Car culture and global environmental politics

Review of International Studies

Volumn 26, Issue 2, 2000, Pages 253-270

  Paterson, Matthew ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 0034400430     PISSN: 02602105     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/S0260210500002539     Document Type: Article

References (149)

1. For example Ronnie D. Lipschutz and Ken Conca (eds.), The State and Social Power in Global Environmental Politics (New York: Columbia University Press, 1993), pp. 306-26; Simon Dalby, 'Security, Modernity, Ecology: the dilemmas of post-Cold War security discourse', Alternatives, 17:1 (1992); Peter Doran, 'Earth, Power, Knowledge: Towards a Critical Global Environmental Politics', in John MacMillan and Andrew Linklater (eds.), Boundaries in Question: New Directions in International Relations (London: Pinter, 1995), pp. 193-211; Lorraine Elliott, The Global Politics of the Environment (London: Macmillan, 1998); Thom Kuehls, Beyond Sovereign Territory: The Space of Ecopolitics (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1996); Karen Litfin, Ozone Discourses: Science and Politics in Global Environmental Cooperation (New York: Columbia University Press, 1994); Matthew Paterson, 'Radicalizing regimes? Ecology and the Critique of IR Theory', in John MacMillan and Andrew Linklater, Boundaries in Question, pp. 212-27; Anne Sisson Runyan, 'The "State" of Nature: A Garden Unfit for Women and Other Living Things', in V. Spike Peterson (ed.), Gendered States (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 1992); Julian Saurin, 'Global Environmental Degradation, Modernity and Environmental Knowledge', Environmental Politics, 2:4 (1993), pp. 46-64; Julian Saurin, 'International Relations, Social Ecology and the Globalization of Environmental Change', in Mark Imber and John Vogler (eds.), Environment and International Relations: Theories and Processes (London: Routledge, 1996), pp. 77-98.
2. For example Ronnie D. Lipschutz and Ken Conca (eds.), The State and Social Power in Global Environmental Politics (New York: Columbia University Press, 1993), pp. 306-26; Simon Dalby, 'Security, Modernity, Ecology: the dilemmas of post-Cold War security discourse', Alternatives, 17:1 (1992); Peter Doran, 'Earth, Power, Knowledge: Towards a Critical Global Environmental Politics', in John MacMillan and Andrew Linklater (eds.), Boundaries in Question: New Directions in International Relations (London: Pinter, 1995), pp. 193-211; Lorraine Elliott, The Global Politics of the Environment (London: Macmillan, 1998); Thom Kuehls, Beyond Sovereign Territory: The Space of Ecopolitics (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1996); Karen Litfin, Ozone Discourses: Science and Politics in Global Environmental Cooperation (New York: Columbia University Press, 1994); Matthew Paterson, 'Radicalizing regimes? Ecology and the Critique of IR Theory', in John MacMillan and Andrew Linklater, Boundaries in Question, pp. 212-27; Anne Sisson Runyan, 'The "State" of Nature: A Garden Unfit for Women and Other Living Things', in V. Spike Peterson (ed.), Gendered States (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 1992); Julian Saurin, 'Global Environmental Degradation, Modernity and Environmental Knowledge', Environmental Politics, 2:4 (1993), pp. 46-64; Julian Saurin, 'International Relations, Social Ecology and the Globalization of Environmental Change', in Mark Imber and John Vogler (eds.), Environment and International Relations: Theories and Processes (London: Routledge, 1996), pp. 77-98.
3. For example Ronnie D. Lipschutz and Ken Conca (eds.), The State and Social Power in Global Environmental Politics (New York: Columbia University Press, 1993), pp. 306-26; Simon Dalby, 'Security, Modernity, Ecology: the dilemmas of post-Cold War security discourse', Alternatives, 17:1 (1992); Peter Doran, 'Earth, Power, Knowledge: Towards a Critical Global Environmental Politics', in John MacMillan and Andrew Linklater (eds.), Boundaries in Question: New Directions in International Relations (London: Pinter, 1995), pp. 193-211; Lorraine Elliott, The Global Politics of the Environment (London: Macmillan, 1998); Thom Kuehls, Beyond Sovereign Territory: The Space of Ecopolitics (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1996); Karen Litfin, Ozone Discourses: Science and Politics in Global Environmental Cooperation (New York: Columbia University Press, 1994); Matthew Paterson, 'Radicalizing regimes? Ecology and the Critique of IR Theory', in John MacMillan and Andrew Linklater, Boundaries in Question, pp. 212-27; Anne Sisson Runyan, 'The "State" of Nature: A Garden Unfit for Women and Other Living Things', in V. Spike Peterson (ed.), Gendered States (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 1992); Julian Saurin, 'Global Environmental Degradation, Modernity and Environmental Knowledge', Environmental Politics, 2:4 (1993), pp. 46-64; Julian Saurin, 'International Relations, Social Ecology and the Globalization of Environmental Change', in Mark Imber and John Vogler (eds.), Environment and International Relations: Theories and Processes (London: Routledge, 1996), pp. 77-98.
4. For example Ronnie D. Lipschutz and Ken Conca (eds.), The State and Social Power in Global Environmental Politics (New York: Columbia University Press, 1993), pp. 306-26; Simon Dalby, 'Security, Modernity, Ecology: the dilemmas of post-Cold War security discourse', Alternatives, 17:1 (1992); Peter Doran, 'Earth, Power, Knowledge: Towards a Critical Global Environmental Politics', in John MacMillan and Andrew Linklater (eds.), Boundaries in Question: New Directions in International Relations (London: Pinter, 1995), pp. 193-211; Lorraine Elliott, The Global Politics of the Environment (London: Macmillan, 1998); Thom Kuehls, Beyond Sovereign Territory: The Space of Ecopolitics (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1996); Karen Litfin, Ozone Discourses: Science and Politics in Global Environmental Cooperation (New York: Columbia University Press, 1994); Matthew Paterson, 'Radicalizing regimes? Ecology and the Critique of IR Theory', in John MacMillan and Andrew Linklater, Boundaries in Question, pp. 212-27; Anne Sisson Runyan, 'The "State" of Nature: A Garden Unfit for Women and Other Living Things', in V. Spike Peterson (ed.), Gendered States (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 1992); Julian Saurin, 'Global Environmental Degradation, Modernity and Environmental Knowledge', Environmental Politics, 2:4 (1993), pp. 46-64; Julian Saurin, 'International Relations, Social Ecology and the Globalization of Environmental Change', in Mark Imber and John Vogler (eds.), Environment and International Relations: Theories and Processes (London: Routledge, 1996), pp. 77-98.
