Tuning in: The future of copyright protection for online music in the digital millennium

Fordham Law Review

Volumn 68, Issue 6, 2000, Pages 2445-2488

  Pollack, Wendy M ^a  

^a NONE

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EID: 0034402820     PISSN: 0015704X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
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References (365)

1. See Doreen L. Blades, Copyright Issues and the Internet, 577 PLI/Pat. 87, 89 (1999).
2. U.S. Const, art. I, § 8, cl. 8.
3. See David N. Weiskopf, The Risks of Copyright Infringement on the Internet: A Practitioner's Guide, 33 U.S.F. L. Rev. 1, 9-10 (1998).
4. See Dickerson Downing & Kathleen McCarthy, Copyright and the Digital Age, N.Y. L.J., Dec. 6, 1999, at T5; Franklin Pierce Law Center's Seventh Biennial Intellectual Property System Major Problems Conference (Nov. 14, 1998), in 39 IDEA 291, 303 (1999)[hereinafter Intellectual Property Conference].
5. See Dickerson Downing & Kathleen McCarthy, Copyright and the Digital Age, N.Y. L.J., Dec. 6, 1999, at T5; Franklin Pierce Law Center's Seventh Biennial Intellectual Property System Major Problems Conference (Nov. 14, 1998), in 39 IDEA 291, 303 (1999)[hereinafter Intellectual Property Conference].
6. See Weiskopf, supra note 3, at 11.
7. See Kenneth D. Suzan, Comment, Tapping to the Beat of a Digital Drummer: Fine Tuning U.S. Copyright Law for Music Distribution on the Internet, 59 Alb. L. Rev. 789, 792-95 (1995); Adam P. Segal, Comment, Dissemination of Digitized Music on the Internet: A Challenge to the Copyright Act, 12 Santa Clara Computer & High Tech. L.J. 97, 100 (1996).
8. See Kenneth D. Suzan, Comment, Tapping to the Beat of a Digital Drummer: Fine Tuning U.S. Copyright Law for Music Distribution on the Internet, 59 Alb. L. Rev. 789, 792-95 (1995); Adam P. Segal, Comment, Dissemination of Digitized Music on the Internet: A Challenge to the Copyright Act, 12 Santa Clara Computer & High Tech. L.J. 97, 100 (1996).
9. See Segal, supra note 6, at 100.
10. See, e.g., Suzan, supra note 6, at 793-95 (discussing features of the Internet that render it a problem for copyright holders).
11. See Don E. Tomlinson, Journalism and Entertainment as Intellectual Property on the Information Superhighway: The Challenge of the Digital Domain, 6 Stan. L. & Pol'y Rev. 61, 67 (1994).
12. Streaming is the transmission of audio in real time over the Internet. See Steven W. Kopp & Tracy A. Suter, Developments in Copyright Policy and Network Technologies: The First Generation, 17 J. Pub. Pol'y & Mktg. 303, 306 (1998); infra Part I.A.
13. Compression technologies, most popularly MP3s, allow audio data to be downsized and easily transferred across the Internet. See Brenda Sandburg, The Online Freeway Jam (visited July 25, 1999) 〈http://www.ipmag.com/monthly/99-june/sandburg.html〉; infra Part I.A.
14. Webcasts are live broadcasts over the Internet. See Stephanie Haun, Musical Works Performance and the Internet: A Discordance of Old and New Copyright Rules, 6 Richmond J.L. & Tech. 1, 5 & n.4 (1999).
15. See id. at 5.
16. Standing for MPEG-1 Audio Layer 3, MP3 is a compression technology discussed infra Part I.A.
17. See Sandburg, supra note 11.
18. See Downing & McCarthy, supra note 4.
19. See Pub. L. No. 105-304, 112 Stat. 2860 (1998) (codified in scattered sections of 17 U.S.C.); infra Part I.B.2.a.
20. See Pub. L. No. 105-147, 111 Stat. 2678 (1997) (codified in scattered sections of 17-18 U.S.C.); infra Part I.B.2.b.
21. See, e.g., Recording Indus. Ass'n of Am. v. Diamond Multimedia Sys. Inc., 180 F.3d 1072, 1075-76 (9th Cir. 1999) (discussing whether an MP3 player that records music from a computer to be taken elsewhere for listening falls within the realm of the Audio Home Recording Act); see also infra Part IIB. (explaining how the Diamond Multimedia case was a setback for the RIAA).
22. "[Digital Rights Management] in general refers to technology and services that help content providers control the digital distribution of their content." Jill Westmoreland, Digital Rights Management, Corp. Couns., Sept. 1999, at 6; infra Part I.A.
23. See Robert G. Gibbons & Lisa M. Ferri, The Legal War Against Cyberspace Piracy, N.Y. L.J., Aug. 5, 1999, at 1 (discussing "digital detectives" that pinpoint and combat infringing activities on the Internet).
24. See, e.g., George M. Borkowski & Robert C. Welsh, Cyberians at the Gate? Though it is causing a sensation, and consternation, MP3 does not spell the end of the music business as we know it (visited July 25, 1999) 〈http://www.ipmag.com/ monthly/99-june/welsh.html〉 (discussing some consumers' opposition to copyright protection, premised on the notion that "information wants to be free").
25. The World Wide Web is a series of digital information files, or web pages, that are maintained on thousands of servers that comprise the Internet. See Karen S. Frank, Potential Liability on the Internet, 437 PLI/Pat 417, 424 (1996).
