Duty, honor, country: The social identity of West Point cadets

Armed Forces and Society

Volumn 26, Issue 2, 2000, Pages 175-202

  Franke, Volker C ^a  

^a WESTERN MARYLAND COLLEGE   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0034402471     PISSN: 0095327X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/0095327X0002600202     Document Type: Article

References (68)

1. See Volker C. Franke, "Warriors for Peace: The Next Generation of Military Leaders," Armed Forces & Society 24 (Winter 1997): 33-59.
2. Henri Tajfel, Human Groups and Social Categories: Studies in Social Psychology (Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, 1981), 255.
3. See Robert Dubin, Central Life Interests: Creative Individualism in a Complex World (New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishers, 1992) ; Marilynn B. Brewer, "The Social Self: On Being the Same and Different at the Same Time," Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 17 (1991): 473-482; Michael A. Hogg and Dominic Abrams, Social Identifications: A Social Psychology of Intergroup Relations and Group Processes (London and New York: Routledge, 1988); John E. Hofman, "Social Identity and Intergroup Conflict: An Israeli View," in The Social Psychology of Intergroup Conflict: Theory, Research and Applications, ed. Wolfgang Stroebe, Arie W. Kruglanski, Daniel Bar-Tal, and Miles Hewstone (Berlin, Heidelberg, New York: Springer Verlag, 1988), 89-102; and Gordon W. Allport, The Nature of Prejudice (Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1979, 1st ed. published in 1954). For more detailed analyses of military identity see Volker C. Franke, Preparing for Peace: Military Identity, Value Orientations, and Professional Military Education (Westport, CT: Praeger, 1999); Thomas Britt, "Psychological Ambiguities in Peacekeeping," in The Psychology of Peacekeeping, ed. Harvey J. Langholtz (Westport, CT: Praeger, 1998): 111-130; and Donna Winslow, The Canadian Airborne Regiment in Somalia: A Socio-Cultural Inquiry (Ottawa: Canadian Government Publishing, 1997).
4. See Robert Dubin, Central Life Interests: Creative Individualism in a Complex World (New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishers, 1992) ; Marilynn B. Brewer, "The Social Self: On Being the Same and Different at the Same Time," Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 17 (1991): 473-482; Michael A. Hogg and Dominic Abrams, Social Identifications: A Social Psychology of Intergroup Relations and Group Processes (London and New York: Routledge, 1988); John E. Hofman, "Social Identity and Intergroup Conflict: An Israeli View," in The Social Psychology of Intergroup Conflict: Theory, Research and Applications, ed. Wolfgang Stroebe, Arie W. Kruglanski, Daniel Bar-Tal, and Miles Hewstone (Berlin, Heidelberg, New York: Springer Verlag, 1988), 89-102; and Gordon W. Allport, The Nature of Prejudice (Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1979, 1st ed. published in 1954). For more detailed analyses of military identity see Volker C. Franke, Preparing for Peace: Military Identity, Value Orientations, and Professional Military Education (Westport, CT: Praeger, 1999); Thomas Britt, "Psychological Ambiguities in Peacekeeping," in The Psychology of Peacekeeping, ed. Harvey J. Langholtz (Westport, CT: Praeger, 1998): 111-130; and Donna Winslow, The Canadian Airborne Regiment in Somalia: A Socio-Cultural Inquiry (Ottawa: Canadian Government Publishing, 1997).
5. See Robert Dubin, Central Life Interests: Creative Individualism in a Complex World (New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishers, 1992) ; Marilynn B. Brewer, "The Social Self: On Being the Same and Different at the Same Time," Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 17 (1991): 473-482; Michael A. Hogg and Dominic Abrams, Social Identifications: A Social Psychology of Intergroup Relations and Group Processes (London and New York: Routledge, 1988); John E. Hofman, "Social Identity and Intergroup Conflict: An Israeli View," in The Social Psychology of Intergroup Conflict: Theory, Research and Applications, ed. Wolfgang Stroebe, Arie W. Kruglanski, Daniel Bar-Tal, and Miles Hewstone (Berlin, Heidelberg, New York: Springer Verlag, 1988), 89-102; and Gordon W. Allport, The Nature of Prejudice (Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1979, 1st ed. published in 1954). For more detailed analyses of military identity see Volker C. Franke, Preparing for Peace: Military Identity, Value Orientations, and Professional Military Education (Westport, CT: Praeger, 1999); Thomas Britt, "Psychological Ambiguities in Peacekeeping," in The Psychology of Peacekeeping, ed. Harvey J. Langholtz (Westport, CT: Praeger, 1998): 111-130; and Donna Winslow, The Canadian Airborne Regiment in Somalia: A Socio-Cultural Inquiry (Ottawa: Canadian Government Publishing, 1997).
6. See Robert Dubin, Central Life Interests: Creative Individualism in a Complex World (New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishers, 1992) ; Marilynn B. Brewer, "The Social Self: On Being the Same and Different at the Same Time," Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 17 (1991): 473-482; Michael A. Hogg and Dominic Abrams, Social Identifications: A Social Psychology of Intergroup Relations and Group Processes (London and New York: Routledge, 1988); John E. Hofman, "Social Identity and Intergroup Conflict: An Israeli View," in The Social Psychology of Intergroup Conflict: Theory, Research and Applications, ed. Wolfgang Stroebe, Arie W. Kruglanski, Daniel Bar-Tal, and Miles Hewstone (Berlin, Heidelberg, New York: Springer Verlag, 1988), 89-102; and Gordon W. Allport, The Nature of Prejudice (Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1979, 1st ed. published in 1954). For more detailed analyses of military identity see Volker C. Franke, Preparing for Peace: Military Identity, Value Orientations, and Professional Military Education (Westport, CT: Praeger, 1999); Thomas Britt, "Psychological Ambiguities in Peacekeeping," in The Psychology of Peacekeeping, ed. Harvey J. Langholtz (Westport, CT: Praeger, 1998): 111-130; and Donna Winslow, The Canadian Airborne Regiment in Somalia: A Socio-Cultural Inquiry (Ottawa: Canadian Government Publishing, 1997).