5. For example Ronnie D. Lipschutz and Ken Conca (eds.), The State and Social Power in Global Environmental Politics (New York: Columbia University Press, 1993), pp. 306-26; Simon Dalby, 'Security, Modernity, Ecology: the dilemmas of post-Cold War security discourse', Alternatives, 17:1 (1992); Peter Doran, 'Earth, Power, Knowledge: Towards a Critical Global Environmental Politics', in John MacMillan and Andrew Linklater (eds.), Boundaries in Question: New Directions in International Relations (London: Pinter, 1995), pp. 193-211; Lorraine Elliott, The Global Politics of the Environment (London: Macmillan, 1998); Thom Kuehls, Beyond Sovereign Territory: The Space of Ecopolitics (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1996); Karen Litfin, Ozone Discourses: Science and Politics in Global Environmental Cooperation (New York: Columbia University Press, 1994); Matthew Paterson, 'Radicalizing regimes? Ecology and the Critique of IR Theory', in John MacMillan and Andrew Linklater, Boundaries in Question, pp. 212-27; Anne Sisson Runyan, 'The "State" of Nature: A Garden Unfit for Women and Other Living Things', in V. Spike Peterson (ed.), Gendered States (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 1992); Julian Saurin, 'Global Environmental Degradation, Modernity and Environmental Knowledge', Environmental Politics, 2:4 (1993), pp. 46-64; Julian Saurin, 'International Relations, Social Ecology and the Globalization of Environmental Change', in Mark Imber and John Vogler (eds.), Environment and International Relations: Theories and Processes (London: Routledge, 1996), pp. 77-98.
6. For example Ronnie D. Lipschutz and Ken Conca (eds.), The State and Social Power in Global Environmental Politics (New York: Columbia University Press, 1993), pp. 306-26; Simon Dalby, 'Security, Modernity, Ecology: the dilemmas of post-Cold War security discourse', Alternatives, 17:1 (1992); Peter Doran, 'Earth, Power, Knowledge: Towards a Critical Global Environmental Politics', in John MacMillan and Andrew Linklater (eds.), Boundaries in Question: New Directions in International Relations (London: Pinter, 1995), pp. 193-211; Lorraine Elliott, The Global Politics of the Environment (London: Macmillan, 1998); Thom Kuehls, Beyond Sovereign Territory: The Space of Ecopolitics (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1996); Karen Litfin, Ozone Discourses: Science and Politics in Global Environmental Cooperation (New York: Columbia University Press, 1994); Matthew Paterson, 'Radicalizing regimes? Ecology and the Critique of IR Theory', in John MacMillan and Andrew Linklater, Boundaries in Question, pp. 212-27; Anne Sisson Runyan, 'The "State" of Nature: A Garden Unfit for Women and Other Living Things', in V. Spike Peterson (ed.), Gendered States (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 1992); Julian Saurin, 'Global Environmental Degradation, Modernity and Environmental Knowledge', Environmental Politics, 2:4 (1993), pp. 46-64; Julian Saurin, 'International Relations, Social Ecology and the Globalization of Environmental Change', in Mark Imber and John Vogler (eds.), Environment and International Relations: Theories and Processes (London: Routledge, 1996), pp. 77-98.
7. For example Ronnie D. Lipschutz and Ken Conca (eds.), The State and Social Power in Global Environmental Politics (New York: Columbia University Press, 1993), pp. 306-26; Simon Dalby, 'Security, Modernity, Ecology: the dilemmas of post-Cold War security discourse', Alternatives, 17:1 (1992); Peter Doran, 'Earth, Power, Knowledge: Towards a Critical Global Environmental Politics', in John MacMillan and Andrew Linklater (eds.), Boundaries in Question: New Directions in International Relations (London: Pinter, 1995), pp. 193-211; Lorraine Elliott, The Global Politics of the Environment (London: Macmillan, 1998); Thom Kuehls, Beyond Sovereign Territory: The Space of Ecopolitics (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1996); Karen Litfin, Ozone Discourses: Science and Politics in Global Environmental Cooperation (New York: Columbia University Press, 1994); Matthew Paterson, 'Radicalizing regimes? Ecology and the Critique of IR Theory', in John MacMillan and Andrew Linklater, Boundaries in Question, pp. 212-27; Anne Sisson Runyan, 'The "State" of Nature: A Garden Unfit for Women and Other Living Things', in V. Spike Peterson (ed.), Gendered States (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 1992); Julian Saurin, 'Global Environmental Degradation, Modernity and Environmental Knowledge', Environmental Politics, 2:4 (1993), pp. 46-64; Julian Saurin, 'International Relations, Social Ecology and the Globalization of Environmental Change', in Mark Imber and John Vogler (eds.), Environment and International Relations: Theories and Processes (London: Routledge, 1996), pp. 77-98.
8. For example Ronnie D. Lipschutz and Ken Conca (eds.), The State and Social Power in Global Environmental Politics (New York: Columbia University Press, 1993), pp. 306-26; Simon Dalby, 'Security, Modernity, Ecology: the dilemmas of post-Cold War security discourse', Alternatives, 17:1 (1992); Peter Doran, 'Earth, Power, Knowledge: Towards a Critical Global Environmental Politics', in John MacMillan and Andrew Linklater (eds.), Boundaries in Question: New Directions in International Relations (London: Pinter, 1995), pp. 193-211; Lorraine Elliott, The Global Politics of the Environment (London: Macmillan, 1998); Thom Kuehls, Beyond Sovereign Territory: The Space of Ecopolitics (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1996); Karen Litfin, Ozone Discourses: Science and Politics in Global Environmental Cooperation (New York: Columbia University Press, 1994); Matthew Paterson, 'Radicalizing regimes? Ecology and the Critique of IR Theory', in John MacMillan and Andrew Linklater, Boundaries in Question, pp. 212-27; Anne Sisson Runyan, 'The "State" of Nature: A Garden Unfit for Women and Other Living Things', in V. Spike Peterson (ed.), Gendered States (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 1992); Julian Saurin, 'Global Environmental Degradation, Modernity and Environmental Knowledge', Environmental Politics, 2:4 (1993), pp. 46-64; Julian Saurin, 'International Relations, Social Ecology and the Globalization of Environmental Change', in Mark Imber and John Vogler (eds.), Environment and International Relations: Theories and Processes (London: Routledge, 1996), pp. 77-98.