26. ISPs are companies that provide consumers, or users, tools for access to the Internet. See id. at 422.
27. See Kevin Davis, Comment, Fair Use on the Internet: A Fine Line Between Fair and Foul, 34 U.S.F. L. Rev. 129, 131 (1999). "'Downloading' refers to the process of transferring information from the Internet or BBS [Bulletin Board Service] system to an Internet user's personal computer. 'Uploading' refers to the process of transferring information from a user's personal computer to the Internet or BBS system." Frank, supra note 23, at 425.
28. See Tomlinson, supra note 9, at 66-67.
29. See id. Tomlinson distinguishes consumer pirates, who infringe for personal use, from professional pirates, who infringe on a larger scale. See id.
30. See supra note 20.
31. See Kopp & Suter, supra note 10, at 305-06 (expounding on different Web technologies, including streaming).
32. See Heather D. Rafter et al., Streaming Into the Future: Music and Video on the Internet, 547 PLI/Pat 605, 614 (1999).
33. See Kopp & Suter, supra note 10, at 306.
34. See id. However, technology now exists that allows a permanent copy to be stored on a user's hard drive when streaming. See id.
35. See Michael Learmonth, Copyright Case Streaming to Court, The Industry Standard, Jan. 10, 2000, at 102; see also 〈http://www.real.com〉 (visited Jan. 5, 2000) (providing the RealPlayer for download).
36. See RealNetworks, Inc. v. Streambox, Inc., No. 2-99CV02070, 2000 WL 127311, at *1-*2 (W.D. Wash. Jan. 18, 2000).
37. See Rafter et al., supra note 30, at 614.
38. See Michael Behar, It's Playback Time! And MP3 is Only the Beginning, Wired, Aug. 1999, at 122 (discussing the "downloadable-media revolution").
39. Other formats include AT&T's a2b, Liquidaudio, and Microsoft's Windows Media format. See Rafter et al., supra note 30, at 614; Westmoreland, supra note 20. These formats incorporate forms of digital rights management and are therefore more secure than MP3. See Westmoreland, supra note 20.
40. See Sandburg, supra note 11.
41. See Rafter et al., supra note 30, at 614-15 (explaining digital distribution technologies such as MP3). Music can also be transferred onto a CD if the user has a CDR drive, sometimes called a CD burner, that allows one to record CDs off of their hard drive. See Don Steinberg, Digital Underground, Wired, Jan. 1997, at 104, 108.
42. Behar, supra note 36. The earliest users of MP3 technology were college students, who were hooked up to high-speed Internet connections through their University systems. See id. 41. See Rafter et al., supra note 30, at 615.
43. It is estimated that in the first six months of 1999, three billion MP3 files were downloaded from the Internet, equaling seventeen million MP3s each day. See Vito Peraino, The Law of Increasing Returns, Wired, Aug. 1999, at 144. Additionally, MP3.com, a popular MP3 Web site, sold $106,000 worth of CDs and music-related merchandise in the first quarter of 1999. See Sandburg, supra note 11. As compared to the total U.S. market for recorded music, an estimated $12.3 billion in 1998, this comprises an extremely small portion of sales. See id. 43. Ripping is the process of removing files from one format and encoding them in another. See Rafter et al., supra note 30, at 615.
44. See id.
45. See Maureen S. Dorney, New High-tech Solutions for High-tech Infringement: The Digital Millennium Copyright Act has Integrated Technological Developments as Well as Legal Protection into Copyright Law, Nat'l L.J., May 17, 1999, at B5.
46. See supra note 37.
47. See Westmoreland, supra note 20.
48. See Steinberg, supra note 39, at 110.
49. See Dorney, supra note 45 (explaining new technologies being employed in the wake of digital music distribution over the Internet.)
50. Spiders are management tools that allow copyright owners to track unauthorized versions of their materials. See id.
51. See id.
52. See Peraino, supra note 42, at 145; infra notes 317-26 and accompanying text.
53. Dorney, supra note 45.
54. See id.
55. See id.
56. See Westmoreland, supra note 20; see also Don E. Tomlinson & Timothy Nielander, Unchained Melody: Music Licensing in the Digital Age, 6 Tex. Intell. Prop. L.J. 277, 313-14 (1998) (discussing payments schemes attempting to protect electronic properties).
57. See, e.g., Dorney, supra note 45 (referring to distribution through digital boxes as "superdistribution").
58. See id.
59. For a detailed view of how digital envelopes and digital wallets work together, see 〈http://www.magex.com〉 (visited, Feb. 20, 2000). Magex.com has capitalized on this relationship by offering software copyright owners a way to sell their content freely online without worrying about piracy.
60. Dorney, supra note 45. Hence, the encryption persists, and those who have rights to access and use the works lose their rights. See id. 61. See Id.; see also infra Part I.B.1.c. (discussing fair use as a defense to online infringement).
61. See Pub. L. No. 94-553, 90 Stat. 2541 (1976) (codified at 17 U.S.C. §§ 101-803).
62. 17 U.S.C. § 102 (1994). In order to merit copyright protection, a work must be original, meaning that it has some element of creativity, and it must be fixed, or sufficiently permanent to be perceived or communicated for more than a transitory duration. See Craig Joyce et al., Copyright Law §§ 2.01-.02, at 63-66, 81-84 (4th ed. 1998). Musical works and sound recordings transmitted online are sufficiently fixed to qualify for copyright protection. See Michelle A. Ravn, Navigating Terra Incognita: Why the Digital Millennium Copyright Act Was Needed to Chart the Course of Online Service Provider Liability for Copyright Infringement, 60 Ohio St. L.J. 755, 760 (1999).