7. See Robert Dubin, Central Life Interests: Creative Individualism in a Complex World (New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishers, 1992) ; Marilynn B. Brewer, "The Social Self: On Being the Same and Different at the Same Time," Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 17 (1991): 473-482; Michael A. Hogg and Dominic Abrams, Social Identifications: A Social Psychology of Intergroup Relations and Group Processes (London and New York: Routledge, 1988); John E. Hofman, "Social Identity and Intergroup Conflict: An Israeli View," in The Social Psychology of Intergroup Conflict: Theory, Research and Applications, ed. Wolfgang Stroebe, Arie W. Kruglanski, Daniel Bar-Tal, and Miles Hewstone (Berlin, Heidelberg, New York: Springer Verlag, 1988), 89-102; and Gordon W. Allport, The Nature of Prejudice (Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1979, 1st ed. published in 1954). For more detailed analyses of military identity see Volker C. Franke, Preparing for Peace: Military Identity, Value Orientations, and Professional Military Education (Westport, CT: Praeger, 1999); Thomas Britt, "Psychological Ambiguities in Peacekeeping," in The Psychology of Peacekeeping, ed. Harvey J. Langholtz (Westport, CT: Praeger, 1998): 111-130; and Donna Winslow, The Canadian Airborne Regiment in Somalia: A Socio-Cultural Inquiry (Ottawa: Canadian Government Publishing, 1997).
8. See Robert Dubin, Central Life Interests: Creative Individualism in a Complex World (New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishers, 1992) ; Marilynn B. Brewer, "The Social Self: On Being the Same and Different at the Same Time," Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 17 (1991): 473-482; Michael A. Hogg and Dominic Abrams, Social Identifications: A Social Psychology of Intergroup Relations and Group Processes (London and New York: Routledge, 1988); John E. Hofman, "Social Identity and Intergroup Conflict: An Israeli View," in The Social Psychology of Intergroup Conflict: Theory, Research and Applications, ed. Wolfgang Stroebe, Arie W. Kruglanski, Daniel Bar-Tal, and Miles Hewstone (Berlin, Heidelberg, New York: Springer Verlag, 1988), 89-102; and Gordon W. Allport, The Nature of Prejudice (Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1979, 1st ed. published in 1954). For more detailed analyses of military identity see Volker C. Franke, Preparing for Peace: Military Identity, Value Orientations, and Professional Military Education (Westport, CT: Praeger, 1999); Thomas Britt, "Psychological Ambiguities in Peacekeeping," in The Psychology of Peacekeeping, ed. Harvey J. Langholtz (Westport, CT: Praeger, 1998): 111-130; and Donna Winslow, The Canadian Airborne Regiment in Somalia: A Socio-Cultural Inquiry (Ottawa: Canadian Government Publishing, 1997).
9. See Robert Dubin, Central Life Interests: Creative Individualism in a Complex World (New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishers, 1992) ; Marilynn B. Brewer, "The Social Self: On Being the Same and Different at the Same Time," Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 17 (1991): 473-482; Michael A. Hogg and Dominic Abrams, Social Identifications: A Social Psychology of Intergroup Relations and Group Processes (London and New York: Routledge, 1988); John E. Hofman, "Social Identity and Intergroup Conflict: An Israeli View," in The Social Psychology of Intergroup Conflict: Theory, Research and Applications, ed. Wolfgang Stroebe, Arie W. Kruglanski, Daniel Bar-Tal, and Miles Hewstone (Berlin, Heidelberg, New York: Springer Verlag, 1988), 89-102; and Gordon W. Allport, The Nature of Prejudice (Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1979, 1st ed. published in 1954). For more detailed analyses of military identity see Volker C. Franke, Preparing for Peace: Military Identity, Value Orientations, and Professional Military Education (Westport, CT: Praeger, 1999); Thomas Britt, "Psychological Ambiguities in Peacekeeping," in The Psychology of Peacekeeping, ed. Harvey J. Langholtz (Westport, CT: Praeger, 1998): 111-130; and Donna Winslow, The Canadian Airborne Regiment in Somalia: A Socio-Cultural Inquiry (Ottawa: Canadian Government Publishing, 1997).
10. See Robert Dubin, Central Life Interests: Creative Individualism in a Complex World (New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishers, 1992) ; Marilynn B. Brewer, "The Social Self: On Being the Same and Different at the Same Time," Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 17 (1991): 473-482; Michael A. Hogg and Dominic Abrams, Social Identifications: A Social Psychology of Intergroup Relations and Group Processes (London and New York: Routledge, 1988); John E. Hofman, "Social Identity and Intergroup Conflict: An Israeli View," in The Social Psychology of Intergroup Conflict: Theory, Research and Applications, ed. Wolfgang Stroebe, Arie W. Kruglanski, Daniel Bar-Tal, and Miles Hewstone (Berlin, Heidelberg, New York: Springer Verlag, 1988), 89-102; and Gordon W. Allport, The Nature of Prejudice (Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1979, 1st ed. published in 1954). For more detailed analyses of military identity see Volker C. Franke, Preparing for Peace: Military Identity, Value Orientations, and Professional Military Education (Westport, CT: Praeger, 1999); Thomas Britt, "Psychological Ambiguities in Peacekeeping," in The Psychology of Peacekeeping, ed. Harvey J. Langholtz (Westport, CT: Praeger, 1998): 111-130; and Donna Winslow, The Canadian Airborne Regiment in Somalia: A Socio-Cultural Inquiry (Ottawa: Canadian Government Publishing, 1997).
11. Sheldon Stryker, "Identity Salience and Role Performance: The Relevance of Symbolic Interaction Theory for Family Research," Journal of Marriage and the Family 30 (November 1968): 558-564.
12. Hofman, "Social Identity and Intergroup Conflict."
13. See John C. Turner, Michael A. Hogg, Penelope J. Oakes, Stephen D. Reicher, and Margaret S. Wetherell, Rediscovering the Social Group: A Self-Categorization Theory (London: Basil Blackwell, 1987). For further detail on the conceptualization of the identification process see also Shana Levin and Jim Sidanius, "Social Dominance and Social Identity in the United States and Israel: Ingroup Favoritism or Outgroup Denigration," Political Psychology 20 (March 1999): 99-126; Jim Sidanius, Seymour Feshbach, Shana Levin, and Felicia Pratto, "The Interface between Ethnic and National Attachment: Ethnic Pluralism or Ethnic Dominance"? Public Opinion Quarterly 61 (1997): 102-133; Penelope J. Oakes, S. Alexander Haslam, and John C. Turner. Stereotyping and Social Reality (Oxford, UK, and Cambridge, MA: Blackwell, 1994); Jim Sidanius, "The Psychology of Group Conflict and the Dynamics of Oppression: A Social Dominance Perspective," in Explorations in Political Psychology, ed. Shanto Iyengar and William J. McGuire (Durham, NC, London: Duke University Press, 1993): 183-219; Muzafer Sherif O. J. Harvey, B. Jack White, William R. Hood and Carolyn Sherif, The Robbers Cave Experiment: Intergroup Conflict and Cooperation (Middletown, CT: Wesleyan University Press, 1988); and Henri Tajfel, ed, Differentiation between Social Groups: Studies in the Social Psychology of Intergroup Relations (London, New York, San Francisco: Academic Press, 1978). For a recent examination of identification in the context of peace operations, see Tom Woodhouse, "Peacekeeping and the Psychology of Conflict Resolution," in The Psychology of Peacekeeping, ed. Harvey J. Langholtz (Westport, CT: Praeger, 1998): 153-166.