9. For example Ronnie D. Lipschutz and Ken Conca (eds.), The State and Social Power in Global Environmental Politics (New York: Columbia University Press, 1993), pp. 306-26; Simon Dalby, 'Security, Modernity, Ecology: the dilemmas of post-Cold War security discourse', Alternatives, 17:1 (1992); Peter Doran, 'Earth, Power, Knowledge: Towards a Critical Global Environmental Politics', in John MacMillan and Andrew Linklater (eds.), Boundaries in Question: New Directions in International Relations (London: Pinter, 1995), pp. 193-211; Lorraine Elliott, The Global Politics of the Environment (London: Macmillan, 1998); Thom Kuehls, Beyond Sovereign Territory: The Space of Ecopolitics (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1996); Karen Litfin, Ozone Discourses: Science and Politics in Global Environmental Cooperation (New York: Columbia University Press, 1994); Matthew Paterson, 'Radicalizing regimes? Ecology and the Critique of IR Theory', in John MacMillan and Andrew Linklater, Boundaries in Question, pp. 212-27; Anne Sisson Runyan, 'The "State" of Nature: A Garden Unfit for Women and Other Living Things', in V. Spike Peterson (ed.), Gendered States (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 1992); Julian Saurin, 'Global Environmental Degradation, Modernity and Environmental Knowledge', Environmental Politics, 2:4 (1993), pp. 46-64; Julian Saurin, 'International Relations, Social Ecology and the Globalization of Environmental Change', in Mark Imber and John Vogler (eds.), Environment and International Relations: Theories and Processes (London: Routledge, 1996), pp. 77-98.
10. For example Ronnie D. Lipschutz and Ken Conca (eds.), The State and Social Power in Global Environmental Politics (New York: Columbia University Press, 1993), pp. 306-26; Simon Dalby, 'Security, Modernity, Ecology: the dilemmas of post-Cold War security discourse', Alternatives, 17:1 (1992); Peter Doran, 'Earth, Power, Knowledge: Towards a Critical Global Environmental Politics', in John MacMillan and Andrew Linklater (eds.), Boundaries in Question: New Directions in International Relations (London: Pinter, 1995), pp. 193-211; Lorraine Elliott, The Global Politics of the Environment (London: Macmillan, 1998); Thom Kuehls, Beyond Sovereign Territory: The Space of Ecopolitics (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1996); Karen Litfin, Ozone Discourses: Science and Politics in Global Environmental Cooperation (New York: Columbia University Press, 1994); Matthew Paterson, 'Radicalizing regimes? Ecology and the Critique of IR Theory', in John MacMillan and Andrew Linklater, Boundaries in Question, pp. 212-27; Anne Sisson Runyan, 'The "State" of Nature: A Garden Unfit for Women and Other Living Things', in V. Spike Peterson (ed.), Gendered States (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 1992); Julian Saurin, 'Global Environmental Degradation, Modernity and Environmental Knowledge', Environmental Politics, 2:4 (1993), pp. 46-64; Julian Saurin, 'International Relations, Social Ecology and the Globalization of Environmental Change', in Mark Imber and John Vogler (eds.), Environment and International Relations: Theories and Processes (London: Routledge, 1996), pp. 77-98.
11. Eric Helleiner,'International Political Economy and the Greens', New Political Economy, 1:1 (1996), pp. 59-78; Eric Laferriere, 'Emancipating International Relations Theory: An Ecological Perspective', Millennium, 25:1 (1996), pp. 53-76; Eric Laferriere and Peter Stoett, Ecological Thought and International Relations Theory (London: Routledge, 1999); Matthew Paterson, 'Green Politics', in Scott Burchill (ed.), Theories of International Relations (London: Macmillan, 1996).
12. Eric Helleiner,'International Political Economy and the Greens', New Political Economy, 1:1 (1996), pp. 59-78; Eric Laferriere, 'Emancipating International Relations Theory: An Ecological Perspective', Millennium, 25:1 (1996), pp. 53-76; Eric Laferriere and Peter Stoett, Ecological Thought and International Relations Theory (London: Routledge, 1999); Matthew Paterson, 'Green Politics', in Scott Burchill (ed.), Theories of International Relations (London: Macmillan, 1996).
13. Eric Helleiner,'International Political Economy and the Greens', New Political Economy, 1:1 (1996), pp. 59-78; Eric Laferriere, 'Emancipating International Relations Theory: An Ecological Perspective', Millennium, 25:1 (1996), pp. 53-76; Eric Laferriere and Peter Stoett, Ecological Thought and International Relations Theory (London: Routledge, 1999); Matthew Paterson, 'Green Politics', in Scott Burchill (ed.), Theories of International Relations (London: Macmillan, 1996).
14. Eric Helleiner,'International Political Economy and the Greens', New Political Economy, 1:1 (1996), pp. 59-78; Eric Laferriere, 'Emancipating International Relations Theory: An Ecological Perspective', Millennium, 25:1 (1996), pp. 53-76; Eric Laferriere and Peter Stoett, Ecological Thought and International Relations Theory (London: Routledge, 1999); Matthew Paterson, 'Green Politics', in Scott Burchill (ed.), Theories of International Relations (London: Macmillan, 1996).
15. Elliott, Global Politics of the Environment.
16. Robert W. Cox, 'Social Forces, States and World Orders: Beyond International Relations Theory', in Robert O. Keohane (ed.), Neorealism and Its Critics, (New York: Columbia University Press 1996), pp. 204-54.
17. Elliott, Global Politics of the Environment, p. 4.
18. William Ophuls, Ecology and the Politics of Scarcity (San Francisco: W.H. Freeman, 1977).
19. Elliott, Global Politics of the Environment, p. 4.
20. Nicholas Hildyard, 'Foxes in Charge of the Chickens', in Wolfgang Sachs (ed.), Global Ecology (London: Zed, 1993), pp. 22-35; Elliott, Global Politics of the Environment, pp. 117-8.
21. Nicholas Hildyard, 'Foxes in Charge of the Chickens', in Wolfgang Sachs (ed.), Global Ecology (London: Zed, 1993), pp. 22-35; Elliott, Global Politics of the Environment, pp. 117-8.
22. I am perhaps being slightly unfair to her here She does imply that such a process 'leave[s] the main causes of the trouble untouched' (Global Politics of the Environment, p. 118). But there is still no sense that such causes are bound up systemically with the logics of the world's major power structures; they remain a disparate set of dynamics underlying environmental change.
23. Saurin, 'Global Environmental Degradation'; Saurin, 'International Relations, Social Ecology'.
24. Saurin, 'Global Environmental Degradation'; Saurin, 'International Relations, Social Ecology'.
25. Saurin, 'International Relations, Social Ecology', p. 79.
26. Ibid., p. 81.
27. Ibid., p. 85.
28. Steve Smith, 'Environment on the Periphery of International Relations: An Explanation', Environmental Politics, 2:4 (1993), pp. 28-45, Saurin; 'International Relations, Social Ecology', p. 78.
29. Steve Smith, 'Environment on the Periphery of International Relations: An Explanation', Environmental Politics, 2:4 (1993), pp. 28-45, Saurin; 'International Relations, Social Ecology', p. 78.