63. See Lawrence Jordan & Richard Herman, Content Regulation: Copyright, Rights of Publicity, and Other Doctrines, 78 Mich. B.J. 1272, 1272 (1999) (summarizing copyright law). Registration of a work establishes the presumption of a valid copyright in an infringement case. See Sega Enters. Ltd. v. Maphia, 948 F. Supp. 923, 931 (N.D. Cal. 1996) (noting that because Sega presented certificates of copyright registration for its video games, an automatic presumption of valid copyright attached).
64. See Pub. L. No. 92-140, 85 Stat. 391 (1971) (codified in scattered sections of 17 U.S.C.); see also Mark Radcliffe, Digital Millennium Copyright Act Forging the Copyright Framework for the Internet: First Steps, 557 PLI/Pat 365, 368 (1999) [hereinafter Radcliffe, First Steps] (addressing Congress's approach to technological changes through expansion of the scope of copyright protection).
65. For example, Kris Kristofferson wrote the song "Me and Bobby McGee," which was subsequently made famous by Janis Joplin. In order to reproduce the Janis Joplin version of the song, one would need permission from Kristofferson for the musical work copyright, and from Joplin for the sound recording copyright. See, e.g., Christopher D. Abramson, Note, Digital Sampling and the Recording Musician: A Proposal for Legislative Protection, 74 N.Y.U. L. Rev. 1660, 1669 (1999) (explaining the difference between a copyright in a song and a copyright in a recording).
66. See Tomlinson & Nielander, supra note 56, at 285 (discussing the copyrights in musical works and sound recordings).
67. See Joyce et al., supra note 63, § 7.01, at 432 (citing the legislative history of the Copyright Act).
68. See 17 U.S.C. § 106(1994).
69. See Jeffery A. Abrahamson, Tuning Up for a New Musical Age: Sound Recording Copyright Protection in a Digital Environment, 25 AIPLA Q.J. 181, 194 (1997).
70. See Pub. L. No. 104-39, 109 Stat. 336 (1995) (codified at 17 U.S.C. §§ 106(6), 114).
71. See Nancy A. Bloom, Protecting Copyright Owners of Digital Music-No More Free Access to Cyber Tunes, 45 J. Copyright Soc'y U.S.A. 179, 199 (1997).
72. See Abrahamson, supra note 70, at 193-94.
73. See id. at 194. Because of the ease with which songs can be copied in the digital environment, record companies previously were not comfortable having their songs broadcast (or played) over the Internet. See id. 75. See id. at 185-86 ("[T]he new law exempts, among other things, traditional radio and television transmissions of sound recordings.").
74. Subscription transmissions exist where the user is required to pay the ISP or Web site operator for transmissions, and the ISP or Web site operator in turn pays a licensing fee for the recording. See Bloom, supra note 72, at 201.
75. Interactive services are those services from which a user can request to play a sound recording via audio stream, or that allow the user to download a sound recording. See 17 U.S.C. §§ 114(d)(3), 114(j)(7) (Supp. IV. 1998).
76. See id. § 114(d)(i)(A). Non-subscription services are those free over-the-air broadcast transmissions, including radio and television broadcasts, that become available without request from the user. See Abrahamson, supra note 70, at 205-06.
77. An interactive service pays for the copyrights to sound recordings by negotiating with record companies, whereas a statutory license rate is usually available for subscription transmissions where the ISP is more distanced from the user. See Bloom, supra note 72, at 201.
78. For an extremely thorough discussion of the DPRSA provisions, see Abrahamson, supra note 70, at 204-16.
79. See Rafter et al., supra note 30, at 617.
80. See id. at 617-18.
81. For examples of music publishers' Web sites, see 〈http://www.ascap.com〉, 〈http://www.bmi.com〉, and 〈http://www.nmpa.org〉. When there is no compulsory license available, a license is obtained through private bargaining with the copyright holder. See Joyce et al., supra note 63, § 7.01, at 438.
82. See 17 U.S.C. § 115(a) (Supp. IV. 1998). A compulsory license is an "authorization to make and distribute sound recordings (called 'phonorecords' by the code [Act]) of the underlying composition in exchange for a statutory fee." Rafter et al., supra note 30, at 618. As long as the user follows statutory procedure and pays the established fee, he has not infringed on a copyright. See Joyce et al., supra note 63, § 7.01, at 438.
83. See 17 U.S.C § 501 (1994); Rafter et al., supra note 30, at 619 (citing Al Kohn & Bob Kohn, Kohn on Music Licensing 129-37 (2d ed. 1996)).
84. See Radcliffe, First Steps, supra note 65, at 370-71 (reviewing basic copyright law).
85. See Jeffrey P. Cunard & Albert L. Wells, The Evolving Standard of Copyright Liability Online, 497 PLI/Pat 365, 374 (1997) (explaining the various theories of copyright infringement); Frank, supra note 23, at 428 (discussing the basis of copyright liability).
86. See Davis, supra note 25, at 135 (setting forth copyright infringement law). A plaintiff may prove copying with circumstantial evidence showing that the defendant had access to the copyrighted work and that the defendant's work has substantial similarity to the original work. See Joyce et al., supra note 63, § 8.03, at 619-20; Weiskopf, supra note 3, at 14.
87. See Cunard & Wells, supra note 87, at 374.
88. See Segal, supra note 6, at 125.
89. See Ravn, supra note 63, at 763.
90. See id.
91. See Sega Enters. LTD v. Maphia, 948 F. Supp. 923, 932-33 (N.D. Cal. 1996); Frank, supra note 23, at 428; Ravn, supra note 63, at 763-64.