14. See John C. Turner, Michael A. Hogg, Penelope J. Oakes, Stephen D. Reicher, and Margaret S. Wetherell, Rediscovering the Social Group: A Self-Categorization Theory (London: Basil Blackwell, 1987). For further detail on the conceptualization of the identification process see also Shana Levin and Jim Sidanius, "Social Dominance and Social Identity in the United States and Israel: Ingroup Favoritism or Outgroup Denigration," Political Psychology 20 (March 1999): 99-126; Jim Sidanius, Seymour Feshbach, Shana Levin, and Felicia Pratto, "The Interface between Ethnic and National Attachment: Ethnic Pluralism or Ethnic Dominance"? Public Opinion Quarterly 61 (1997): 102-133; Penelope J. Oakes, S. Alexander Haslam, and John C. Turner. Stereotyping and Social Reality (Oxford, UK, and Cambridge, MA: Blackwell, 1994); Jim Sidanius, "The Psychology of Group Conflict and the Dynamics of Oppression: A Social Dominance Perspective," in Explorations in Political Psychology, ed. Shanto Iyengar and William J. McGuire (Durham, NC, London: Duke University Press, 1993): 183-219; Muzafer Sherif O. J. Harvey, B. Jack White, William R. Hood and Carolyn Sherif, The Robbers Cave Experiment: Intergroup Conflict and Cooperation (Middletown, CT: Wesleyan University Press, 1988); and Henri Tajfel, ed, Differentiation between Social Groups: Studies in the Social Psychology of Intergroup Relations (London, New York, San Francisco: Academic Press, 1978). For a recent examination of identification in the context of peace operations, see Tom Woodhouse, "Peacekeeping and the Psychology of Conflict Resolution," in The Psychology of Peacekeeping, ed. Harvey J. Langholtz (Westport, CT: Praeger, 1998): 153-166.
15. See John C. Turner, Michael A. Hogg, Penelope J. Oakes, Stephen D. Reicher, and Margaret S. Wetherell, Rediscovering the Social Group: A Self-Categorization Theory (London: Basil Blackwell, 1987). For further detail on the conceptualization of the identification process see also Shana Levin and Jim Sidanius, "Social Dominance and Social Identity in the United States and Israel: Ingroup Favoritism or Outgroup Denigration," Political Psychology 20 (March 1999): 99-126; Jim Sidanius, Seymour Feshbach, Shana Levin, and Felicia Pratto, "The Interface between Ethnic and National Attachment: Ethnic Pluralism or Ethnic Dominance"? Public Opinion Quarterly 61 (1997): 102-133; Penelope J. Oakes, S. Alexander Haslam, and John C. Turner. Stereotyping and Social Reality (Oxford, UK, and Cambridge, MA: Blackwell, 1994); Jim Sidanius, "The Psychology of Group Conflict and the Dynamics of Oppression: A Social Dominance Perspective," in Explorations in Political Psychology, ed. Shanto Iyengar and William J. McGuire (Durham, NC, London: Duke University Press, 1993): 183-219; Muzafer Sherif O. J. Harvey, B. Jack White, William R. Hood and Carolyn Sherif, The Robbers Cave Experiment: Intergroup Conflict and Cooperation (Middletown, CT: Wesleyan University Press, 1988); and Henri Tajfel, ed, Differentiation between Social Groups: Studies in the Social Psychology of Intergroup Relations (London, New York, San Francisco: Academic Press, 1978). For a recent examination of identification in the context of peace operations, see Tom Woodhouse, "Peacekeeping and the Psychology of Conflict Resolution," in The Psychology of Peacekeeping, ed. Harvey J. Langholtz (Westport, CT: Praeger, 1998): 153-166.
16. See John C. Turner, Michael A. Hogg, Penelope J. Oakes, Stephen D. Reicher, and Margaret S. Wetherell, Rediscovering the Social Group: A Self-Categorization Theory (London: Basil Blackwell, 1987). For further detail on the conceptualization of the identification process see also Shana Levin and Jim Sidanius, "Social Dominance and Social Identity in the United States and Israel: Ingroup Favoritism or Outgroup Denigration," Political Psychology 20 (March 1999): 99-126; Jim Sidanius, Seymour Feshbach, Shana Levin, and Felicia Pratto, "The Interface between Ethnic and National Attachment: Ethnic Pluralism or Ethnic Dominance"? Public Opinion Quarterly 61 (1997): 102-133; Penelope J. Oakes, S. Alexander Haslam, and John C. Turner. Stereotyping and Social Reality (Oxford, UK, and Cambridge, MA: Blackwell, 1994); Jim Sidanius, "The Psychology of Group Conflict and the Dynamics of Oppression: A Social Dominance Perspective," in Explorations in Political Psychology, ed. Shanto Iyengar and William J. McGuire (Durham, NC, London: Duke University Press, 1993): 183-219; Muzafer Sherif O. J. Harvey, B. Jack White, William R. Hood and Carolyn Sherif, The Robbers Cave Experiment: Intergroup Conflict and Cooperation (Middletown, CT: Wesleyan University Press, 1988); and Henri Tajfel, ed, Differentiation between Social Groups: Studies in the Social Psychology of Intergroup Relations (London, New York, San Francisco: Academic Press, 1978). For a recent examination of identification in the context of peace operations, see Tom Woodhouse, "Peacekeeping and the Psychology of Conflict Resolution," in The Psychology of Peacekeeping, ed. Harvey J. Langholtz (Westport, CT: Praeger, 1998): 153-166.
17. See John C. Turner, Michael A. Hogg, Penelope J. Oakes, Stephen D. Reicher, and Margaret S. Wetherell, Rediscovering the Social Group: A Self-Categorization Theory (London: Basil Blackwell, 1987). For further detail on the conceptualization of the identification process see also Shana Levin and Jim Sidanius, "Social Dominance and Social Identity in the United States and Israel: Ingroup Favoritism or Outgroup Denigration," Political Psychology 20 (March 1999): 99-126; Jim Sidanius, Seymour Feshbach, Shana Levin, and Felicia Pratto, "The Interface between Ethnic and National Attachment: Ethnic Pluralism or Ethnic Dominance"? Public Opinion Quarterly 61 (1997): 102-133; Penelope J. Oakes, S. Alexander Haslam, and John C. Turner. Stereotyping and Social Reality (Oxford, UK, and Cambridge, MA: Blackwell, 1994); Jim Sidanius, "The Psychology of Group Conflict and the Dynamics of Oppression: A Social Dominance Perspective," in Explorations in Political Psychology, ed. Shanto Iyengar and William J. McGuire (Durham, NC, London: Duke University Press, 1993): 183-219; Muzafer Sherif O. J. Harvey, B. Jack White, William R. Hood and Carolyn Sherif, The Robbers Cave Experiment: Intergroup Conflict and Cooperation (Middletown, CT: Wesleyan University Press, 1988); and Henri Tajfel, ed, Differentiation between Social Groups: Studies in the Social Psychology of Intergroup Relations (London, New York, San Francisco: Academic Press, 1978). For a recent examination of identification in the context of peace operations, see Tom Woodhouse, "Peacekeeping and the Psychology of Conflict Resolution," in The Psychology of Peacekeeping, ed. Harvey J. Langholtz (Westport, CT: Praeger, 1998): 153-166.