30. There is not space here to examine the dynamics of such resistance. I give a brief account in Matthew Paterson, 'Car Trouble', in Understanding Global Environmental Politics (London: Macmillan, forthcoming 2000). For fuller accounts, see for example Derek Wall, Earth First! and the Anti-Roads Movement (London: Routledge, 1999); Ben Seel, Brian Doherty and Matthew Paterson (eds.) Direct Action in British Environmentalism (London: University College London Press, forthcoming 2000); George McKay, 'Direct Action of the New Protest: Eco-rads on the Road', in Senseless Acts of Beauty: Cultures of Resistance Since the Sixties (London: Verso, 1996); Brian Doherty, 'Paving the Way: the Rise of Direct Action against Road-building and the Changing Character of British Environmentalism', Political Studies, 47:2 (1999), pp. 275-91; Ben Seel, 'Strategies of Resistance at the Pollok Free State Road Protest Camp', Environmental Politics, 6:4 (1997), pp. 108-39.
31. There is not space here to examine the dynamics of such resistance. I give a brief account in Matthew Paterson, 'Car Trouble', in Understanding Global Environmental Politics (London: Macmillan, forthcoming 2000). For fuller accounts, see for example Derek Wall, Earth First! and the Anti-Roads Movement (London: Routledge, 1999); Ben Seel, Brian Doherty and Matthew Paterson (eds.) Direct Action in British Environmentalism (London: University College London Press, forthcoming 2000); George McKay, 'Direct Action of the New Protest: Eco-rads on the Road', in Senseless Acts of Beauty: Cultures of Resistance Since the Sixties (London: Verso, 1996); Brian Doherty, 'Paving the Way: the Rise of Direct Action against Road-building and the Changing Character of British Environmentalism', Political Studies, 47:2 (1999), pp. 275-91; Ben Seel, 'Strategies of Resistance at the Pollok Free State Road Protest Camp', Environmental Politics, 6:4 (1997), pp. 108-39.
32. There is not space here to examine the dynamics of such resistance. I give a brief account in Matthew Paterson, 'Car Trouble', in Understanding Global Environmental Politics (London: Macmillan, forthcoming 2000). For fuller accounts, see for example Derek Wall, Earth First! and the Anti-Roads Movement (London: Routledge, 1999); Ben Seel, Brian Doherty and Matthew Paterson (eds.) Direct Action in British Environmentalism (London: University College London Press, forthcoming 2000); George McKay, 'Direct Action of the New Protest: Eco-rads on the Road', in Senseless Acts of Beauty: Cultures of Resistance Since the Sixties (London: Verso, 1996); Brian Doherty, 'Paving the Way: the Rise of Direct Action against Road-building and the Changing Character of British Environmentalism', Political Studies, 47:2 (1999), pp. 275-91; Ben Seel, 'Strategies of Resistance at the Pollok Free State Road Protest Camp', Environmental Politics, 6:4 (1997), pp. 108-39.
33. There is not space here to examine the dynamics of such resistance. I give a brief account in Matthew Paterson, 'Car Trouble', in Understanding Global Environmental Politics (London: Macmillan, forthcoming 2000). For fuller accounts, see for example Derek Wall, Earth First! and the Anti-Roads Movement (London: Routledge, 1999); Ben Seel, Brian Doherty and Matthew Paterson (eds.) Direct Action in British Environmentalism (London: University College London Press, forthcoming 2000); George McKay, 'Direct Action of the New Protest: Eco-rads on the Road', in Senseless Acts of Beauty: Cultures of Resistance Since the Sixties (London: Verso, 1996); Brian Doherty, 'Paving the Way: the Rise of Direct Action against Road-building and the Changing Character of British Environmentalism', Political Studies, 47:2 (1999), pp. 275-91; Ben Seel, 'Strategies of Resistance at the Pollok Free State Road Protest Camp', Environmental Politics, 6:4 (1997), pp. 108-39.
34. There is not space here to examine the dynamics of such resistance. I give a brief account in Matthew Paterson, 'Car Trouble', in Understanding Global Environmental Politics (London: Macmillan, forthcoming 2000). For fuller accounts, see for example Derek Wall, Earth First! and the Anti-Roads Movement (London: Routledge, 1999); Ben Seel, Brian Doherty and Matthew Paterson (eds.) Direct Action in British Environmentalism (London: University College London Press, forthcoming 2000); George McKay, 'Direct Action of the New Protest: Eco-rads on the Road', in Senseless Acts of Beauty: Cultures of Resistance Since the Sixties (London: Verso, 1996); Brian Doherty, 'Paving the Way: the Rise of Direct Action against Road-building and the Changing Character of British Environmentalism', Political Studies, 47:2 (1999), pp. 275-91; Ben Seel, 'Strategies of Resistance at the Pollok Free State Road Protest Camp', Environmental Politics, 6:4 (1997), pp. 108-39.
35. There is not space here to examine the dynamics of such resistance. I give a brief account in Matthew Paterson, 'Car Trouble', in Understanding Global Environmental Politics (London: Macmillan, forthcoming 2000). For fuller accounts, see for example Derek Wall, Earth First! and the Anti-Roads Movement (London: Routledge, 1999); Ben Seel, Brian Doherty and Matthew Paterson (eds.) Direct Action in British Environmentalism (London: University College London Press, forthcoming 2000); George McKay, 'Direct Action of the New Protest: Eco-rads on the Road', in Senseless Acts of Beauty: Cultures of Resistance Since the Sixties (London: Verso, 1996); Brian Doherty, 'Paving the Way: the Rise of Direct Action against Road-building and the Changing Character of British Environmentalism', Political Studies, 47:2 (1999), pp. 275-91; Ben Seel, 'Strategies of Resistance at the Pollok Free State Road Protest Camp', Environmental Politics, 6:4 (1997), pp. 108-39.
36. Saurin, 'International Relations, Social Ecology', p. 90.
37. For example, Ash Amin, 'Post-Fordism: Models, Fantasies and Phantoms of Transition', in Ash Amin (ed.), Post-Fordism: a Reader (Oxford: Blackwell, 1994).
38. See for example Mark Rupert, Producing Hegemony: The Politics of Mass Production and American Global Power (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995), who develops the Gramscian framework specifically in relation to the politics of production at Ford Motor Company.
