' is the realm of conflict and consensus-building in which interests are negotiated. For a more detailed insight into definitions, see: A. Goerlitz and R. Praetorius (eds), Handbuch Politikwissenschaft: Grundlagen - Forschungsstand - Perspektiven (Reinbek: Rowohlt 1987), 393-7; D. Noblen (ed.), Wörterbuch Staat und Politik (Bonn: Bundeszentrale für politische Bildung 1991), 490-2; W. W. Mickel (ed.), Handlexikon zur Politikwissenschaft (Bonn: Bundeszentrale für politische Bildung 1986), 349-53.
5. W. E. Connolly, The Terms of Political Discourse (Lexington, MA: D. C. Health 1983), 23. This is an intrinsically 'political' process in the broadest sense of the term, since 'politics' is the realm of conflict and consensus-building in which interests are negotiated. For a more detailed insight into definitions, see: A. Goerlitz and R. Praetorius (eds), Handbuch Politikwissenschaft: Grundlagen - Forschungsstand - Perspektiven (Reinbek: Rowohlt 1987), 393-7; D. Noblen (ed.), Wörterbuch Staat und Politik (Bonn: Bundeszentrale für politische Bildung 1991), 490-2; W. W. Mickel (ed.), Handlexikon zur Politikwissenschaft (Bonn: Bundeszentrale für politische Bildung 1986), 349-53.
6. Pettigrew's theory is taken from A. Thomas, 'Fremdheitskonzepte in der Psychologie als Grundlage der Austauschforschung und der interkulturellen Managerausbildung', in A. Wierlacher (ed.), Kulturthema Fremdheit. Leitbegriffe und Problemfelder kulturwissenschaftlicher Fremdheitsforschung (Munich: Iudicum 1993), 268.
7. T. Kushner, The Persistence of Prejudice (Manchester: Manchester University Press 1989), 191.
8. Consider in this regard Hans Habe's assertion that the post-war treatment of 'the Jews' represented 'the treatment of all minorities and thus [reflected] the political maturity of a nation'; quoted in F. Stern, Im Anfang war Auschwitz (Gerungen: Bleicher 1991), 243 (all quotations from German sources have been translated by the author).
9. Ibid., 347.
10. A. Edelstein, An Unacknowledged Harmony. Philo-Semitism and the Survival of European Jewry (Westport, CT: Greenwood 1982), 187.
11. Coined as a 'politically correct' antonym to Ausländerfeindlichkeit (foreigner-hostility), the terra entered debates on German Ausländerpolitik in the late 1980s as a political catchword; G. Ruhrmann, 'Bewußtseinskampagnen gegen Ausländerfeindlichkeit?', unpublished manuscript (intended for publication in PR-Magazin), 1994, 2. In the wake of a growing racism, public assurances that Germany was in fact a 'foreigner-friendly country' were given not only by individual politicians of note (e.g. the ex-federal minister for the interior), but also by the Congress of German Industry and Commerce and political parties collectively (e.g. the Christlich-Soziale Union (CSU, Christian-Social Union)); see: ibid., 3; 'Wir brauchen die Ausländer', Frankfurter Rundschau, 19 October 1991; CSU, Neuregelung des Asylrechts (Nuremberg: CSU 1992), 4.
12. Coined as a 'politically correct' antonym to Ausländerfeindlichkeit (foreigner-hostility), the terra entered debates on German Ausländerpolitik in the late 1980s as a political catchword; G. Ruhrmann, 'Bewußtseinskampagnen gegen Ausländerfeindlichkeit?', unpublished manuscript (intended for publication in PR-Magazin), 1994, 2. In the wake of a growing racism, public assurances that Germany was in fact a 'foreigner-friendly country' were given not only by individual politicians of note (e.g. the ex-federal minister for the interior), but also by the Congress of German Industry and Commerce and political parties collectively (e.g. the Christlich-Soziale Union (CSU, Christian-Social Union)); see: ibid., 3; 'Wir brauchen die Ausländer', Frankfurter Rundschau, 19 October 1991; CSU, Neuregelung des Asylrechts (Nuremberg: CSU 1992), 4.
13. Coined as a 'politically correct' antonym to Ausländerfeindlichkeit (foreigner-hostility), the terra entered debates on German Ausländerpolitik in the late 1980s as a political catchword; G. Ruhrmann, 'Bewußtseinskampagnen gegen Ausländerfeindlichkeit?', unpublished manuscript (intended for publication in PR-Magazin), 1994, 2. In the wake of a growing racism, public assurances that Germany was in fact a 'foreigner-friendly country' were given not only by individual politicians of note (e.g. the ex-federal minister for the interior), but also by the Congress of German Industry and Commerce and political parties collectively (e.g. the Christlich-Soziale Union (CSU, Christian-Social Union)); see: ibid., 3; 'Wir brauchen die Ausländer', Frankfurter Rundschau, 19 October 1991; CSU, Neuregelung des Asylrechts (Nuremberg: CSU 1992), 4.
14. Coined as a 'politically correct' antonym to Ausländerfeindlichkeit (foreigner-hostility), the terra entered debates on German Ausländerpolitik in the late 1980s as a political catchword; G. Ruhrmann, 'Bewußtseinskampagnen gegen Ausländerfeindlichkeit?', unpublished manuscript (intended for publication in PR-Magazin), 1994, 2. In the wake of a growing racism, public assurances that Germany was in fact a 'foreigner-friendly country' were given not only by individual politicians of note (e.g. the ex-federal minister for the interior), but also by the Congress of German Industry and Commerce and political parties collectively (e.g. the Christlich-Soziale Union (CSU, Christian-Social Union)); see: ibid., 3; 'Wir brauchen die Ausländer', Frankfurter Rundschau, 19 October 1991; CSU, Neuregelung des Asylrechts (Nuremberg: CSU 1992), 4.