92. See, e.g., Sega, 948 F. Supp. at 932-33 (imposing liability on the defendant based on contributory infringement because there was direct infringement by the defendant's BBS subscribers, the defendant knew of the infringement, and the defendant actively solicited users to upload unauthorized copies of Sega's video games on the provided BBS).
93. See Sony Corp. of Am. v. Universal City Studios, Inc., 464 U.S. 417, 435 (1984).
94. See Weiskopf, supra note 3, at 17-18 (discussing the doctrine of vicarious liability generally).
95. See id. The notion of vicarious liability derives from the tort doctrine of respondeat superior, and was developed in cases involving lounge owners and dancehalls. See, e.g., Dreamland Ball Room, Inc. v. Shapiro, Bernstien & Co., 36 F.2d 354, 355 (7th Cir. 1929) (holding a dance hall operator liable for the infringements of its performer); see also Frank, supra note 23, at 429 (discussing dancehall/landlord cases as the genesis of vicarious liability). Generally, courts would not hold landlords responsible for the infringements of their tenants because the relationship bore no element of control. See, e.g., Vernon Music Corp. v. First Dev. Corp., No. 83-0645-MA, 1984 WL 8146, at *1 (D. Mass. June 19, 1984) (holding landlords not liable for the copyright infringements of their tenants); see also Weiskopf, supra note 3, at 17-18 (clarifying the difference between landlord/tenant relationships and venue owner/performer relationships as they relate to vicarious liability). On the other hand, a lounge owner would be held liable for the infringing activities of a performer because the owner benefited financially from the performer's activities and an element of control existed in the relationship. See, e.g., Dreamland, 36 F.2d at 355 (holding dancehall operator vicariously liable for the infringement of its performer).
96. See Pub. L. No. 105-304,112 Stat. 2860 (1998); infra Part I.B.2.a.
97. See Ravn, supra note 63, at 766. For a complete review of infringement theories as applied by courts in the Internet context, see generally, Weiskopf, supra note 3, at 19-38.
98. 907 F. Supp. 1361 (N.D. Cal. 1995).
99. See id. at 1373-75.
100. See id. at 1374.
101. See, e.g., Playboy Enters., Inc. v. Frena, 839 F. Supp. 1552, 1559, 1562 (M.D. Fla. 1993) (holding a BBS operator liable for the infringing acts of its user). The Playboy case arose because the plaintiff's copyrighted photographs were displayed on the defendant's BBS. See id. at 1554. The court reasoned that because the defendant supplied access to the infringing photographs, it did not matter that he did not copy the photographs himself. See id. at 1556. Another case alleging indirect infringement involved unauthorized copies of songs that were uploaded to and downloaded from a BBS musical database; however, the case settled before the court ruled. See Bloom, supra note 72, at 192-94 (discussing Frank Music v. Compuserve as a landmark settlement in the digital music arena); Davis, supra note 25, at 159. The settlement included licensing agreements between the ISP and the copyright owners. See Bloom, supra note 72, at 193-94.
102. See Weiskopf, supra note 3, at 32.
103. See Ravn, supra note 63, at 773. Where the ISP is not benefiting financially from infringing activities, it seems these arguments are stronger. See id. 106. See Fonovisa, Inc. v. Cherry Auction, Inc., 76 F.3d 259, 263-65 (9th Cir. 1996).
104. See id.
105. See 17 U.S.C. § 512 (Supp. IV 1998); infra Part I.B.2.a.
106. See 17 U.S.C. § 107 (1994).
107. See Harper & Row Publishers, Inc. v. Nation Enters., 471 U.S. 539, 560 (1985).
108. Campell v. Acuff-Rose Music, Inc., 510 U.S. 569, 577 (1994) (quoting Stewart v. Abend, 495 U.S. 207, 236 (1990)).
109. 17 U.S.C. § 107.
110. See Campell, 510 U.S. at 578.
111. 17 U.S.C. § 107.
112. See Davis, supra note 25, at 159.
113. 464 U.S. 417 (1984).
114. See Davis, supra note 25, at 138.
115. See Sony, 464 U.S. at 419-20.
116. See id. at 420.
117. See id.
118. See id. at 449, 456.
119. See id. at 444-46. For the Court's full discussion of the fair use defense as it applies to the Sony Betamax, see id. at 447-55.
120. See id. at 443.
121. Id. at 431.
122. Importantly, the Ninth Circuit adopts this reasoning in Recording Industry Ass'n of America v. Diamond Multimedia Systems, Inc., 180 F.3d 1072 (9th Cir. 1999), discussed infra Part II.B.
123. See Davis, supra note 25, at 138.
124. See id.
125. See Bloom, supra note 72, at 188-90.
126. See id. at 189.
127. 180 F.3d 1072 (9th Cir. 1999).
128. See id. at 1079-81; infra Part II.B.
129. See Pub. L. No. 102-563, 106 Stat. 4237 (1992) (codified in 17 U.S.C. §§ 1001-10).
130. See Rafter et al., supra note 29, at 620.
131. The RIAA represents the record labels (and their artists) that control roughly 90% of recorded music distribution in the United States. See Diamond Multimedia, 180 F.3d at 1074.
132. See Peraino, supra note 42, at 145.
133. See Bloom, supra note 72, at 190-91 (quoting the statement of Sen. DeConcini discussing the purposes behind the legislation); Suzan, supra note 8, at 815 (noting the primary goals of the AHRA).
134. 17 U.S.C. § 1008 (1994).
135. See id. §§ 1003-06.
136. See id. § 1002.
137. See supra note 20.
138. See Tomlinson, supra note 9, at 68 (discussing the technological solution to DATs).
139. See Michael Plumleigh, Comment, Digital Audio Tape: New Fuel Stokes the Smoldering Home Taping Fire, 37 UCLA L. Rev. 733, 762-63 (1990).