39. See Paterson, 'Car Trouble'. For a selection of works focusing on such aspects of the car (from diverse perspectives), see for example Wolfgang Sachs, For the Love of the Automobile (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992); Winfried Wolf, Car Mania (London: Pluto, 1996); Kristin Ross, Fast Cars, Clean Bodies: Decolonization and the Reordering of French Culture (Cambridge MA: MIT Press, (1995); Peter Freund and George Martin, The Ecology of the Automobile (Montreal: Black Rose, 1993); Andre Gorz, 'The Social Ideology of the Motor Car', in Ecology as Politics (London: Pluto, 1980), pp. 69-77; James Flink, The Car Culture (Cambridge MA: MIT Press, 1975); James Flink, The Automobile Age (Cambridge MA: MIT Press, 1988); Clay McShane, Down the Asphalt Path: The Automobile and the American City (New York: Columbia University Press, 1994); Judy Wajcman, Feminism Confronts Technology (Cambridge: Polity, 1991); Andrew Wernick, '(Re-)Imaging Technology: The Case of Cars', in Promotional Culture: Advertising, Ideology and Symbolic Expression (London: Sage, 1991); Marshall Berman, 'Robert Moses: the Expressway World', in All That is Solid Melts into Air The Experience of Modernity (London: Verso, 1982).
40. See Paterson, 'Car Trouble'. For a selection of works focusing on such aspects of the car (from diverse perspectives), see for example Wolfgang Sachs, For the Love of the Automobile (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992); Winfried Wolf, Car Mania (London: Pluto, 1996); Kristin Ross, Fast Cars, Clean Bodies: Decolonization and the Reordering of French Culture (Cambridge MA: MIT Press, (1995); Peter Freund and George Martin, The Ecology of the Automobile (Montreal: Black Rose, 1993); Andre Gorz, 'The Social Ideology of the Motor Car', in Ecology as Politics (London: Pluto, 1980), pp. 69-77; James Flink, The Car Culture (Cambridge MA: MIT Press, 1975); James Flink, The Automobile Age (Cambridge MA: MIT Press, 1988); Clay McShane, Down the Asphalt Path: The Automobile and the American City (New York: Columbia University Press, 1994); Judy Wajcman, Feminism Confronts Technology (Cambridge: Polity, 1991); Andrew Wernick, '(Re-)Imaging Technology: The Case of Cars', in Promotional Culture: Advertising, Ideology and Symbolic Expression (London: Sage, 1991); Marshall Berman, 'Robert Moses: the Expressway World', in All That is Solid Melts into Air The Experience of Modernity (London: Verso, 1982).
41. See Paterson, 'Car Trouble'. For a selection of works focusing on such aspects of the car (from diverse perspectives), see for example Wolfgang Sachs, For the Love of the Automobile (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992); Winfried Wolf, Car Mania (London: Pluto, 1996); Kristin Ross, Fast Cars, Clean Bodies: Decolonization and the Reordering of French Culture (Cambridge MA: MIT Press, (1995); Peter Freund and George Martin, The Ecology of the Automobile (Montreal: Black Rose, 1993); Andre Gorz, 'The Social Ideology of the Motor Car', in Ecology as Politics (London: Pluto, 1980), pp. 69-77; James Flink, The Car Culture (Cambridge MA: MIT Press, 1975); James Flink, The Automobile Age (Cambridge MA: MIT Press, 1988); Clay McShane, Down the Asphalt Path: The Automobile and the American City (New York: Columbia University Press, 1994); Judy Wajcman, Feminism Confronts Technology (Cambridge: Polity, 1991); Andrew Wernick, '(Re-)Imaging Technology: The Case of Cars', in Promotional Culture: Advertising, Ideology and Symbolic Expression (London: Sage, 1991); Marshall Berman, 'Robert Moses: the Expressway World', in All That is Solid Melts into Air The Experience of Modernity (London: Verso, 1982).
42. See Paterson, 'Car Trouble'. For a selection of works focusing on such aspects of the car (from diverse perspectives), see for example Wolfgang Sachs, For the Love of the Automobile (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992); Winfried Wolf, Car Mania (London: Pluto, 1996); Kristin Ross, Fast Cars, Clean Bodies: Decolonization and the Reordering of French Culture (Cambridge MA: MIT Press, (1995); Peter Freund and George Martin, The Ecology of the Automobile (Montreal: Black Rose, 1993); Andre Gorz, 'The Social Ideology of the Motor Car', in Ecology as Politics (London: Pluto, 1980), pp. 69-77; James Flink, The Car Culture (Cambridge MA: MIT Press, 1975); James Flink, The Automobile Age (Cambridge MA: MIT Press, 1988); Clay McShane, Down the Asphalt Path: The Automobile and the American City (New York: Columbia University Press, 1994); Judy Wajcman, Feminism Confronts Technology (Cambridge: Polity, 1991); Andrew Wernick, '(Re-)Imaging Technology: The Case of Cars', in Promotional Culture: Advertising, Ideology and Symbolic Expression (London: Sage, 1991); Marshall Berman, 'Robert Moses: the Expressway World', in All That is Solid Melts into Air The Experience of Modernity (London: Verso, 1982).
43. See Paterson, 'Car Trouble'. For a selection of works focusing on such aspects of the car (from diverse perspectives), see for example Wolfgang Sachs, For the Love of the Automobile (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992); Winfried Wolf, Car Mania (London: Pluto, 1996); Kristin Ross, Fast Cars, Clean Bodies: Decolonization and the Reordering of French Culture (Cambridge MA: MIT Press, (1995); Peter Freund and George Martin, The Ecology of the Automobile (Montreal: Black Rose, 1993); Andre Gorz, 'The Social Ideology of the Motor Car', in Ecology as Politics (London: Pluto, 1980), pp. 69-77; James Flink, The Car Culture (Cambridge MA: MIT Press, 1975); James Flink, The Automobile Age (Cambridge MA: MIT Press, 1988); Clay McShane, Down the Asphalt Path: The Automobile and the American City (New York: Columbia University Press, 1994); Judy Wajcman, Feminism Confronts Technology (Cambridge: Polity, 1991); Andrew Wernick, '(Re-)Imaging Technology: The Case of Cars', in Promotional Culture: Advertising, Ideology and Symbolic Expression (London: Sage, 1991); Marshall Berman, 'Robert Moses: the Expressway World', in All That is Solid Melts into Air The Experience of Modernity (London: Verso, 1982).
44. See Paterson, 'Car Trouble'. For a selection of works focusing on such aspects of the car (from diverse perspectives), see for example Wolfgang Sachs, For the Love of the Automobile (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992); Winfried Wolf, Car Mania (London: Pluto, 1996); Kristin Ross, Fast Cars, Clean Bodies: Decolonization and the Reordering of French Culture (Cambridge MA: MIT Press, (1995); Peter Freund and George Martin, The Ecology of the Automobile (Montreal: Black Rose, 1993); Andre Gorz, 'The Social Ideology of the Motor Car', in Ecology as Politics (London: Pluto, 1980), pp. 69-77; James Flink, The Car Culture (Cambridge MA: MIT Press, 1975); James Flink, The Automobile Age (Cambridge MA: MIT Press, 1988); Clay McShane, Down the Asphalt Path: The Automobile and the American City (New York: Columbia University Press, 1994); Judy Wajcman, Feminism Confronts Technology (Cambridge: Polity, 1991); Andrew Wernick, '(Re-)Imaging Technology: The Case of Cars', in Promotional Culture: Advertising, Ideology and Symbolic Expression (London: Sage, 1991); Marshall Berman, 'Robert Moses: the Expressway World', in All That is Solid Melts into Air The Experience of Modernity (London: Verso, 1982).