15. Economically, trading relations with some of Germany's most important partners (United States, Britain, Japan) were beginning to worsen significantly towards the end of 1992; 'Lichterkette gegen Ausländerfeindlichkeit', Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 8 December 1992.
16. Social scientists agree on the socio-cultural marginalization which the term implies when it is expanded beyond the constitutional notion of foreignness to include immigrants; see: U. Bielefeld, Inländische Ausländer - zum gesellschaftlichen Bewusstsein türkischer Jugendlicher in der Bundesrepublik (Frankfurt: Campus 1988), 10; W. Kowalsky, 'Moralisierender Antirassismus', Das Argument, vol. 195, 1992, 659-701 (697); D. Schnapper, 'The debate on immigration and the crisis of national identity', West European Politics, vol. 17, no. 1, 1994, 127-43 (135-6). However, the nature or even the existence of discrimination conveyed by the label Ausländer cannot be ascertained since it represents so many categories of Other, holding different residency statuses and social positions, that no one concrete description of 'foreigner' can serve as a wholesale definition; see: F. Hallsson, 'Lebensweltliche Ordnung in der Metropole', in W. Heitmeyer and R. Dollase (eds), Die bedrängte Toleranz (Frankfurt: Suhrkamp 1996), 271ff.; K. J. Bade, Ausländer, Aussiedler, Asyl (Munich: Beck 1994), 9ff.
17. Social scientists agree on the socio-cultural marginalization which the term implies when it is expanded beyond the constitutional notion of foreignness to include immigrants; see: U. Bielefeld, Inländische Ausländer - zum gesellschaftlichen Bewusstsein türkischer Jugendlicher in der Bundesrepublik (Frankfurt: Campus 1988), 10; W. Kowalsky, 'Moralisierender Antirassismus', Das Argument, vol. 195, 1992, 659-701 (697); D. Schnapper, 'The debate on immigration and the crisis of national identity', West European Politics, vol. 17, no. 1, 1994, 127-43 (135-6). However, the nature or even the existence of discrimination conveyed by the label Ausländer cannot be ascertained since it represents so many categories of Other, holding different residency statuses and social positions, that no one concrete description of 'foreigner' can serve as a wholesale definition; see: F. Hallsson, 'Lebensweltliche Ordnung in der Metropole', in W. Heitmeyer and R. Dollase (eds), Die bedrängte Toleranz (Frankfurt: Suhrkamp 1996), 271ff.; K. J. Bade, Ausländer, Aussiedler, Asyl (Munich: Beck 1994), 9ff.
18. Social scientists agree on the socio-cultural marginalization which the term implies when it is expanded beyond the constitutional notion of foreignness to include immigrants; see: U. Bielefeld, Inländische Ausländer - zum gesellschaftlichen Bewusstsein türkischer Jugendlicher in der Bundesrepublik (Frankfurt: Campus 1988), 10; W. Kowalsky, 'Moralisierender Antirassismus', Das Argument, vol. 195, 1992, 659-701 (697); D. Schnapper, 'The debate on immigration and the crisis of national identity', West European Politics, vol. 17, no. 1, 1994, 127-43 (135-6). However, the nature or even the existence of discrimination conveyed by the label Ausländer cannot be ascertained since it represents so many categories of Other, holding different residency statuses and social positions, that no one concrete description of 'foreigner' can serve as a wholesale definition; see: F. Hallsson, 'Lebensweltliche Ordnung in der Metropole', in W. Heitmeyer and R. Dollase (eds), Die bedrängte Toleranz (Frankfurt: Suhrkamp 1996), 271ff.; K. J. Bade, Ausländer, Aussiedler, Asyl (Munich: Beck 1994), 9ff.
19. Social scientists agree on the socio-cultural marginalization which the term implies when it is expanded beyond the constitutional notion of foreignness to include immigrants; see: U. Bielefeld, Inländische Ausländer - zum gesellschaftlichen Bewusstsein türkischer Jugendlicher in der Bundesrepublik (Frankfurt: Campus 1988), 10; W. Kowalsky, 'Moralisierender Antirassismus', Das Argument, vol. 195, 1992, 659-701 (697); D. Schnapper, 'The debate on immigration and the crisis of national identity', West European Politics, vol. 17, no. 1, 1994, 127-43 (135-6). However, the nature or even the existence of discrimination conveyed by the label Ausländer cannot be ascertained since it represents so many categories of Other, holding different residency statuses and social positions, that no one concrete description of 'foreigner' can serve as a wholesale definition; see: F. Hallsson, 'Lebensweltliche Ordnung in der Metropole', in W. Heitmeyer and R. Dollase (eds), Die bedrängte Toleranz (Frankfurt: Suhrkamp 1996), 271ff.; K. J. Bade, Ausländer, Aussiedler, Asyl (Munich: Beck 1994), 9ff.
20. Social scientists agree on the socio-cultural marginalization which the term implies when it is expanded beyond the constitutional notion of foreignness to include immigrants; see: U. Bielefeld, Inländische Ausländer - zum gesellschaftlichen Bewusstsein türkischer Jugendlicher in der Bundesrepublik (Frankfurt: Campus 1988), 10; W. Kowalsky, 'Moralisierender Antirassismus', Das Argument, vol. 195, 1992, 659-701 (697); D. Schnapper, 'The debate on immigration and the crisis of national identity', West European Politics, vol. 17, no. 1, 1994, 127-43 (135-6). However, the nature or even the existence of discrimination conveyed by the label Ausländer cannot be ascertained since it represents so many categories of Other, holding different residency statuses and social positions, that no one concrete description of 'foreigner' can serve as a wholesale definition; see: F. Hallsson, 'Lebensweltliche Ordnung in der Metropole', in W. Heitmeyer and R. Dollase (eds), Die bedrängte Toleranz (Frankfurt: Suhrkamp 1996), 271ff.; K. J. Bade, Ausländer, Aussiedler, Asyl (Munich: Beck 1994), 9ff.