140. See, e.g., Bloom, supra note 72, at 191-92 (applying the statute's definition of digital-audio-copied recording to online music); Suzan, supra note 8, at 816 & n.183 (revealing that an examination of the definitions in the AHRA favor application to the Internet).
141. 180 F.3d 1072 (9th Cir. 1999).
142. See infra Part II.B.
143. See Phillip S. Corwin, RIAA Commits Legal Hara-Kiri (June 6, 1999) 〈http://www.mp3.com/news/277.html〉; infra Part II.B.
144. See Pub. L. No. 105-304, 112 Stat. 2860 (1998) (codified in scattered sections of 17 U.S.C.).
145. Jon A. Baumgarten et al., New Year Details Ownership Rights on the Internet: The Year-Old Digital Millennium Copyright Act Leaves Little Room for Judicial Interpretation, Nat'l L.J., Oct. 25, 1999, at C6 (quoting President Clinton).
146. See WIPO Copyright Treaty, Dec. 20, 1996, 36 I.L.M. 65 (1997).
147. See WIPO Performances and Phonograms Treaty, Dec. 20, 1996, 36 I.L.M. 76 (1997).
148. See Brown Raysman Millstein Felder & Steiner LLP, New Media and the Internet: Staying Interactive in the Hi-Tech Environment, June 1999, at 1 [hereinafter New Media].
149. See 17 U.S.C. § 1201-05 (1999).
150. Copyright Management Information means the same thing as Digital Rights Management, that is, a way to keep information about the author and the work attached to a digital form of a copyrighted work. See generally Westmoreland, supra note 20 (explaining Digital Rights Management).
151. See Radcliffe, First Steps, supra note 65, at 386.
152. See New Media, supra note 151, at 2.
153. See U.S. Copyright Office Summary, The Digital Millennium Copyright Act of 1998 4 (1998) [hereinafter DMCA Summary]. The DMCA Summary provides an excellent overview of the entire legislation.
154. See supra notes 48-52 and accompanying text.
155. See supra notes 53-60 and accompanying text.
156. See 17 U.S.C. § 1201(d)-(g) (Supp. IV 1998).
157. See Dorney, supra note 45 (discussing the exemption for circumvention of cookies, or technologies that collect personal information about the user).
158. See 17 U.S.C. § 1201(a)(1).
159. See id. § 1201(c)(3).
160. See Rafter et al., supra note 30, at 625.
161. See Mark F. Radcliffe, Congress Helps Resolve 'Net Copyright Issues: The New Digital Millennium Copyright Act Provides Safe Harbors for Service Providers, Nat'l L.J., Feb. 8, 1999, at C16 [hereinafter Radcliffe, Safe Harbors]) (explaining the meaning of the "black box," or anti-circumvention, provision).
162. See Pub. L. No. 105-304, 112 Stat. 2860 (codified at 17 U.S.C. § 512 (Supp. IV 1998)).
163. See id.
164. H.R. Conf. Rep. No. 105-796, at 72, reprinted in 1998 U.S.C.C.A.N. 639, 649.
165. The limitations on liability are commonly referred to as "safe harbors." Radcliffe, First Steps, supra note 65, at 375.
166. See 17 U.S.C. § 512(a) (Supp. IV 1998).
167. See Davis, supra note 25, at 165 (discussing the DMCA's limitations on ISP liability).
168. See 17 U.S.C. § 512(b).
169. See Radcliffe, First Steps, supra note 65, at 374 (defining system caching).
170. See, e.g., Ravn, supra note 63, at 790-91 (discussing the specific conditions that apply for the safe harbor for system caching).
171. See 17 U.S.C. § 512(c).
172. See id.; see also New Media, supra note 151, at 4 (explaining the provisions in section 512(c) of the DMCA).
173. See 17 U.S.C. § 512(c); see also Baumgarten et al., supra note 148 (explaining the "notice and take down" procedure for ISP's shielded liability).
174. See 17 U.S.C. § 512(d).
175. See Radcliffe, First Steps, supra note 65.
176. See 17 U.S.C. § 512(d); DMCA Summary, supra note 156, at 12-13.
177. See Radcliffe, First Steps, supra note 65, at 373.
178. See id.
179. See 17 U.S.C. § 512(l); DMCA Summary, supra note 156, at 9.
180. Radcliffe, First Steps, supra note 65, at 377.
181. See Pub. L. No. 105-304, 112 Stat. 2860 (1998) (codified at 17 U.S.C. § 402 (Supp. IV 1998)).
182. The DPRSA is legislation that grants a performance right to sound recordings in the digital environment. See supra notes 70-80 and accompanying text.
183. See Haun, supra note 12, at 48.
184. See Gibbons & Ferri, supra note 21 (discussing the DMCA's expansion of rights for sound recording copyright holders).
185. See Doug Reece, Internet Radio Clash: Webcasters, Broadcasters and the Recording Industry Negotiate New Rules for Licensing the Music Played Over the Internet, Billboard, Nov. 7, 1998, at 81.
186. See Baumgarten et al., supra note 148; Gibbons & Ferri, supra note 21. For a complete outline of all of the conditions that apply to the statutory licensing scheme, see the Digital Media association's Web site at www.digmedia.org/DMCAexp.htm.
187. See, e.g., Reece, supra note 188, at 86 (discussing the concerns of some Internet broadcasters in light of the DMCA).
188. See Downing & McCarthy, supra note 4 (describing the state of the law prior to the passage of the No Electronic Theft Act).