45. See Paterson, 'Car Trouble'. For a selection of works focusing on such aspects of the car (from diverse perspectives), see for example Wolfgang Sachs, For the Love of the Automobile (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992); Winfried Wolf, Car Mania (London: Pluto, 1996); Kristin Ross, Fast Cars, Clean Bodies: Decolonization and the Reordering of French Culture (Cambridge MA: MIT Press, (1995); Peter Freund and George Martin, The Ecology of the Automobile (Montreal: Black Rose, 1993); Andre Gorz, 'The Social Ideology of the Motor Car', in Ecology as Politics (London: Pluto, 1980), pp. 69-77; James Flink, The Car Culture (Cambridge MA: MIT Press, 1975); James Flink, The Automobile Age (Cambridge MA: MIT Press, 1988); Clay McShane, Down the Asphalt Path: The Automobile and the American City (New York: Columbia University Press, 1994); Judy Wajcman, Feminism Confronts Technology (Cambridge: Polity, 1991); Andrew Wernick, '(Re-)Imaging Technology: The Case of Cars', in Promotional Culture: Advertising, Ideology and Symbolic Expression (London: Sage, 1991); Marshall Berman, 'Robert Moses: the Expressway World', in All That is Solid Melts into Air The Experience of Modernity (London: Verso, 1982).
46. See Paterson, 'Car Trouble'. For a selection of works focusing on such aspects of the car (from diverse perspectives), see for example Wolfgang Sachs, For the Love of the Automobile (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992); Winfried Wolf, Car Mania (London: Pluto, 1996); Kristin Ross, Fast Cars, Clean Bodies: Decolonization and the Reordering of French Culture (Cambridge MA: MIT Press, (1995); Peter Freund and George Martin, The Ecology of the Automobile (Montreal: Black Rose, 1993); Andre Gorz, 'The Social Ideology of the Motor Car', in Ecology as Politics (London: Pluto, 1980), pp. 69-77; James Flink, The Car Culture (Cambridge MA: MIT Press, 1975); James Flink, The Automobile Age (Cambridge MA: MIT Press, 1988); Clay McShane, Down the Asphalt Path: The Automobile and the American City (New York: Columbia University Press, 1994); Judy Wajcman, Feminism Confronts Technology (Cambridge: Polity, 1991); Andrew Wernick, '(Re-)Imaging Technology: The Case of Cars', in Promotional Culture: Advertising, Ideology and Symbolic Expression (London: Sage, 1991); Marshall Berman, 'Robert Moses: the Expressway World', in All That is Solid Melts into Air The Experience of Modernity (London: Verso, 1982).
47. See Paterson, 'Car Trouble'. For a selection of works focusing on such aspects of the car (from diverse perspectives), see for example Wolfgang Sachs, For the Love of the Automobile (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992); Winfried Wolf, Car Mania (London: Pluto, 1996); Kristin Ross, Fast Cars, Clean Bodies: Decolonization and the Reordering of French Culture (Cambridge MA: MIT Press, (1995); Peter Freund and George Martin, The Ecology of the Automobile (Montreal: Black Rose, 1993); Andre Gorz, 'The Social Ideology of the Motor Car', in Ecology as Politics (London: Pluto, 1980), pp. 69-77; James Flink, The Car Culture (Cambridge MA: MIT Press, 1975); James Flink, The Automobile Age (Cambridge MA: MIT Press, 1988); Clay McShane, Down the Asphalt Path: The Automobile and the American City (New York: Columbia University Press, 1994); Judy Wajcman, Feminism Confronts Technology (Cambridge: Polity, 1991); Andrew Wernick, '(Re-)Imaging Technology: The Case of Cars', in Promotional Culture: Advertising, Ideology and Symbolic Expression (London: Sage, 1991); Marshall Berman, 'Robert Moses: the Expressway World', in All That is Solid Melts into Air The Experience of Modernity (London: Verso, 1982).
48. See Paterson, 'Car Trouble'. For a selection of works focusing on such aspects of the car (from diverse perspectives), see for example Wolfgang Sachs, For the Love of the Automobile (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992); Winfried Wolf, Car Mania (London: Pluto, 1996); Kristin Ross, Fast Cars, Clean Bodies: Decolonization and the Reordering of French Culture (Cambridge MA: MIT Press, (1995); Peter Freund and George Martin, The Ecology of the Automobile (Montreal: Black Rose, 1993); Andre Gorz, 'The Social Ideology of the Motor Car', in Ecology as Politics (London: Pluto, 1980), pp. 69-77; James Flink, The Car Culture (Cambridge MA: MIT Press, 1975); James Flink, The Automobile Age (Cambridge MA: MIT Press, 1988); Clay McShane, Down the Asphalt Path: The Automobile and the American City (New York: Columbia University Press, 1994); Judy Wajcman, Feminism Confronts Technology (Cambridge: Polity, 1991); Andrew Wernick, '(Re-)Imaging Technology: The Case of Cars', in Promotional Culture: Advertising, Ideology and Symbolic Expression (London: Sage, 1991); Marshall Berman, 'Robert Moses: the Expressway World', in All That is Solid Melts into Air The Experience of Modernity (London: Verso, 1982).
49. See Paterson, 'Car Trouble'. For a selection of works focusing on such aspects of the car (from diverse perspectives), see for example Wolfgang Sachs, For the Love of the Automobile (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992); Winfried Wolf, Car Mania (London: Pluto, 1996); Kristin Ross, Fast Cars, Clean Bodies: Decolonization and the Reordering of French Culture (Cambridge MA: MIT Press, (1995); Peter Freund and George Martin, The Ecology of the Automobile (Montreal: Black Rose, 1993); Andre Gorz, 'The Social Ideology of the Motor Car', in Ecology as Politics (London: Pluto, 1980), pp. 69-77; James Flink, The Car Culture (Cambridge MA: MIT Press, 1975); James Flink, The Automobile Age (Cambridge MA: MIT Press, 1988); Clay McShane, Down the Asphalt Path: The Automobile and the American City (New York: Columbia University Press, 1994); Judy Wajcman, Feminism Confronts Technology (Cambridge: Polity, 1991); Andrew Wernick, '(Re-)Imaging Technology: The Case of Cars', in Promotional Culture: Advertising, Ideology and Symbolic Expression (London: Sage, 1991); Marshall Berman, 'Robert Moses: the Expressway World', in All That is Solid Melts into Air The Experience of Modernity (London: Verso, 1982).