21. In the case of xenophilia, there is a conspicuous lack of social-scientific analyses; regarding philosemitism, I will return to the problem of academic investigation at a later stage.
22. See also C. von Krockow, Von deutschen Mythen (Stuttgart: DVA 1995), 29ff.
23. I adopt this term from Smith who uses it to describe a class of scholars creating and popularly suffusing a nationalist narrative; A. D. Smith, 'The origins of nations', in G. Eley and R. G. Suny (eds), Becoming National. A Reader (New York: Oxford University Press 1996), 120ff. Here it is employed more generally to encompass authoritarian elites and opinion-makers.
24. L. Hoffmann, Das deutsche Volk und seine Feinde (Cologne: Papy Rossa 1994), 15, 189ff.
25. C. Leggewie, Multikulti, 3rd edn (Nördlingen: Rotbuch 1993), xii.
26. J. Solomos and L. Back, Racism and Society (Basingstoke: Macmillan 1996), 105.
27. K. Malik, The Meaning, of Race (Basingstoke: Macmillan 1996), 261ff.
28. R. Robertson, 'Social theory, cultural relativity and the problem of globality', in A. D. King (ed.), Culture, Globalisation and the World-System (London: Macmillan 1991), 73.
29. V. Bader, 'The cultural conditions of transnational citizenship. On the interpretation of political and ethnic cultures', Political Theory, vol. 25, no. 6, 1997, 771-813 (773). The difficulties surrounding a possible resolution are confounded by the danger that, in western thought, principles which are particular to any group must possess the quality of being universally applicable if they are considered to have validity (e.g. human rights). This may result in a 'chauvinist universalism' (Pierre Bourdieu) which is self-evidently exemplified by the following affirmation: 'Our moral precepts are our moral precepts [original emphasis]. As such, they demand obedience of us. To refuse to act on our own precepts simply because others reject them is to fail to give proper weight to our own moral beliefs' (J. Donnelly, Universal Human Rights in Theory and Practice (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press 1989), 116).
30. V. Bader, 'The cultural conditions of transnational citizenship. On the interpretation of political and ethnic cultures', Political Theory, vol. 25, no. 6, 1997, 771-813 (773). The difficulties surrounding a possible resolution are confounded by the danger that, in western thought, principles which are particular to any group must possess the quality of being universally applicable if they are considered to have validity (e.g. human rights). This may result in a 'chauvinist universalism' (Pierre Bourdieu) which is self-evidently exemplified by the following affirmation: 'Our moral precepts are our moral precepts [original emphasis]. As such, they demand obedience of us. To refuse to act on our own precepts simply because others reject them is to fail to give proper weight to our own moral beliefs' (J. Donnelly, Universal Human Rights in Theory and Practice (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press 1989), 116).
31. M. Boscagli, 'The resisting screen: multicultural politics in a global perspective', Diaspora, vol. 5, no. 3, 1996, 497-508 (502).
32. A. Phoenix, 'Dealing with difference: the recursive and the new', Ethnic and Racial Studies, vol. 21, no. 5, 1998, 859-80 (859).
33. Ibid., 861.
34. B. Waldenfels, Topographie des Fremden. Studien zur Phänomenologie des Fremden I (Frankfurt: Suhrkamp 1997), 76.
35. T. Sundermeier, Den Fremden verstehen. Eine praktische Hermeneutik (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck and Ruprecht 1996), 134.
36. A. Wierlacher, 'Kulturwissenschaftliche Xenologie. Ausgangslage, Leitbegriffe und Problemfelder', in A. Wierlacher (ed.), Kulturthema Fremdheit. Leitbegriffe und Problemfelder kulturwissenschaftlicher Fremdheitsforschung (Munich: Iudicium 1993), 110.
37. Ibid., 34.
38. A. Bonnett, 'Anti-racism and the critique of "white" identities', New Community, vol. 21, no. 1, 1996, 97-110 (98).
39. The danger that antiracism is inclined to reverse racist discourse has been noted by a number of theorists, e.g. Solomos and Back, 115, and J. P. Reemtsma, 'Die Falle des Antirassismus', in U. Bielefeld (ed.), Das Eigene und dus Fremde. Neuer Rassismus in der Alten Welt, rev. edn. (Hamburg: Hamburger Edition 1998), 280.
40. M. Deutsch and R. M. Krauss, Theories in Social Psychology (New York: Basic Books 1965), 191ff. As individuals we possess a self-image which contains both positive and negative attributes. In our intention to upgrade our self-perception, we sometimes are prone to project our own negativity into the image of the Other, thereby producing a more desirable 'imagined self'; see, for example, A. Ludwig, Neue oder deutsche Linke. Nation und Nationalismus im Denken von Linken und Grünen (Opladen: Westdeutscher Verlag 1995), 133.
41. M. Deutsch and R. M. Krauss, Theories in Social Psychology (New York: Basic Books 1965), 191ff. As individuals we possess a self-image which contains both positive and negative attributes. In our intention to upgrade our self-perception, we sometimes are prone to project our own negativity into the image of the Other, thereby producing a more desirable 'imagined self'; see, for example, A. Ludwig, Neue oder deutsche Linke. Nation und Nationalismus im Denken von Linken und Grünen (Opladen: Westdeutscher Verlag 1995), 133.
42. P.-A. Taguieff, 'Die Metamorphosen des Rassismus und die Krise des Antirassismus', in Bielefeld (ed.), Das Eigene und das Fremde, 227.