18. See John C. Turner, Michael A. Hogg, Penelope J. Oakes, Stephen D. Reicher, and Margaret S. Wetherell, Rediscovering the Social Group: A Self-Categorization Theory (London: Basil Blackwell, 1987). For further detail on the conceptualization of the identification process see also Shana Levin and Jim Sidanius, "Social Dominance and Social Identity in the United States and Israel: Ingroup Favoritism or Outgroup Denigration," Political Psychology 20 (March 1999): 99-126; Jim Sidanius, Seymour Feshbach, Shana Levin, and Felicia Pratto, "The Interface between Ethnic and National Attachment: Ethnic Pluralism or Ethnic Dominance"? Public Opinion Quarterly 61 (1997): 102-133; Penelope J. Oakes, S. Alexander Haslam, and John C. Turner. Stereotyping and Social Reality (Oxford, UK, and Cambridge, MA: Blackwell, 1994); Jim Sidanius, "The Psychology of Group Conflict and the Dynamics of Oppression: A Social Dominance Perspective," in Explorations in Political Psychology, ed. Shanto Iyengar and William J. McGuire (Durham, NC, London: Duke University Press, 1993): 183-219; Muzafer Sherif O. J. Harvey, B. Jack White, William R. Hood and Carolyn Sherif, The Robbers Cave Experiment: Intergroup Conflict and Cooperation (Middletown, CT: Wesleyan University Press, 1988); and Henri Tajfel, ed, Differentiation between Social Groups: Studies in the Social Psychology of Intergroup Relations (London, New York, San Francisco: Academic Press, 1978). For a recent examination of identification in the context of peace operations, see Tom Woodhouse, "Peacekeeping and the Psychology of Conflict Resolution," in The Psychology of Peacekeeping, ed. Harvey J. Langholtz (Westport, CT: Praeger, 1998): 153-166.
19. See John C. Turner, Michael A. Hogg, Penelope J. Oakes, Stephen D. Reicher, and Margaret S. Wetherell, Rediscovering the Social Group: A Self-Categorization Theory (London: Basil Blackwell, 1987). For further detail on the conceptualization of the identification process see also Shana Levin and Jim Sidanius, "Social Dominance and Social Identity in the United States and Israel: Ingroup Favoritism or Outgroup Denigration," Political Psychology 20 (March 1999): 99-126; Jim Sidanius, Seymour Feshbach, Shana Levin, and Felicia Pratto, "The Interface between Ethnic and National Attachment: Ethnic Pluralism or Ethnic Dominance"? Public Opinion Quarterly 61 (1997): 102-133; Penelope J. Oakes, S. Alexander Haslam, and John C. Turner. Stereotyping and Social Reality (Oxford, UK, and Cambridge, MA: Blackwell, 1994); Jim Sidanius, "The Psychology of Group Conflict and the Dynamics of Oppression: A Social Dominance Perspective," in Explorations in Political Psychology, ed. Shanto Iyengar and William J. McGuire (Durham, NC, London: Duke University Press, 1993): 183-219; Muzafer Sherif O. J. Harvey, B. Jack White, William R. Hood and Carolyn Sherif, The Robbers Cave Experiment: Intergroup Conflict and Cooperation (Middletown, CT: Wesleyan University Press, 1988); and Henri Tajfel, ed, Differentiation between Social Groups: Studies in the Social Psychology of Intergroup Relations (London, New York, San Francisco: Academic Press, 1978). For a recent examination of identification in the context of peace operations, see Tom Woodhouse, "Peacekeeping and the Psychology of Conflict Resolution," in The Psychology of Peacekeeping, ed. Harvey J. Langholtz (Westport, CT: Praeger, 1998): 153-166.
20. See John C. Turner, Michael A. Hogg, Penelope J. Oakes, Stephen D. Reicher, and Margaret S. Wetherell, Rediscovering the Social Group: A Self-Categorization Theory (London: Basil Blackwell, 1987). For further detail on the conceptualization of the identification process see also Shana Levin and Jim Sidanius, "Social Dominance and Social Identity in the United States and Israel: Ingroup Favoritism or Outgroup Denigration," Political Psychology 20 (March 1999): 99-126; Jim Sidanius, Seymour Feshbach, Shana Levin, and Felicia Pratto, "The Interface between Ethnic and National Attachment: Ethnic Pluralism or Ethnic Dominance"? Public Opinion Quarterly 61 (1997): 102-133; Penelope J. Oakes, S. Alexander Haslam, and John C. Turner. Stereotyping and Social Reality (Oxford, UK, and Cambridge, MA: Blackwell, 1994); Jim Sidanius, "The Psychology of Group Conflict and the Dynamics of Oppression: A Social Dominance Perspective," in Explorations in Political Psychology, ed. Shanto Iyengar and William J. McGuire (Durham, NC, London: Duke University Press, 1993): 183-219; Muzafer Sherif O. J. Harvey, B. Jack White, William R. Hood and Carolyn Sherif, The Robbers Cave Experiment: Intergroup Conflict and Cooperation (Middletown, CT: Wesleyan University Press, 1988); and Henri Tajfel, ed, Differentiation between Social Groups: Studies in the Social Psychology of Intergroup Relations (London, New York, San Francisco: Academic Press, 1978). For a recent examination of identification in the context of peace operations, see Tom Woodhouse, "Peacekeeping and the Psychology of Conflict Resolution," in The Psychology of Peacekeeping, ed. Harvey J. Langholtz (Westport, CT: Praeger, 1998): 153-166.
21. See Tajfel, Differentiation between Social Groups; and Turner et al., Rediscovering the Social Group. The authors referred to the social categories to which subjects were assigned as "minimal groups" because the experiments were designed so that: (1) the intergroup categorization itself was ad hoc and based on very trivial criteria; (2) there was no previous social interaction among subjects; (3) complete anonymity of group membership was preserved; and (4) there was no rational or instrumental link between the subject's self-interest and/or the criteria for group classification and a strategy of responding in terms of in-group favoritism.