50. See Paterson, 'Car Trouble'. For a selection of works focusing on such aspects of the car (from diverse perspectives), see for example Wolfgang Sachs, For the Love of the Automobile (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992); Winfried Wolf, Car Mania (London: Pluto, 1996); Kristin Ross, Fast Cars, Clean Bodies: Decolonization and the Reordering of French Culture (Cambridge MA: MIT Press, (1995); Peter Freund and George Martin, The Ecology of the Automobile (Montreal: Black Rose, 1993); Andre Gorz, 'The Social Ideology of the Motor Car', in Ecology as Politics (London: Pluto, 1980), pp. 69-77; James Flink, The Car Culture (Cambridge MA: MIT Press, 1975); James Flink, The Automobile Age (Cambridge MA: MIT Press, 1988); Clay McShane, Down the Asphalt Path: The Automobile and the American City (New York: Columbia University Press, 1994); Judy Wajcman, Feminism Confronts Technology (Cambridge: Polity, 1991); Andrew Wernick, '(Re-)Imaging Technology: The Case of Cars', in Promotional Culture: Advertising, Ideology and Symbolic Expression (London: Sage, 1991); Marshall Berman, 'Robert Moses: the Expressway World', in All That is Solid Melts into Air The Experience of Modernity (London: Verso, 1982).
51. Although this is always problematic, I shall stick to a narrow definition of 'environmental' here. The reorganization of urban space that a car-based system effects is of course a crucial form of environmental change in terms of people's direct experience of the space around them. The substantial number of deaths and serious injuries caused by cars, should also in many ways be considered an environmental problem. In the UK, for example, more people have been killed on the roads since 1945 than were killed in the Second World War on active service (See Mick Hamer, Wheels within Wheels: A Study of the Road Lobby (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1987), p. 2; for general figures on this see Wolf, Car Mania, pp. 201-4). Here, however, I deal only with aspects of the 'environment' involving pollution and resource consumption.
52. 2 emissions, since practically all the transport emissions come from oil). See Deborah Gordon, Steering a New Course: Transportation, Energy and the Environment (Washington, DC: Union of Concerned Scientists/Island Press, 1991), p. 7.
53. 2 emissions, since practically all the transport emissions come from oil). See Deborah Gordon, Steering a New Course: Transportation, Energy and the Environment (Washington, DC: Union of Concerned Scientists/Island Press, 1991), p. 7.
54. 2 correspondingly becomes more important. See Matthew Paterson, Global Warming and Global Politics (London: Routledge, 1996), pp. 11-14, for a fuller discussion of this.
55. 2 correspondingly becomes more important. See Matthew Paterson, Global Warming and Global Politics (London: Routledge, 1996), pp. 11-14, for a fuller discussion of this.
56. 2 correspondingly becomes more important. See Matthew Paterson, Global Warming and Global Politics (London: Routledge, 1996), pp. 11-14, for a fuller discussion of this.
57. 2 correspondingly becomes more important. See Matthew Paterson, Global Warming and Global Politics (London: Routledge, 1996), pp. 11-14, for a fuller discussion of this.
58. International Energy Agency, Cars and Climate Change, p. 37.
59. John McCormick, Acid Earth (London: Earthscan, 1989), p. 62.
60. International Energy Agency, Energy and the Environment: An Overview (Paris: OECD, 1989), p. 34.
61. For slightly differing figures, of which 60 per cent is a half-way figure, see Sonja Boehmer-Christiansen and Helmut Weidner, The Politics of Reducing Vehicle Emissions in Britain and Germany (London: Pinter, 1995), p. 93, or Transnet, Energy, Transport and the Environment (London: Transnet, 1990), p. 36.
62. For slightly differing figures, of which 60 per cent is a half-way figure, see Sonja Boehmer-Christiansen and Helmut Weidner, The Politics of Reducing Vehicle Emissions in Britain and Germany (London: Pinter, 1995), p. 93, or Transnet, Energy, Transport and the Environment (London: Transnet, 1990), p. 36.
63. For a longer discussion of these, see Freund and Martin, Ecology of the Automobile, pp. 29-33.
64. In relation to global warming politics, see Peter Newell and Matthew Paterson, 'A Climate for Business: Global Warming: The State and Capital', Review of International Political Economy, 5:4 (1998), pp. 679-703. For acid rain, see for example Sonja Boehmer-Christiansen and Jim Skea, Acid Politics (London: Belhaven, 1991) or Sonja Boehmer-Christiansen and Helmut Weidner, The Politics of Reducing Vehicle Emissions in Britain and Germany (Pinter: London, 1995). On the role of cars in producing such problems, see for example International Energy Agency, Cars and Climate Change.
65. In relation to global warming politics, see Peter Newell and Matthew Paterson, 'A Climate for Business: Global Warming: The State and Capital', Review of International Political Economy, 5:4 (1998), pp. 679-703. For acid rain, see for example Sonja Boehmer-Christiansen and Jim Skea, Acid Politics (London: Belhaven, 1991) or Sonja Boehmer-Christiansen and Helmut Weidner, The Politics of Reducing Vehicle Emissions in Britain and Germany (Pinter: London, 1995). On the role of cars in producing such problems, see for example International Energy Agency, Cars and Climate Change.
66. In relation to global warming politics, see Peter Newell and Matthew Paterson, 'A Climate for Business: Global Warming: The State and Capital', Review of International Political Economy, 5:4 (1998), pp. 679-703. For acid rain, see for example Sonja Boehmer-Christiansen and Jim Skea, Acid Politics (London: Belhaven, 1991) or Sonja Boehmer-Christiansen and Helmut Weidner, The Politics of Reducing Vehicle Emissions in Britain and Germany (Pinter: London, 1995). On the role of cars in producing such problems, see for example International Energy Agency, Cars and Climate Change.
67. In relation to global warming politics, see Peter Newell and Matthew Paterson, 'A Climate for Business: Global Warming: The State and Capital', Review of International Political Economy, 5:4 (1998), pp. 679-703. For acid rain, see for example Sonja Boehmer-Christiansen and Jim Skea, Acid Politics (London: Belhaven, 1991) or Sonja Boehmer-Christiansen and Helmut Weidner, The Politics of Reducing Vehicle Emissions in Britain and Germany (Pinter: London, 1995). On the role of cars in producing such problems, see for example International Energy Agency, Cars and Climate Change.