43. Phoenix, 876.
44. Ibid., 861.
45. Hallsson, 280.
46. Boscagli, 498.
47. To use Bahrdt's terminology, which he employs to describe the absence of 'real' Jews in the imagery of antisemites; H. P. Bahrdt, 'Soziologische Reflexionen über die gesellschaftlichen Voraussetzungen des Antisemitismus in Deutschland', in W. E. Mosse (ed.), Entscheidungsjahr 1932 (Tübingen: J. C. B. Mohr 1966), 149.
48. For an insight into the German case, see, for example, E. Bracht, Multikulturell leben lernen (Heidelberg: Asanger 1994), 29ff., 41-2; T. Faist, 'How to define a foreigner', West European Politics, vol. 17, no. 2, 1994, 51-71 (67); T. Faist 'Immigration, integration and the ethnizisation of politics', European Journal of Political Research, no. 25, 1994, 439-59 (446-7); S. Ulbrich, 'Kulturelle Vielfalt Europa', in S. Ulbrich (ed.), Multikultopia (Vilsbiburg: Arun 1991), 9.
49. For an insight into the German case, see, for example, E. Bracht, Multikulturell leben lernen (Heidelberg: Asanger 1994), 29ff., 41-2; T. Faist, 'How to define a foreigner', West European Politics, vol. 17, no. 2, 1994, 51-71 (67); T. Faist 'Immigration, integration and the ethnizisation of politics', European Journal of Political Research, no. 25, 1994, 439-59 (446-7); S. Ulbrich, 'Kulturelle Vielfalt Europa', in S. Ulbrich (ed.), Multikultopia (Vilsbiburg: Arun 1991), 9.
50. For an insight into the German case, see, for example, E. Bracht, Multikulturell leben lernen (Heidelberg: Asanger 1994), 29ff., 41-2; T. Faist, 'How to define a foreigner', West European Politics, vol. 17, no. 2, 1994, 51-71 (67); T. Faist 'Immigration, integration and the ethnizisation of politics', European Journal of Political Research, no. 25, 1994, 439-59 (446-7); S. Ulbrich, 'Kulturelle Vielfalt Europa', in S. Ulbrich (ed.), Multikultopia (Vilsbiburg: Arun 1991), 9.
51. For an insight into the German case, see, for example, E. Bracht, Multikulturell leben lernen (Heidelberg: Asanger 1994), 29ff., 41-2; T. Faist, 'How to define a foreigner', West European Politics, vol. 17, no. 2, 1994, 51-71 (67); T. Faist 'Immigration, integration and the ethnizisation of politics', European Journal of Political Research, no. 25, 1994, 439-59 (446-7); S. Ulbrich, 'Kulturelle Vielfalt Europa', in S. Ulbrich (ed.), Multikultopia (Vilsbiburg: Arun 1991), 9.
52. Taguieff, 242.
53. Edelstein, 13.
54. C. Lloyd, 'Universalism and difference: the crisis of anti-racism in the UK and France', in A. Rattansi and S. Westwood (eds), Racism, Modernity, Identity (Oxford: Polity 1994), 223. The difficulty of conceptualizing inclusion under universalist conditions may be illustrated by the following problem: Niklas Luhmann defines 'inclusion' as communicative participation in, and access to, various societal sub-systems. Universal inclusion therefore presupposes optimum discursive conditions determined by such value postulates as freedom and equality; see G. Kneer and A. Nassehi, N. Luhmanns Theorie sozialer Systeme. Eine Einführung (Munich: W. Fink 1993), 159. This essentially represents a Habermasian 'ideal speech situation', in which equal opportunity to participate in public discourse is intended to achieve a universal consensus involving both in-and marginalized out-groups. However, Lyotard criticizes this move towards consensus, since it re-establishes a dominant Enlightenment meta-narrative in which the most persuasive argument will be voiced by the majority group. Thus, the drawing up and implementation of rules for inclusion would remain a hegemonic privilege of the in-group; see D. R. Villa, 'Postmodernism and the public sphere', American Political Science Review, vol. 86, no. 3, 1992, 712-21 (716).
55. C. Lloyd, 'Universalism and difference: the crisis of anti-racism in the UK and France', in A. Rattansi and S. Westwood (eds), Racism, Modernity, Identity (Oxford: Polity 1994), 223. The difficulty of conceptualizing inclusion under universalist conditions may be illustrated by the following problem: Niklas Luhmann defines 'inclusion' as communicative participation in, and access to, various societal sub-systems. Universal inclusion therefore presupposes optimum discursive conditions determined by such value postulates as freedom and equality; see G. Kneer and A. Nassehi, N. Luhmanns Theorie sozialer Systeme. Eine Einführung (Munich: W. Fink 1993), 159. This essentially represents a Habermasian 'ideal speech situation', in which equal opportunity to participate in public discourse is intended to achieve a universal consensus involving both in-and marginalized out-groups. However, Lyotard criticizes this move towards consensus, since it re-establishes a dominant Enlightenment meta-narrative in which the most persuasive argument will be voiced by the majority group. Thus, the drawing up and implementation of rules for inclusion would remain a hegemonic privilege of the in-group; see D. R. Villa, 'Postmodernism and the public sphere', American Political Science Review, vol. 86, no. 3, 1992, 712-21 (716).