22. See Tajfel, Differentiation between Social Groups; and Turner et al., Rediscovering the Social Group. The authors referred to the social categories to which subjects were assigned as "minimal groups" because the experiments were designed so that: (1) the intergroup categorization itself was ad hoc and based on very trivial criteria; (2) there was no previous social interaction among subjects; (3) complete anonymity of group membership was preserved; and (4) there was no rational or instrumental link between the subject's self-interest and/or the criteria for group classification and a strategy of responding in terms of in-group favoritism.
23. For a more detail account of the impact of basic training on soldiers' identity, see Donna Winslow, The Canadian Airborne Regiment in Somalia; and Sanford M. Dornbusch, "The Military Academy as an Assimilating Institution," Social Forces 33 (1955): 316-321. For further detail on cadet basic training at USMA, see Franke, Preparing for Peace; and Robert F. Priest and Johnston Beach, "Cadets' Values, Changes after Basic Training: A Ten-Year Comparison." Paper presented at the 96th Annual Convention of the American Psychological Association in Atlanta, GA, August 14, 1988.
24. For a more detail account of the impact of basic training on soldiers' identity, see Donna Winslow, The Canadian Airborne Regiment in Somalia; and Sanford M. Dornbusch, "The Military Academy as an Assimilating Institution," Social Forces 33 (1955): 316-321. For further detail on cadet basic training at USMA, see Franke, Preparing for Peace; and Robert F. Priest and Johnston Beach, "Cadets' Values, Changes after Basic Training: A Ten-Year Comparison." Paper presented at the 96th Annual Convention of the American Psychological Association in Atlanta, GA, August 14, 1988.
25. For a more detail account of the impact of basic training on soldiers' identity, see Donna Winslow, The Canadian Airborne Regiment in Somalia; and Sanford M. Dornbusch, "The Military Academy as an Assimilating Institution," Social Forces 33 (1955): 316-321. For further detail on cadet basic training at USMA, see Franke, Preparing for Peace; and Robert F. Priest and Johnston Beach, "Cadets' Values, Changes after Basic Training: A Ten-Year Comparison." Paper presented at the 96th Annual Convention of the American Psychological Association in Atlanta, GA, August 14, 1988.
26. For a more detail account of the impact of basic training on soldiers' identity, see Donna Winslow, The Canadian Airborne Regiment in Somalia; and Sanford M. Dornbusch, "The Military Academy as an Assimilating Institution," Social Forces 33 (1955): 316-321. For further detail on cadet basic training at USMA, see Franke, Preparing for Peace; and Robert F. Priest and Johnston Beach, "Cadets' Values, Changes after Basic Training: A Ten-Year Comparison." Paper presented at the 96th Annual Convention of the American Psychological Association in Atlanta, GA, August 14, 1988.
27. See Britt, "Psychological Ambiguities in Peacekeeping"; Laura L. Miller and Charles Moskos, "Humanitarians or Warriors?: Race, Gender, and Combat Status in Operation Restore Hope." Armed Forces & Society 21 (Summer 1995): 615-637; and David R. Segal and Mady Wechsler Segal, Peacekeepers and their Wives: American Participation in the Multinational Force and Observers (Westport, CT: Greenwood, 1993).
28. See Britt, "Psychological Ambiguities in Peacekeeping"; Laura L. Miller and Charles Moskos, "Humanitarians or Warriors?: Race, Gender, and Combat Status in Operation Restore Hope." Armed Forces & Society 21 (Summer 1995): 615-637; and David R. Segal and Mady Wechsler Segal, Peacekeepers and their Wives: American Participation in the Multinational Force and Observers (Westport, CT: Greenwood, 1993).
29. See Britt, "Psychological Ambiguities in Peacekeeping"; Laura L. Miller and Charles Moskos, "Humanitarians or Warriors?: Race, Gender, and Combat Status in Operation Restore Hope." Armed Forces & Society 21 (Summer 1995): 615-637; and David R. Segal and Mady Wechsler Segal, Peacekeepers and their Wives: American Participation in the Multinational Force and Observers (Westport, CT: Greenwood, 1993).
30. The survey was pilot-tested on a sample of students enrolled in the Army Reserve Officer Training Corps (ROTC) program at a private northeastern university. Items that did not correlate significantly with the scale factors or discriminate sufficiently between respondents were eliminated. Items that respondents found ambiguous were reworded or deleted altogether. Construct validity of the scales was established by comparing survey responses across different samples. In each case, the relationships between the variables confirmed initial expectations, thus strengthening the validity of the value scales. For instance, as was expected, cadets in the West Point sample who selected combat arms branches as their desired officer specialty tended to be more warrioristic and less supportive of the United Nations than cadets who chose combat support or combat service support branches. Also, male cadets tended to be more warrioristic and patriotic than female cadets. In addition, USMA cadets were significantly more warrioristic, more patriotic, more conservative, but less supportive of the United Nations than their civilian peers attending a private northeastern university. For a detailed account of these results, see Franke, Preparing for Peace.
31. "Patriotism" as a value orientation may range from a primordial attachment to a territorial society or a deeply felt emotional sense of belonging to a desire to serve one's country that is not necessarily limited to military service. Janowitz has labeled the latter form of patriotism "civic consciousness." See Morris Janowitz, The Reconstruction of Patriotism: Education for Civic Consciousness (Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press, 1983). See also James S. Burk, ed., The Military in New Times: Adapting Armed Force to a Turbulent World (Boulder, CO, Westview Press, 1994). While definitions may vary, patriotism in the U.S. military is intimately linked with fighting in defense of the nation and American values. For instance, the Code of Conduct for Members of the U.S. Armed Forces states, "I am an American, fighting in the forces which guard my country and our way of life. I am prepared to give my life in their defense." Quoted in United States Military Academy, "Cadet Leader Development System, CBT '95," (West Point, NY: USCC Circular 351-2, 1995), D-38.
32. "Patriotism" as a value orientation may range from a primordial attachment to a territorial society or a deeply felt emotional sense of belonging to a desire to serve one's country that is not necessarily limited to military service. Janowitz has labeled the latter form of patriotism "civic consciousness." See Morris Janowitz, The Reconstruction of Patriotism: Education for Civic Consciousness (Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press, 1983). See also James S. Burk, ed., The Military in New Times: Adapting Armed Force to a Turbulent World (Boulder, CO, Westview Press, 1994). While definitions may vary, patriotism in the U.S. military is intimately linked with fighting in defense of the nation and American values. For instance, the Code of Conduct for Members of the U.S. Armed Forces states, "I am an American, fighting in the forces which guard my country and our way of life. I am prepared to give my life in their defense." Quoted in United States Military Academy, "Cadet Leader Development System, CBT '95," (West Point, NY: USCC Circular 351-2, 1995), D-38.