189. See Pub. L. No. 105-147, 111 Stat. 2678 (1997) (codified in scattered sections of 17-18 U.S.C.).
190. See Gibbons & Ferri, supra note 21 (discussing recent changes to the Copyright Act).
191. 17 U.S.C. § 101 (Supp. IV 1998).
192. See id. § 506(a); 18 U.S.C. § 2319 (Supp. IV 1998); Kopp & Suter, supra note 10, at 309.
193. See Kopp & Suter, supra note 10, at 309.
194. See Kira Schlechter, Technology Has Huge Net Effect on Music, Patriot-News (Harrisburg), Jan. 30, 2000, at E1.
195. See id.
196. See supra notes 70-85 and accompanying text.
197. See New Media, supra note 151, at 10 & n.17.
198. See id. at 10.
199. See John F. Delaney & Robert Murphy, The Law of the Internet: A Summary of U.S. Internet Caselaw and Legal Developments, 570 PLI/Pat 169, 197 (1999) (explaining the recent suits filed by the RIAA and record labels). The named cases that were filed include A&M Records, Inc. v. Internet Site Known as Fresh Kutz, No. 97-CV-1099 H (S.D. Cal. filed June 10, 1997), Sony Music Entertainment, Inc. v. Internet Site Known as ftp://208.197.028, No. 97 Civ. 4245 (S.D.N.Y. filed June 9, 1997), and MCA Records, Inc. v. Internet Site Known as ftp://Parasoft.com/MP3s/, No. 97-CV-1360-T (N.D. Tex. filed June 9,1997). See Delany & Murphy, supra, at 197.
200. See Gibbons & Ferri, supra note 21.
201. See New Media, supra note 151, at 10.
202. See Kathleen Murphy, Kicking in the Door on Internet Music Pirates, Internet World, Aug. 1, 1999, at 38.
203. See Rick Hepp, Cybermusic's Future May Not Be as Smooth as it Sounds, Chi. Trib., July 25,1999, at § 5.
204. See Murphy, supra note 206.
205. See Steinberg, supra note 39, at 109-10 (quoting David Stebbings, head of the New Technology Division at the RIAA).
206. See Murphy, supra note 206.
207. See Downing & McCarthy, supra note 4 (discussing the RIAA's success in shutting down pirate sites).
208. See id.
209. See id.
210. See Kelly McCollum, How Forcefully Should Universities Enforce Copyright Law on Audio Files?, Chron. Higher Educ., Nov. 19, 1999, at A59.
211. See id.
212. See id.
213. See id.
214. See Murphy, supra note 206, at 38 (quoting Frank Creighton, head of the anti-piracy unit at the RIAA).
215. See 〈http://www.soundbyting.com〉 (visited Jan. 22, 2000).
216. See supra Part I.B.1.d; see also Rafter et al., supra note 30, at 622-24 (discussing the inception of the Diamond Multimedia case).
217. See Recording Indus. Ass'n of Am. v. Diamond Multimedia Sys. Inc., 180 F.3d 1072, 1074-75 (9th Cir. 1999); see also Stephen M. Kramarsky, Managing Copyright In Digital Marketplace: System may be Redefined by Music Distribution War, N.Y. L.J., Oct. 18, 1999, at 4 (explaining MP3 technology as the precursor to the Diamond Multimedia case).
218. See Kramarsky, supra note 221.
219. See Downing & McCarthy, supra note 4 ("[B]ecause the MP3 music typically was stored in a computer hard drive, listening to MP3 music required the user to be close to his or her computer.").
220. See id.
221. See Diamond Multimedia, 180 F.3d at 1075; New Media, supra note 151, at 9; supra notes 137-42 and accompanying text (discussing the elements of the AHRA).
222. See Diamond Multimedia, 180 F.3d at 1075.
223. Id. at 1074.
224. See 17 U.S.C. § 1001(1) (1994) (defining "[a] 'digital audio copied recording' [as] a reproduction in a digital recording format of a digital musical recording, whether that reproduction is made directly from another digital musical recording or indirectly from a transmission").
225. The AHRA defines a digital musical recording as: [A] material object - in which are fixed, in a digital recording format, only sounds, and material, statements, or instructions incidental to those fixed sounds, if any, and from which the sounds and material can be perceived, reproduced, or otherwise communicated, either directly or with the aid of a machine or device. Id. § 1001(5)(A).
226. Diamond Multimedia, 180 F.3d at 1076.
227. Id. at 1081.
228. Id. at 1078. Computer hard drives do not fit the definition of a digital audio recording device because hard drives are not designed and marketed to deal with primarily audio files; rather, a computer's recording function is for recording data and computer programs. See id.; Delaney & Murphy, supra note 203, at 224.
229. See Corwin, supra note 146 (discussing the essential components of the Diamond Multimedia decision).
230. 464 U.S. 417 (1984); see supra notes 116-25 and accompanying text.
231. Diamond Multimedia, 180 F.3d at 1079 ("The Rio merely makes copies in order to render portable, or 'space-shift,' those files that already reside on a user's hard drive.").
232. See Downing & McCarthy, supra note 4.
233. See Carl S. Kaplan, In Court's View, MP3 Player is Just a 'Space Shifter,' N.Y. Times on the Web (July 9, 1999) 〈http://www.nytimes.com/library/tech/99/07/cyber/ cyberlaw/09law.html〉.