56. C. Lloyd, 'Universalism and difference: the crisis of anti-racism in the UK and France', in A. Rattansi and S. Westwood (eds), Racism, Modernity, Identity (Oxford: Polity 1994), 223. The difficulty of conceptualizing inclusion under universalist conditions may be illustrated by the following problem: Niklas Luhmann defines 'inclusion' as communicative participation in, and access to, various societal sub-systems. Universal inclusion therefore presupposes optimum discursive conditions determined by such value postulates as freedom and equality; see G. Kneer and A. Nassehi, N. Luhmanns Theorie sozialer Systeme. Eine Einführung (Munich: W. Fink 1993), 159. This essentially represents a Habermasian 'ideal speech situation', in which equal opportunity to participate in public discourse is intended to achieve a universal consensus involving both in-and marginalized out-groups. However, Lyotard criticizes this move towards consensus, since it re-establishes a dominant Enlightenment meta-narrative in which the most persuasive argument will be voiced by the majority group. Thus, the drawing up and implementation of rules for inclusion would remain a hegemonic privilege of the in-group; see D. R. Villa, 'Postmodernism and the public sphere', American Political Science Review, vol. 86, no. 3, 1992, 712-21 (716).
57. In social science literature, 'inclusion' is generally defined in terms of a participatory share by a particular interest group in a holistic community system, e.g. a national polity, the electorate, the welfare state; see: M. G. Schmidt, Wörterbuch zur Politik (Stuttgart: Kröner 1995), 422; M. Bommes and J. Halfmann, 'Migration und Inklusion', Kölner Zeitschrift für Soziologie und Sozialpsychologie, vol. 46, no. 3, 1994, 406-24 (408-9); J. Gerhards, Neue Konfliktlinien in der Mobilisierung öffentlicher Meinung (Opladen: Westdeutscher Verlag 1993), 45-6; H. Heinelt, 'Immigration and the welfare state in Germany', German Politics, vol. 2, no. 1, 1993, 78-96 (83).
58. In social science literature, 'inclusion' is generally defined in terms of a participatory share by a particular interest group in a holistic community system, e.g. a national polity, the electorate, the welfare state; see: M. G. Schmidt, Wörterbuch zur Politik (Stuttgart: Kröner 1995), 422; M. Bommes and J. Halfmann, 'Migration und Inklusion', Kölner Zeitschrift für Soziologie und Sozialpsychologie, vol. 46, no. 3, 1994, 406-24 (408-9); J. Gerhards, Neue Konfliktlinien in der Mobilisierung öffentlicher Meinung (Opladen: Westdeutscher Verlag 1993), 45-6; H. Heinelt, 'Immigration and the welfare state in Germany', German Politics, vol. 2, no. 1, 1993, 78-96 (83).
59. In social science literature, 'inclusion' is generally defined in terms of a participatory share by a particular interest group in a holistic community system, e.g. a national polity, the electorate, the welfare state; see: M. G. Schmidt, Wörterbuch zur Politik (Stuttgart: Kröner 1995), 422; M. Bommes and J. Halfmann, 'Migration und Inklusion', Kölner Zeitschrift für Soziologie und Sozialpsychologie, vol. 46, no. 3, 1994, 406-24 (408-9); J. Gerhards, Neue Konfliktlinien in der Mobilisierung öffentlicher Meinung (Opladen: Westdeutscher Verlag 1993), 45-6; H. Heinelt, 'Immigration and the welfare state in Germany', German Politics, vol. 2, no. 1, 1993, 78-96 (83).
60. In social science literature, 'inclusion' is generally defined in terms of a participatory share by a particular interest group in a holistic community system, e.g. a national polity, the electorate, the welfare state; see: M. G. Schmidt, Wörterbuch zur Politik (Stuttgart: Kröner 1995), 422; M. Bommes and J. Halfmann, 'Migration und Inklusion', Kölner Zeitschrift für Soziologie und Sozialpsychologie, vol. 46, no. 3, 1994, 406-24 (408-9); J. Gerhards, Neue Konfliktlinien in der Mobilisierung öffentlicher Meinung (Opladen: Westdeutscher Verlag 1993), 45-6; H. Heinelt, 'Immigration and the welfare state in Germany', German Politics, vol. 2, no. 1, 1993, 78-96 (83).
61. Hence the discourse of exclusion seems easier to analyse and to assess. Wimmer identifies five us-and-them constructions - fear of inundation, phobia of interbreeding, idea of impregnation, hierarchization, foreigner-native 'zero sum game' - which he considers to constitute per se 'the repertoire of tropes from which modern discourses of exclusion are constructed'; A. Wimmer, 'Explaining xenophobia and racism: a critical review of current research approaches', Ethnic and Racial Studies, vol. 20, no. 1, 1997, 16-41 (33ff.).
62. Stern, Im Anfang war Auschwitz, 350. Although Stern considers this post-genocidal phenomenon to be another variant on previous manifestations of philosemitism, I would argue that his interpretation of German Philosemitismus contains definitional elements (i.e. the political imperative of in-group status enhancement) which I would regard as exemplars for other forms of philosemitism. (For this reason, I use the German term (Philosemitismus) to distinguish Stern's concept from those of other analyses.) Moreover, as I will argue, Stern's notion incorporates all the pro-Jewish stereotypes which have been linked to past definitions.
63. T. Kushner, The Holocaust and the Liberal Imagination. A Social and Cultural History (Oxford: Blackwell 1994).
64. With regard to the last point, see, for example, G. Short, 'The role of the Holocaust in antiracist education: a view from the United Kingdom', New Community, vol. 23, no. 1, 1997, 75-88, which critically analyses the relationship between Holocaust teaching and antiracist education in Britain.
65. With implicit reference to Solomon Rapaport (Jew and Gentile. The Philo-Semitic Aspect (New York 1980)) and to Edelstein - the latter himself acknowledges that 'the term "philosemitism" rarely appears in sociological discussions … [and] a definition … is rarely offered and there is no explication of the term' (Edelstein, 10) - Michael Brenner is boldly critical of the fact that 'whilst in the past four decades the study of antisemitism has grown into a specialist field with its own research centres, professorships and specialist bibliographies, there exists not a single systematic and scientifically adequate study on the phenomenon of philosemitism' (Brenner, 174).