33. "Patriotism" as a value orientation may range from a primordial attachment to a territorial society or a deeply felt emotional sense of belonging to a desire to serve one's country that is not necessarily limited to military service. Janowitz has labeled the latter form of patriotism "civic consciousness." See Morris Janowitz, The Reconstruction of Patriotism: Education for Civic Consciousness (Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press, 1983). See also James S. Burk, ed., The Military in New Times: Adapting Armed Force to a Turbulent World (Boulder, CO, Westview Press, 1994). While definitions may vary, patriotism in the U.S. military is intimately linked with fighting in defense of the nation and American values. For instance, the Code of Conduct for Members of the U.S. Armed Forces states, "I am an American, fighting in the forces which guard my country and our way of life. I am prepared to give my life in their defense." Quoted in United States Military Academy, "Cadet Leader Development System, CBT '95," (West Point, NY: USCC Circular 351-2, 1995), D-38.
34. Apart from the values measured in this context, military socialization also promotes loyalty, duty, selfless service, courage, integrity, respect for human dignity, and a sense of justice. However, since these values are equally important cognitive referents guiding operational decisions during combat and noncombat assignments, their utility in discriminating among cadets is limited. Moreover, since military socialization at USMA enhances the centrality of warriorism and patriotism, particularly for cadets with a preference for serving in a combat arms branch, the present analysis focuses on these values. For further detail, see Franke, Preparing for Peace.
35. The following scale results were obtained for the sample as a whole: (1) six-item patriotism scale (PAT: M = 3.87, SD = 0.59, range = 1.50-5.00; Cronbach's alpha = 0.69); (2) seven-item warriorism scale (WAR: M = 3.60, SD = 0.61, range = 1.71-5.00-Cronbach's alpha = 0.73); (3) and three-item global institutionalism scale (GLOB: M = 2.81, SD = 0.86, range = 1.00-5.00; Cronbach's alpha = 0.66). Boxplots and normal probability plots generated separately for each scale showed that the scale values for the response sample were normally distributed.
36. Although constructed conceptually as separate scales, the underlying value orientations are not necessarily distinct. In fact, the factor matrix for the scales revealed moderate correlations of two peacekeeping items used in the warriorism scale with the globalism factor. This illustrates overlap between values and indicates a strong correlation between, in this case, attitudes toward the United Nations and peacekeeping operations.
37. See, for instance, Michael Hooper, "A Multivariate Approach to the Measurement and Analysis of Social Identity," Psychological Reports 57 (1985): 315-325; and Tajfel, Differentiation between Social Groups.
38. See, for instance, Michael Hooper, "A Multivariate Approach to the Measurement and Analysis of Social Identity," Psychological Reports 57 (1985): 315-325; and Tajfel, Differentiation between Social Groups.
39. For instance, specific cadet company names (e.g., "E-3" or "H-4") that indicate identification with that particular cadet company were classified as "cadet company." Less inclusive classification codes for identifications with the military included "class of 19?? [year of graduation]," "U.S. Corps of Cadets (USCC)," or "Army" in general. All of these identifications were recorded as separate subcategories of the "military/ soldier" identity. Based on cadets' responses, similar classification schemes were devised for "religious," "ethnic/racial," "geographic," "ideological/ political," "social issues " "gender " and "other" social reference groups. Subsequent analyses compared cadets' responses by degree of reference group specificity for each classification scheme (e.g., "military" or "Army" versus "E-4 company"). No statistically significant differences were found.
40. Initial agreement among the judges was high (interrater reliability of .9514). The interrater reliability was computed as (n-d)/n, where n = number of total ratings and d = number of disagreements. Note that consistent disagreements, i.e., when coders consistently disagreed in the same way on how to classify a particular response, were included only once in the number of disagreements. For instance, one judge consistently coded "American" or "U.S. Citizen" with the code for "Country/U.S.," while the other judge consistently coded this as "Ethnic." Discussing coding differences with the judges led to agreement on the same numeric code for each entry, thereby improving the interrater reliability to 1.00. Discussing judges' reasons for assigning a particular code revealed coding biases due to differing life experiences of judges and the researcher. In agreeing on the same code, those biases were excluded from the analysis.
41. See Priest and Beach, "Cadets' Values, Changes after Basic Training;" and Dornbusch, "The Military Academy as an Assimilating Institution."
42. See Priest and Beach, "Cadets' Values, Changes after Basic Training;" and Dornbusch, "The Military Academy as an Assimilating Institution."
43. See Franke, Preparing for Peace; and John P. Hammill, David R. Segal, and Mady Wechsler-Segal, "Self-Selection and Parental Socioeconomic Status as Determinants of the Values of West Point Cadets." Armed Forces & Society 22 (Fall 1995): 103-115.
44. See Franke, Preparing for Peace; and John P. Hammill, David R. Segal, and Mady Wechsler-Segal, "Self-Selection and Parental Socioeconomic Status as Determinants of the Values of West Point Cadets." Armed Forces & Society 22 (Fall 1995): 103-115.
45. See Franke, Preparing for Peace; and John P. Lovell, "The Professional Socialization of the West Point Cadet," in The New Military, ed. Morris Janowitz (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1964).
46. See Franke, Preparing for Peace; and John P. Lovell, "The Professional Socialization of the West Point Cadet," in The New Military, ed. Morris Janowitz (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1964).
47. See Karen O. Dunivin, "Military Culture: Change and Continuity," Armed Forces & Society 20 (Summer 1994): 531-547; and Sara Ruddick, Maternal Thinking: Towards a Politics of Peace (Boston: Beacon Press, 1989).
48. See Karen O. Dunivin, "Military Culture: Change and Continuity," Armed Forces & Society 20 (Summer 1994): 531-547; and Sara Ruddick, Maternal Thinking: Towards a Politics of Peace (Boston: Beacon Press, 1989).
49. See United States Military Academy, "Cadet Leader Development System" (West Point, NY: USMA Circular 1-101, 1994).
50. A 1994 report by the U.S. General Accounting Office suggested that over 90 percent of female cadets at West Point had experienced one or more forms of sexual harassment on a regular basis. See United States General Accounting Office, "DOD Service Academies: More Actions Needed to Eliminate Sexual Harassment." (United States General Accounting Office: Washington, DC, January 1994); and Craig R Bullis and Leonard Wong, Sexual Harassment at West Point: The October 20 Spirit Run Incident. Paper presented to the biennial conference of the Inter-University Seminar on Armed Forces and Society in Baltimore, MD. October 1995. A 1994 survey of USMA cadets found that consistently more than half of male cadets felt "totally accepted by their classmates," while less than one-third of female cadets felt accepted. See United States Military Academy, Office of Policy, Planning & Analysis, "Presentation on Race/Gender Trends and Issues for Considerations of Others Advisory Council" (West Point, NY, October 1994). Furthermore, while more than two-thirds of female cadets believed that "men and women are good for the Army/ USMA," less than one-third of male cadets agreed. Interestingly, more female than male cadets agreed that "the integration of women has been a success" (66% of female vs. 54% of male cadets).