234. See id. (quoting New York attorneys Robert Zissu and Robert Osterberg).
235. See id. (quoting copyright lawyer Robert Zissu).
236. See supra note 39 (discussing how music can be recorded using a CD burner).
237. See Kramarsky, supra note 221.
238. See id.; Megan Twohey, Land of the Free and MP3, Nat'l J., Jan. 15, 2000, at 15.
239. See Kramarsky, supra note 221.
240. See id. For a discussion of digital watermarking, see supra notes 48-52 and accompanying text.
241. See Kramarsky, supra note 221.
242. See Gibbons & Ferri, supra note 21.
243. See Kramarsky, supra note 221.
244. See id.
245. See Twohey, supra note 242, at 16 (quoting Shari Steele, the director of legal services for the Electronic Frontier Foundation, a company that promotes freedom of expression on the Internet); see also supra note 37 (providing examples of digital music formats that are more secure than MP3).
246. See Sandburg, supra note 11.
247. See Corwin, supra note 146.
248. See id.
249. See id.
250. See Downing & McCarthy, supra note 4. Reverse engineering and hacking refer to acts of decoding a program to identify its elements. See DMCA Summary, supra note 156, at 5.
251. See DMCA Summary, supra note 156, at 3-5; supra notes 156-58 and accompanying text.
252. See Recording Indus. Ass'n of Am. v. Diamond Multimedia Sys., Inc., 180 F.3d 1072, 1078 (9th Cir. 1999).
253. See id. at 1078-79 (exempting computers from the SCMS requirement); Corwin, supra note 146.
254. No. C99-5183 NHPADR (N.D. Cal. filed Dec. 7, 1999).
255. See CNET, Recording Industry Sues Music Start-up, Cites Black Market (Dec. 7,1999) 〈http://news.cnet.com/news/0-1005-202-1485841.html〉.
256. See 〈http://www.napster.com〉 (visited Jan. 10, 2000).
257. See CNET, supra note 259; John Snell, Copyright and Wrong, Portland Oregonian, Jan. 31, 2000, at BO1.
258. See CNET, supra note 259. The RIAA can assert enhanced damages because the behavior of the defendant is willful. See, e.g., CBS Inc. v. Casino Record Distrib., Inc., 654 F. Supp. 677, 679 (S.D. Fla. 1987) (holding that a higher award of damages was applicable because the defendant's actions were willful).
259. See Snell, supra note 261. Under traditional copyright law, if an item that can be used to facilitate piracy also has substantial non-infringing uses, the producer is not responsible for the piracy. See id. 264. See CNET, supra note 259.
260. See Snell, supra note 261.
261. See 〈http://www.napster.com〉 (visited Feb. 25, 2000).
262. See id.
263. See CNET, supra note 259.
264. Lisa Guernsey, MP3 Trading Service Can Clog Networks on College Campuses, N.Y. Times on the Web (Jan. 20, 2000) 〈http://www.nytimes.com/ library/tech/00/01/circuits/articles/20geek.html (quoting Eileen Richardson, the interim chief executive of Napster, Inc.).
265. Bruce Haring, Sailing Around the Letter of the Law: Sites Unite Pirates in Plundering Music's Treasure, USA Today, Jan. 17, 2000, at 3D (quoting Cary Sherman, general counsel of the RIAA).
266. See CNET, supra note 259.
267. See Haring, supra note 270.
268. See Snell, supra note 261; supra notes 109-31 and accompanying text.
269. See Haring, supra note 270.
270. No. 00 Civ. 0472 (S.D.N.Y. filed Jan. 21, 2000).
271. See Lessley Anderson, To Beam or Not to Beam, The Industry Standard, Feb. 7, 2000, at 64.
272. See id.
273. See id.
274. See Statement of Cary Sherman, Senior Executive Vice President and General Counsel for the RIAA, concerning MP3.corn's new services, Jan. 21, 2000, reprinted at 〈http://www.RIAA.com/tech/press/012100a.htm〉.
275. See Letter from Michael Robertson, CEO of MP3.com, to Hillary Rosen, CEO of the RIAA, Jan. 21, 2000, reprinted at 〈http://www.mp3.com/response.html〉.
276. See id.
277. See FAQ About RIAA's Lawsuit Against MP3.com, available in 〈http://www.RIAA.com/tech/press/022500.htm〉 (last modified Feb. 25, 2000).
278. See Recording Indus. Ass'n of Am. v. Diamond Multimedia Sys., Inc., 180 F.3d 1072, 1079 (9th Cir. 1999).
279. No. 2:99 CV 02070, 2000 WL 127311 (W.D. Wash. Jan. 18, 2000).
280. See id. at *1; see also Michael Learmonth, Copyright Case Streaming to Court, The Industry Standard, Jan. 10-17, 2000, at 102 (discussing the case as the first major test of the DMCA).
281. See RealNetworks, 2000 WL 127311, at *3; John Cook & Dan Richman, RealNetworks is Granted Injunction in Streambox Suit, Seattle Post-Intelligencer, Jan. 19, 2000, at C2.
282. See RealNetworks, 2000 WL 127311, at *4-*5 (discussing the Streambox VCR).
283. See id.; supra Part I.A.
284. See RealNetworks, 2000 WL 127311, at *4.
285. See id., at *5 (discussing the Streambox Ripper); Learmonth, supra note 285, at 102.
286. See RealNetworks, 2000 WL 127311, at *5.
287. See id. at *6 (discussing the Streambox Ferret).
288. See id. at *11.
289. See id. at *12-*13.
290. See id. at *7; supra Part I.B.2.a.
291. See RealNetworks, 2000 WL 127311, at *7-*8.
292. See id. at *10
293. See id.
294. See id. at *12.
295. See id.
296. See id.
297. Wired News Report, Streaming Audio Ruling a Win-Win, available in 〈http://www.wired.com/news/print/0,1294,33674,00.html〉 (visited Feb. 20, 2000) (quoting RealNetworks's official statement after the decision was handed down).