66. Consider Rubinstein's assertion that 'at its base philosemitism consists of a sympathy or admiration for the Jews because they are a unique people in many ways, including their liability to suffering … the religious notion that Jews are in some sense the "chosen people" … intellectual achievements … [and] a perception to their vulnerability to antisemitism'; W. D. Rubinstein, The Left, the Right and the Jews (London: Groom Helm 1982), 89-90. Similarly, Edelstein may be accused of rendering meaningless his own definitions without systematically attributing this failure to a consistent in-group (Gentile) self-interest: 'economic philosemitism' is attributed to avarice; 'religious philosemitism' to Christian conversionism; 'nationalistic philosemitism' to 'the logic of … universalism rather than concern for Jews'; 'intellectual philosemitism' to jealousy and fear; 'democratic/liberal philosemitism' to civic freedoms and 'humanistic philosemitism' to general philanthropy (Edelstein, 177, 180, 183, 186, 187).
67. According to Zygmunt Bauman, this involves 'setting the Jews apart as people radically different from all the others, needing separate concepts to describe and comprehend them'. Significantly, Bauman considers allosemitism to be 'non-committal', ambiguously expressing both hate and love; Z. Bauman, 'Allosemitism: premodern, modern, postmodern', in B. Cheyette and L. Marcus (eds), Modernity, Culture and 'the Jew' (Cambridge: Polity Press 1998), 143. Thus, Cheyette warns of a 'semitic' difference, causing social-scientific discourse to continue 'to essentialize Jews as uniquely timeless' which 'positions the history of antisemitism outside of the social, political and historical processes that give rise to this history in the first place'; B. Cheyette, 'Introduction', in B. Cheyette (ed.), Between 'Race' and Culture. Representations of 'the Jew' in English and American Literature (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press 1996), 14. At this point, philosemitism theorists must recognize the irrefutable function of the in-group perspective.
68. According to Zygmunt Bauman, this involves 'setting the Jews apart as people radically different from all the others, needing separate concepts to describe and comprehend them'. Significantly, Bauman considers allosemitism to be 'non-committal', ambiguously expressing both hate and love; Z. Bauman, 'Allosemitism: premodern, modern, postmodern', in B. Cheyette and L. Marcus (eds), Modernity, Culture and 'the Jew' (Cambridge: Polity Press 1998), 143. Thus, Cheyette warns of a 'semitic' difference, causing social-scientific discourse to continue 'to essentialize Jews as uniquely timeless' which 'positions the history of antisemitism outside of the social, political and historical processes that give rise to this history in the first place'; B. Cheyette, 'Introduction', in B. Cheyette (ed.), Between 'Race' and Culture. Representations of 'the Jew' in English and American Literature (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press 1996), 14. At this point, philosemitism theorists must recognize the irrefutable function of the in-group perspective.
69. A. Plack, Hitlers langer Schatten (Munich: Langen Müller 1993), 129.
70. H. J. Schoeps, Philosemitismus im Barock. Religions- und geistesgeschichtliche Untersuchungen (Tübingen: Mohr 1952), 1; Edelstein, 177ff.
71. Brenner, 175.
72. A. Paucker, 'Frank Stern, the whitewashing of the yellow badge', German Historical Institute Bulletin, vol. 15, no. 1, 1993, 22.
73. F. Stern, 'Entstehung, Bedeutung und Funktion des Philosemitismus in Westdeutschland nach 1945', in W. Bergmann and R. Erb (eds), Antisemitismus in der politischen Kultur nach 1945 (Opladen: Westdeutscher Verlag 1990), 184-5; F. Stern, 'Philosemitismus. Stereotype über den Feind, den man zu lieben hat', Babylon. Beiträge zur jüdischen Gegenwart, no. 8, 1991, 15-26 (20-4); F. Stern, 'Evangelische Kirche zwischen Antisemitismus und Philosemitismus', Geschichte und Gesellschaft, no. 18, 1992, 22-50.
74. F. Stern, 'Entstehung, Bedeutung und Funktion des Philosemitismus in Westdeutschland nach 1945', in W. Bergmann and R. Erb (eds), Antisemitismus in der politischen Kultur nach 1945 (Opladen: Westdeutscher Verlag 1990), 184-5; F. Stern, 'Philosemitismus. Stereotype über den Feind, den man zu lieben hat', Babylon. Beiträge zur jüdischen Gegenwart, no. 8, 1991, 15-26 (20-4); F. Stern, 'Evangelische Kirche zwischen Antisemitismus und Philosemitismus', Geschichte und Gesellschaft, no. 18, 1992, 22-50.
75. F. Stern, 'Entstehung, Bedeutung und Funktion des Philosemitismus in Westdeutschland nach 1945', in W. Bergmann and R. Erb (eds), Antisemitismus in der politischen Kultur nach 1945 (Opladen: Westdeutscher Verlag 1990), 184-5; F. Stern, 'Philosemitismus. Stereotype über den Feind, den man zu lieben hat', Babylon. Beiträge zur jüdischen Gegenwart, no. 8, 1991, 15-26 (20-4); F. Stern, 'Evangelische Kirche zwischen Antisemitismus und Philosemitismus', Geschichte und Gesellschaft, no. 18, 1992, 22-50.
76. G. Schwan, Politik und Schuld. Die zerstörerische Macht des Schweigens (Frankfurt: Fischer 1997), 44.
77. Stern, 'Evangelische Kirche', 49.
78. Y. Lozowick and R. L. Millen, 'Pitfalls of memory: Israeli-German dialogues on the Shoah', in R. L. Millen (ed.), New Perspectives on the Holocaust. A Guide for Teachers and Scholars (New York: New York University Press 1996), 268.