51. A 1994 report by the U.S. General Accounting Office suggested that over 90 percent of female cadets at West Point had experienced one or more forms of sexual harassment on a regular basis. See United States General Accounting Office, "DOD Service Academies: More Actions Needed to Eliminate Sexual Harassment." (United States General Accounting Office: Washington, DC, January 1994); and Craig R Bullis and Leonard Wong, Sexual Harassment at West Point: The October 20 Spirit Run Incident. Paper presented to the biennial conference of the Inter-University Seminar on Armed Forces and Society in Baltimore, MD. October 1995. A 1994 survey of USMA cadets found that consistently more than half of male cadets felt "totally accepted by their classmates," while less than one-third of female cadets felt accepted. See United States Military Academy, Office of Policy, Planning & Analysis, "Presentation on Race/Gender Trends and Issues for Considerations of Others Advisory Council" (West Point, NY, October 1994). Furthermore, while more than two-thirds of female cadets believed that "men and women are good for the Army/ USMA," less than one-third of male cadets agreed. Interestingly, more female than male cadets agreed that "the integration of women has been a success" (66% of female vs. 54% of male cadets).
52. A 1994 report by the U.S. General Accounting Office suggested that over 90 percent of female cadets at West Point had experienced one or more forms of sexual harassment on a regular basis. See United States General Accounting Office, "DOD Service Academies: More Actions Needed to Eliminate Sexual Harassment." (United States General Accounting Office: Washington, DC, January 1994); and Craig R Bullis and Leonard Wong, Sexual Harassment at West Point: The October 20 Spirit Run Incident. Paper presented to the biennial conference of the Inter-University Seminar on Armed Forces and Society in Baltimore, MD. October 1995. A 1994 survey of USMA cadets found that consistently more than half of male cadets felt "totally accepted by their classmates," while less than one-third of female cadets felt accepted. See United States Military Academy, Office of Policy, Planning & Analysis, "Presentation on Race/Gender Trends and Issues for Considerations of Others Advisory Council" (West Point, NY, October 1994). Furthermore, while more than two-thirds of female cadets believed that "men and women are good for the Army/ USMA," less than one-third of male cadets agreed. Interestingly, more female than male cadets agreed that "the integration of women has been a success" (66% of female vs. 54% of male cadets).
53. For instance, observed differences across classes might be attributable to the overall greater maturity of First Class cadets (seniors) as a result of their college and general life experiences. See Paul M. Sniderman, Richard A. Brody, and Phillip E. Tetlock, Reasoning and Choice: Explorations in Political Psychology (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991). In addition, differences in value orientations or reference group identifications might also be attributable in part to the fact that First Class cadets had experienced most of their adolescent political socialization during the final phase of the Cold War period, whereas most Fourth Class cadets had not even entered adolescence until the Cold War had ended. See Franke, Preparing for Peace.
54. For instance, observed differences across classes might be attributable to the overall greater maturity of First Class cadets (seniors) as a result of their college and general life experiences. See Paul M. Sniderman, Richard A. Brody, and Phillip E. Tetlock, Reasoning and Choice: Explorations in Political Psychology (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991). In addition, differences in value orientations or reference group identifications might also be attributable in part to the fact that First Class cadets had experienced most of their adolescent political socialization during the final phase of the Cold War period, whereas most Fourth Class cadets had not even entered adolescence until the Cold War had ended. See Franke, Preparing for Peace.
55. See David Wellman, Portraits of White Racism (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2nd ed., 1993); Brewer, "The Social Self," and Sniderman, Brody, and Tetlock, Reasoning and Choice.
56. See David Wellman, Portraits of White Racism (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2nd ed., 1993); Brewer, "The Social Self," and Sniderman, Brody, and Tetlock, Reasoning and Choice.
57. See David Wellman, Portraits of White Racism (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2nd ed., 1993); Brewer, "The Social Self," and Sniderman, Brody, and Tetlock, Reasoning and Choice.
58. See John H. Faris, "The Looking-Glass Army: Patriotism in the Post-Cold War Era," Armed Forces & Society 21 (Spring 1995): 411-434.
59. See, for instance, William Bloom, Personal Identity, National Identity and International Relations (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990).
60. See Levin and Sidanius, "Social Dominance and Social Identity in the United States and Israel;" Sidanius, Feshbach, Levin, and Pratto, "The Interface between Ethnic and National Attachment;" Marilynn B. Brewer and Joseph G. Weber, "Self-Evaluation Effects of Interpersonal versus Intergroup Social Comparison." Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 66 (2 1994): 268-275; Sidanius, "The Psychology of Group Conflict and the Dynamics of Oppression"; Jim Sidanius, Erik Devereux, and Felicia Pratto, "A Comparison of Symbolic Racism and Social Dominance Theory as Explanations for Racial Policy Attitudes," The Journal of Social Psychology 132 (1992): 377-395; Brewer, "The Social Self," and Stuart Hall, "Ethnicity: Identity and Difference." Radical America 23 (1989): 9-20. For an account of out-group denigration during Operation Restore Hope in Somalia, see Winslow, The Canadian Airborne Regiment in Somalia; and Miller and Moskos, "Humanitarians or Warriors?"
61. See Levin and Sidanius, "Social Dominance and Social Identity in the United States and Israel;" Sidanius, Feshbach, Levin, and Pratto, "The Interface between Ethnic and National Attachment;" Marilynn B. Brewer and Joseph G. Weber, "Self-Evaluation Effects of Interpersonal versus Intergroup Social Comparison." Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 66 (2 1994): 268-275; Sidanius, "The Psychology of Group Conflict and the Dynamics of Oppression"; Jim Sidanius, Erik Devereux, and Felicia Pratto, "A Comparison of Symbolic Racism and Social Dominance Theory as Explanations for Racial Policy Attitudes," The Journal of Social Psychology 132 (1992): 377-395; Brewer, "The Social Self," and Stuart Hall, "Ethnicity: Identity and Difference." Radical America 23 (1989): 9-20. For an account of out-group denigration during Operation Restore Hope in Somalia, see Winslow, The Canadian Airborne Regiment in Somalia; and Miller and Moskos, "Humanitarians or Warriors?"