298. See id. (quoting Streambox, Inc.'s CEO Bob Hildeman).
299. See supra note 20.
300. See Dorney, supra note 45 and accompanying text.
301. See supra Part I.B.
302. See Intellectual Property Conference, supra note 4, at 309 (containing a comment by Shira Perlmutter from the United States Copyright Office).
303. See supra notes 70-80 and accompanying text.
304. Where the Web site does not offer users on-demand listening, the DPRSA takes effect. See Bloom, supra note 72, at 202-03. Artists continue to be protected through the Copyright Act for the underlying musical composition. See id. 310. See Tomlinson, supra note 9, at 69.
305. See Part I.B.2.
306. See supra notes 191-99 and accompanying text; see also Kopp & Suter, supra note 10, at 309 (discussing NETA).
307. See supra notes 191-99 and accompanying text.
308. See supra notes 150-56 and accompanying text.
309. See Intellectual Property Conference, supra note 4, at 327-28 (containing a comment by Jon Baumgarten, partner of Proskauer, Rose, LLP in Washington, D.C.).
310. See supra note 153.
311. See, e.g., Davis, supra note 25, at 165 (stating that the DMCA cuts off consumer access and therefore infringes on fair use).
312. See DMCA Summary, supra note 156, at 3-4.
313. Id. at 4.
314. See Id. at 5-6.
315. See supra note 134.
316. See supra notes 48-60 and accompanying text.
317. See Julian Dibbell, The Record Industry's Digital Daze: Thanks to MP3, This Could Finally be the End of the Music Business as We Know It, Rolling Stone, Nov. 26, 1998, at 106.
318. Id.
319. Id. Another example is the digital video disk, DVD, winning consumer acceptance over the protected video format, DIVX. See supra note 251 and accompanying text.
320. See supra note 252 and accompanying text.
321. 464 U.S. 417 (1984); see also supra notes 116-28 and accompanying text.
322. See Intellectual Property Conference, supra note 4, at 353 (containing comments by Jon Baumgarten, partner of Proskauer Rose, LLP in Washington, D.C.).
323. See Sony, 464 U.S. at 456.
324. See Recording Indus. Ass'n of Am. v. Diamond Multimedia Sys., Inc., 180 F.3d 1072 (1999); supra Part II.B.
325. Kramarsky, supra note 221, at S4.
326. See supra Part I.B.1.c.
327. See Hepp, supra note 207.
328. See supra notes 168-83 and accompanying text.
329. See supra notes 168-83 and accompanying text.
330. See infra Part III.C.
331. See Recording Indus. Ass'n of Am. v. Diamond Multimedia Sys., Inc., 180 F.3d 1072, 1079 (1999); supra Part II.B.
332. See No. 2:99 CV 02070, 2000 WL 127311, at *1 (W.D. Wash. Jan. 18, 2000); supra notes 284-303 and accompanying text.
333. See RealNetworks, 2000 WL 127311, at *12-*13; supra notes 284-303 and accompanying text.
334. See, e.g., Intellectual Property Conference, supra note 4, at 324 (containing a comment by Gerry Brill, director of intellectual property and corporate patent counsel, Macrovision Corp., stating that "we know the DMCA as a copyright law, even though a number of people have said that the DMCA is . . . more of a technological enforcement law").
335. See Brenda Sandburg, Can Technology Re-bottle MP3 Genie?, The Legal Intelligencer, Apr. 28, 1999, at 4.
336. See Neil Gross, Commentary: Target Pirates-Not Technology, Business Week, Nov. 2, 1998, at 40.
337. Dibbell, supra note 323, at 106 (quoting RIAA spokesperson Tom Sites).
338. See Segal, supra note 6, at 138.
339. See Rafter et al., supra note 30, at 626.
340. See supra notes 48-61 and accompanying text.
341. See supra Part U.C.
342. See Sandburg, supra note 11.
343. See Borkowski & Welsh, supra note 22.
344. See Dibbell, supra note 323, at 106.
345. See Sandburg, supra note 11.
346. See id. Tom Petty, for example, released the single "Free Girl Now" on MP3.com before the forthcoming album in order to generate consumer buzz. The song was downloaded 160,000 times. See id.
347. See Borkowski & Welsh, supra note 22.
348. See id.
349. See L.A. Lorek, Digital Music Rush Leaves Copyright Laws Behind, SunSentinel Ft. Lauderdale, Oct. 31, 1999, at 3G.
350. See Peraino, supra note 42, at 145.
351. See Gibbons & Ferri, supra note 21.
352. See Dibbel, supra note 343, at 106.
353. Intellectual Property Conference, supra note 4, at 304 (quoting Bernard Sorkin, Senior Intellectual Property Counsel, Time Warner).
354. See Tomlinson & Nielander, supra note 56, at 300.
355. See, e.g., 〈http://www.amazon.com〉 (visited Feb. 10, 2000) (allowing a user to preview a song before purchasing a copy of it).
356. See supra notes 184-90 and accompanying text.
357. See P.J. Huffstutter, Deal Reached on Royalties for Web Music, L.A. Times, Feb. 10, 2000, at C8.
358. See www.digmedia.org/DMCAexp.htm (visited Jan. 10, 2000).
359. See Huffstutter, supra note 363.
360. See id.
361. See Dibbell, supra note 323, at 106.
362. See id.
363. See Downing & McCarthy, supra note 4.
364. See Borkowski & Welsh, supra note 22 (discussing the market realities of the digital music revolution).
365. See Lorek, supra note 355.