79. Elenore Sterling, 'Judenfreunde - Judenfeinde. Fragwürdiger Philosemitismus in der Bundesrepublik', Die Zeit, 10 December 1965 (also quoted in Stern, Im Anfang war Auschwitz, 265).
80. Elenore Sterling, 'Judenfreunde - Judenfeinde. Fragwürdiger Philosemitismus in der Bundesrepublik', Die Zeit, 10 December 1965 (also quoted in Stern, Im Anfang war Auschwitz, 265).
81. Stern, 'Entstehung, Bedeutung und Funktion des Philosemitismus', 180; Stern, Im Anfang war Auschwitz, 52; Stern, 'Philosemitismus', 19.
82. Stern, 'Entstehung, Bedeutung und Funktion des Philosemitismus', 180; Stern, Im Anfang war Auschwitz, 52; Stern, 'Philosemitismus', 19.
83. Stern, 'Entstehung, Bedeutung und Funktion des Philosemitismus', 180; Stern, Im Anfang war Auschwitz, 52; Stern, 'Philosemitismus', 19.
84. W. Bergmann and R. Erb, 'Kommunikationslatenz, Moral und öffentliche Meinung', Kölner Zeitschrift für Soziologie und Sozialpsychologie, vol. 38, 1986, 223-46 (227-8).
85. W. Bergmann, 'Effekte öffentlicher Meinung auf die Bevölkerungsmeinung', in F. Neidhart (ed.), Öffentlichkeit, öffentliche Meinung, soziale Bewegungen, 34. Sonderheft der Kölner Zeitschrift für Soziologie und Sozialpsychologie (Opladen: Westdeutscher Verlag 1994), 296-319 (314-15).
86. Bergmann and Erb, 'Kommunikationslatenz, Moral und öffentliche Meinung', 236.
87. Ibid., 234.
88. Edelstein, 12.
89. Arguably, Wilhelm Marr's 1879 conception of an anthropological 'antisemitism' - 'There must be no question here of parading religious prejudices when it is a question of race and when the difference lies in the "blood"', quoted in P. G. J. Pulzer, The Rise of Political Anti-Semitism in Germany and Austria (New York: John Wiley and Sons 1964), 50-imparted to this concept a degree of pseudo-scientific abstraction from the outset. See also S. L. Gilman, Jewish Self-Hatred. Anti-Semitism and the Hidden Language of the Jews (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press 1986), 211 and S. Ettinger, 'Foreword', in S. Almog, Nationalism and Antisemitism in Modern Europe 1815-1945 (Oxford: Pergamon Press 1990), xiff.
90. Arguably, Wilhelm Marr's 1879 conception of an anthropological 'antisemitism' - 'There must be no question here of parading religious prejudices when it is a question of race and when the difference lies in the "blood"', quoted in P. G. J. Pulzer, The Rise of Political Anti-Semitism in Germany and Austria (New York: John Wiley and Sons 1964), 50-imparted to this concept a degree of pseudo-scientific abstraction from the outset. See also S. L. Gilman, Jewish Self-Hatred. Anti-Semitism and the Hidden Language of the Jews (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press 1986), 211 and S. Ettinger, 'Foreword', in S. Almog, Nationalism and Antisemitism in Modern Europe 1815-1945 (Oxford: Pergamon Press 1990), xiff.
91. Arguably, Wilhelm Marr's 1879 conception of an anthropological 'antisemitism' - 'There must be no question here of parading religious prejudices when it is a question of race and when the difference lies in the "blood"', quoted in P. G. J. Pulzer, The Rise of Political Anti-Semitism in Germany and Austria (New York: John Wiley and Sons 1964), 50-imparted to this concept a degree of pseudo-scientific abstraction from the outset. See also S. L. Gilman, Jewish Self-Hatred. Anti-Semitism and the Hidden Language of the Jews (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press 1986), 211 and S. Ettinger, 'Foreword', in S. Almog, Nationalism and Antisemitism in Modern Europe 1815-1945 (Oxford: Pergamon Press 1990), xiff.
92. Quoted in Stern, Im Anfang war Auschwitz, 345.
93. Kushner, The Persistence of Prejudice, 4.
94. S. Margolina, Das Ende der Lügen (Berlin: Siedler 1992), 117-18. Regarding the assertions in parentheses, this is my understanding of Margolina's differentiation.
95. See, for example, Pulzer, 71; Bahrdt, 149; D. L. Niewyk, The Jews in Weimar Germany (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press 1980), 46. Moreover, it may be argued that National Socialism caused a progressive abstraction of 'the Jew', since the Nazi Judenpolitik pursued three successive, interrelated aims: the public identification of Jews; the deprivation of their rights; and, their 'repellence' from Germany; see, for example, M. Burleigh and W. Wippermann, The Racial State - Germany 1933-1945 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 1991), 80; K. D. Bracher et al. (eds), Deutschland 1933-1945 (Düsseldorf: Droste 1992), 196; Krockow, 41.
96. See, for example, Pulzer, 71; Bahrdt, 149; D. L. Niewyk, The Jews in Weimar Germany (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press 1980), 46. Moreover, it may be argued that National Socialism caused a progressive abstraction of 'the Jew', since the Nazi Judenpolitik pursued three successive, interrelated aims: the public identification of Jews; the deprivation of their rights; and, their 'repellence' from Germany; see, for example, M. Burleigh and W. Wippermann, The Racial State - Germany 1933-1945 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 1991), 80; K. D. Bracher et al. (eds), Deutschland 1933-1945 (Düsseldorf: Droste 1992), 196; Krockow, 41.