62. See Levin and Sidanius, "Social Dominance and Social Identity in the United States and Israel;" Sidanius, Feshbach, Levin, and Pratto, "The Interface between Ethnic and National Attachment;" Marilynn B. Brewer and Joseph G. Weber, "Self-Evaluation Effects of Interpersonal versus Intergroup Social Comparison." Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 66 (2 1994): 268-275; Sidanius, "The Psychology of Group Conflict and the Dynamics of Oppression"; Jim Sidanius, Erik Devereux, and Felicia Pratto, "A Comparison of Symbolic Racism and Social Dominance Theory as Explanations for Racial Policy Attitudes," The Journal of Social Psychology 132 (1992): 377-395; Brewer, "The Social Self," and Stuart Hall, "Ethnicity: Identity and Difference." Radical America 23 (1989): 9-20. For an account of out-group denigration during Operation Restore Hope in Somalia, see Winslow, The Canadian Airborne Regiment in Somalia; and Miller and Moskos, "Humanitarians or Warriors?"
63. See Levin and Sidanius, "Social Dominance and Social Identity in the United States and Israel;" Sidanius, Feshbach, Levin, and Pratto, "The Interface between Ethnic and National Attachment;" Marilynn B. Brewer and Joseph G. Weber, "Self-Evaluation Effects of Interpersonal versus Intergroup Social Comparison." Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 66 (2 1994): 268-275; Sidanius, "The Psychology of Group Conflict and the Dynamics of Oppression"; Jim Sidanius, Erik Devereux, and Felicia Pratto, "A Comparison of Symbolic Racism and Social Dominance Theory as Explanations for Racial Policy Attitudes," The Journal of Social Psychology 132 (1992): 377-395; Brewer, "The Social Self," and Stuart Hall, "Ethnicity: Identity and Difference." Radical America 23 (1989): 9-20. For an account of out-group denigration during Operation Restore Hope in Somalia, see Winslow, The Canadian Airborne Regiment in Somalia; and Miller and Moskos, "Humanitarians or Warriors?"
64. See Levin and Sidanius, "Social Dominance and Social Identity in the United States and Israel;" Sidanius, Feshbach, Levin, and Pratto, "The Interface between Ethnic and National Attachment;" Marilynn B. Brewer and Joseph G. Weber, "Self-Evaluation Effects of Interpersonal versus Intergroup Social Comparison." Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 66 (2 1994): 268-275; Sidanius, "The Psychology of Group Conflict and the Dynamics of Oppression"; Jim Sidanius, Erik Devereux, and Felicia Pratto, "A Comparison of Symbolic Racism and Social Dominance Theory as Explanations for Racial Policy Attitudes," The Journal of Social Psychology 132 (1992): 377-395; Brewer, "The Social Self," and Stuart Hall, "Ethnicity: Identity and Difference." Radical America 23 (1989): 9-20. For an account of out-group denigration during Operation Restore Hope in Somalia, see Winslow, The Canadian Airborne Regiment in Somalia; and Miller and Moskos, "Humanitarians or Warriors?"
65. See Levin and Sidanius, "Social Dominance and Social Identity in the United States and Israel;" Sidanius, Feshbach, Levin, and Pratto, "The Interface between Ethnic and National Attachment;" Marilynn B. Brewer and Joseph G. Weber, "Self-Evaluation Effects of Interpersonal versus Intergroup Social Comparison." Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 66 (2 1994): 268-275; Sidanius, "The Psychology of Group Conflict and the Dynamics of Oppression"; Jim Sidanius, Erik Devereux, and Felicia Pratto, "A Comparison of Symbolic Racism and Social Dominance Theory as Explanations for Racial Policy Attitudes," The Journal of Social Psychology 132 (1992): 377-395; Brewer, "The Social Self," and Stuart Hall, "Ethnicity: Identity and Difference." Radical America 23 (1989): 9-20. For an account of out-group denigration during Operation Restore Hope in Somalia, see Winslow, The Canadian Airborne Regiment in Somalia; and Miller and Moskos, "Humanitarians or Warriors?"
66. See Levin and Sidanius, "Social Dominance and Social Identity in the United States and Israel;" Sidanius, Feshbach, Levin, and Pratto, "The Interface between Ethnic and National Attachment;" Marilynn B. Brewer and Joseph G. Weber, "Self-Evaluation Effects of Interpersonal versus Intergroup Social Comparison." Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 66 (2 1994): 268-275; Sidanius, "The Psychology of Group Conflict and the Dynamics of Oppression"; Jim Sidanius, Erik Devereux, and Felicia Pratto, "A Comparison of Symbolic Racism and Social Dominance Theory as Explanations for Racial Policy Attitudes," The Journal of Social Psychology 132 (1992): 377-395; Brewer, "The Social Self," and Stuart Hall, "Ethnicity: Identity and Difference." Radical America 23 (1989): 9-20. For an account of out-group denigration during Operation Restore Hope in Somalia, see Winslow, The Canadian Airborne Regiment in Somalia; and Miller and Moskos, "Humanitarians or Warriors?"
67. See Levin and Sidanius, "Social Dominance and Social Identity in the United States and Israel;" Sidanius, Feshbach, Levin, and Pratto, "The Interface between Ethnic and National Attachment;" Marilynn B. Brewer and Joseph G. Weber, "Self-Evaluation Effects of Interpersonal versus Intergroup Social Comparison." Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 66 (2 1994): 268-275; Sidanius, "The Psychology of Group Conflict and the Dynamics of Oppression"; Jim Sidanius, Erik Devereux, and Felicia Pratto, "A Comparison of Symbolic Racism and Social Dominance Theory as Explanations for Racial Policy Attitudes," The Journal of Social Psychology 132 (1992): 377-395; Brewer, "The Social Self," and Stuart Hall, "Ethnicity: Identity and Difference." Radical America 23 (1989): 9-20. For an account of out-group denigration during Operation Restore Hope in Somalia, see Winslow, The Canadian Airborne Regiment in Somalia; and Miller and Moskos, "Humanitarians or Warriors?"
68. See Levin and Sidanius, "Social Dominance and Social Identity in the United States and Israel;" Sidanius, Feshbach, Levin, and Pratto, "The Interface between Ethnic and National Attachment;" Marilynn B. Brewer and Joseph G. Weber, "Self-Evaluation Effects of Interpersonal versus Intergroup Social Comparison." Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 66 (2 1994): 268-275; Sidanius, "The Psychology of Group Conflict and the Dynamics of Oppression"; Jim Sidanius, Erik Devereux, and Felicia Pratto, "A Comparison of Symbolic Racism and Social Dominance Theory as Explanations for Racial Policy Attitudes," The Journal of Social Psychology 132 (1992): 377-395; Brewer, "The Social Self," and Stuart Hall,