97. See, for example, Pulzer, 71; Bahrdt, 149; D. L. Niewyk, The Jews in Weimar Germany (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press 1980), 46. Moreover, it may be argued that National Socialism caused a progressive abstraction of 'the Jew', since the Nazi Judenpolitik pursued three successive, interrelated aims: the public identification of Jews; the deprivation of their rights; and, their 'repellence' from Germany; see, for example, M. Burleigh and W. Wippermann, The Racial State - Germany 1933-1945 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 1991), 80; K. D. Bracher et al. (eds), Deutschland 1933-1945 (Düsseldorf: Droste 1992), 196; Krockow, 41.
98. Stern, 'Philosemitismus', 53.
99. Stern, Im Anfang war Auschwitz, 242, 350.
100. See, for example, E. Jesse, 'Philosemitismus, Antisemitismus und Anti-Antisemitismus. Vergangenheitsbewältigung', in U. Backes et al., Die Schatten der Vergangenheit (Frankfurt: Ullstein 1990), 543ff.; Plack, 153, 167, 181.
101. This is aptly revealed in the polemics surrounding the construction of so-called 'counter-memorials' (Gegen-Denkmäler) which seek to represent 'a postmodern aesthetic preoccupation with absence' through a certain invisibility. As James E. Young explains, 'the memorial would be invisible, itself only a memory, out of sight and therefore … in mind [his emphasis]' (J. E. Young, 'The arts of Jewish memory in a postmodern age', in Cheyette and Marcus (eds), 216).
102. R. Braun, 'The Holocaust and problems of representation', in K. Jenkins (ed.), The Postmodern History Reader (London: Routledge 1997), 418-19.
103. R. Koselleck, 'Erschlichener Rollentausch', in M. S. Cullen (ed.), Das Holocaust-Mahnmal. Dokumentation einer Debatte (Zurich: Pendo 1997), 100.
104. D. Diner, 'On guilt discourse and other narratives', History & Memory, vol. 9, nos 1/2, 1997, 301-20 (302).
105. Diner describes it as 'a universal moral icon … an identity-forming foundational event' (ibid., 301), which Katz both echoes and expands upon when he states that it is a break with modernity which, having '"shattered" all existing frameworks for making sense of our social relations', cannot be appropriated adequately into our experiences; A. Katz, 'The closure of Auschwitz but not its end', History & Memory, vol. 10, no. 1, 1998, 59-98 (59, 61, 65).
106. Diner describes it as 'a universal moral icon … an identity-forming foundational event' (ibid., 301), which Katz both echoes and expands upon when he states that it is a break with modernity which, having '"shattered" all existing frameworks for making sense of our social relations', cannot be appropriated adequately into our experiences; A. Katz, 'The closure of Auschwitz but not its end', History & Memory, vol. 10, no. 1, 1998, 59-98 (59, 61, 65).
107. Stern, 'Entstehung, Bedeutung und Funktion des Philosemitismus', 184.
108. Kushner, The Holocaust and the Liberal Imagination, 2-3.
109. L. S. Dawidowicz, The Holocaust and the Historians (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press 1981), 24ff.
110. Cheyette, 'Introduction', 14; B. Cheyette, Constructions of 'the Jew' in English Literature and Society. Racial Representations, 1875-1945 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 1993), 2ff.
111. Cheyette, 'Introduction', 14; B. Cheyette, Constructions of 'the Jew' in English Literature and Society. Racial Representations, 1875-1945 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 1993), 2ff.
112. D. A. Gerber, Antisemitism in American History (Urbana: University of Illinois Press 1986), 10.
113. R. G. Saidel, Never Too Late to Remember. The Politics behind New York's Holocaust Museum (New York: Holmes & Meier 1996), 56-7.
114. Charles Maier, quoted in I. Wollaston, A War against Memory? The Future of Holocaust Remembrance (London: SPCK 1996), 80.
115. D. Diner, 'Täuschungen: Israel, die Linke und das Dilemma der Kritik', in M. Brumlik et al. (eds), Der Antisemitismus und die Linke (Frankfurt: Haag & Herchen 1991), 186.
116. Cheyette, Constructions of 'the Jew', 3.
117. D. LaCapra, Representing the Holocaust. History, Theory, Trauma (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press 1994), 222; Cheyette, Constructions of 'the Jew', 274.
118. D. LaCapra, Representing the Holocaust. History, Theory, Trauma (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press 1994), 222; Cheyette, Constructions of 'the Jew', 274.
119. Cheyette, 'Introduction', 11.
120. Y. Lubling, 'The Jew as the "Other": the image of the Jew in American films', in L. J. Greenspoon and B. F. LeBeau (eds), Representations of Jews throughout the Ages (Omaha, NB: Creighton University Press 1995), 103.
121. Maurice Blanchot, quoted in G. H. Hartman, The Longest Shadow. In the Aftermath of the Holocaust (Bloomington: Indiana University Press 1994), 1.
122. G. H. Hartman, 'Introduction: darkness visible', in G. H. Hartman, Holocaust Remembrance. The Shapes of Memory (Oxford: Blackwell 1994), 8, 5.
123. D. Magurshak, 'The "incomprehensibility" of the Holocaust: tightening up some loose ends', in A. Rosenberg and G. E. Myres (eds), Echoes from the Holocaust. Philosophical Reflections on a Dark Time (Philadelphia: Temple University Press 1988), 422.
124. Consider such appropriations of meaning as 'nuclear holocaust' or 'holocaust of babies' etc. which are indicative of an overload of historical information.
125. Hartman, The Longest Shadow, 42, 44; Hartman, 'Introduction', 16.
126. Hartman, The Longest Shadow, 42, 44; Hartman, 'Introduction', 16.