68. Freund and Martin, Ecology of the Automobile, pp. 17-19.
69. All figures in this passage are taken from Freund and Martin, Ecology of the Automobile, pp. 17-19.
70. See for example, Gorz, 'Social Ideology of the Motor Car', Ivan Illich, Energy and Equity (London: Calder & Boyars, 1974); Wolf, Car Mania.
71. See for example, Gorz, 'Social Ideology of the Motor Car', Ivan Illich, Energy and Equity (London: Calder & Boyars, 1974); Wolf, Car Mania.
72. I exclude here a substantial body of work within industrial relations which is connected to such themes. This literature asks questions concerning the changing forms of work organization. The car industry is often taken as an exemplar of such changes - the shifts from Fordism to post-Fordism exemplifying the car industry's importance in this respect. See for example Steven Tolliday and Jonathan Zeitlin, 'Introduction: Between Fordism and Flexibility', in Steven Tolliday and Jonathan Zeitlin (eds.), The Automobile Industry and its Workers (Cambridge: Polity, 1986), pp. 1-25. For a selection of other works on industrial relations and the global car industry, see for example C. M. Law (ed.), Restructuring the Global Automobile Industry (London: Routledge, 1991); F. C. Deyo, Social Reconstruction of the World's Automobile Industry (London: Macmillan, 1996); or Ulrich Jurgens, Thomas Malsch and Knuth Dohse, Breaking from Taylorism: Changing Forms of Work in the Automobile Industry (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993).
73. I exclude here a substantial body of work within industrial relations which is connected to such themes. This literature asks questions concerning the changing forms of work organization. The car industry is often taken as an exemplar of such changes - the shifts from Fordism to post-Fordism exemplifying the car industry's importance in this respect. See for example Steven Tolliday and Jonathan Zeitlin, 'Introduction: Between Fordism and Flexibility', in Steven Tolliday and Jonathan Zeitlin (eds.), The Automobile Industry and its Workers (Cambridge: Polity, 1986), pp. 1-25. For a selection of other works on industrial relations and the global car industry, see for example C. M. Law (ed.), Restructuring the Global Automobile Industry (London: Routledge, 1991); F. C. Deyo, Social Reconstruction of the World's Automobile Industry (London: Macmillan, 1996); or Ulrich Jurgens, Thomas Malsch and Knuth Dohse, Breaking from Taylorism: Changing Forms of Work in the Automobile Industry (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993).
74. I exclude here a substantial body of work within industrial relations which is connected to such themes. This literature asks questions concerning the changing forms of work organization. The car industry is often taken as an exemplar of such changes - the shifts from Fordism to post-Fordism exemplifying the car industry's importance in this respect. See for example Steven Tolliday and Jonathan Zeitlin, 'Introduction: Between Fordism and Flexibility', in Steven Tolliday and Jonathan Zeitlin (eds.), The Automobile Industry and its Workers (Cambridge: Polity, 1986), pp. 1-25. For a selection of other works on industrial relations and the global car industry, see for example C. M. Law (ed.), Restructuring the Global Automobile Industry (London: Routledge, 1991); F. C. Deyo, Social Reconstruction of the World's Automobile Industry (London: Macmillan, 1996); or Ulrich Jurgens, Thomas Malsch and Knuth Dohse, Breaking from Taylorism: Changing Forms of Work in the Automobile Industry (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993).
75. I exclude here a substantial body of work within industrial relations which is connected to such themes. This literature asks questions concerning the changing forms of work organization. The car industry is often taken as an exemplar of such changes - the shifts from Fordism to post-Fordism exemplifying the car industry's importance in this respect. See for example Steven Tolliday and Jonathan Zeitlin, 'Introduction: Between Fordism and Flexibility', in Steven Tolliday and Jonathan Zeitlin (eds.), The Automobile Industry and its Workers (Cambridge: Polity, 1986), pp. 1-25. For a selection of other works on industrial relations and the global car industry, see for example C. M. Law (ed.), Restructuring the Global Automobile Industry (London: Routledge, 1991); F. C. Deyo, Social Reconstruction of the World's Automobile Industry (London: Macmillan, 1996); or Ulrich Jurgens, Thomas Malsch and Knuth Dohse, Breaking from Taylorism: Changing Forms of Work in the Automobile Industry (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993).
76. See for example Peter Dicken, Global Shift (London: Paul Chapman Publishing, 1998, 3rd edn.), pp. 316-52, or David Held, Anthony McGrew, David Goldblatt and Jonathan Perraton, Global Transformations: Politics, Economics, Culture (Cambridge: Polity, 1999), pp. 262-3.
77. See for example Peter Dicken, Global Shift (London: Paul Chapman Publishing, 1998, 3rd edn.), pp. 316-52, or David Held, Anthony McGrew, David Goldblatt and Jonathan Perraton, Global Transformations: Politics, Economics, Culture (Cambridge: Polity, 1999), pp. 262-3.
78. Dicken, Global Shift, pp. 316-8 and 335-6.
79. Ibid., p. 319.
80. Ibid., pp. 337-8.
81. See for example, Naeyong Lee and Jeffrey Cason, 'Automobile Commodity Chains in the NICs: A Comparison of South Korea, Mexico, and Brazil', in Gary Gereffi and Michael Korzeniewicz (eds.), Commodity Chains and Global Capitalism (Westport CN: Praeger, 1994), pp. 223-44, and Hyung Kook Kim and Su-Hoon Lee, 'Commodity Chains and the Korean Automobile Industry', in Gereffi and Korzeniewicz, Commodity Chains and Global Capitalism, pp. 281-96.
82. See for example, Naeyong Lee and Jeffrey Cason, 'Automobile Commodity Chains in the NICs: A Comparison of South Korea, Mexico, and Brazil', in Gary Gereffi and Michael Korzeniewicz (eds.), Commodity Chains and Global Capitalism (Westport CN: Praeger, 1994), pp. 223-44, and Hyung Kook Kim and Su-Hoon Lee, 'Commodity Chains and the Korean Automobile Industry', in Gereffi and Korzeniewicz, Commodity Chains and Global Capitalism, pp. 281-96.
83. Dicken, Global Shift, p. 316.
84. Rupert, Producing Hegemony.
85. S. Reich, 'Roads to Follow: Regulating Direct Foreign Investment',
86. S. Reich, 'Roads to Follow: Regulating Direct Foreign Investment', International Organization, 43, pp. 543-84; Dicken, Global Shift, pp. 330-2. See also more generally, A. Kawahara, The Origin of Competitive Strength: Fifty Years of the Auto Industry in Japan and the US (Kyoto: Kyoto University Press, 1997).
87. S. Reich, 'Roads to Follow: Regulating Direct Foreign Investment', International Organization, 43, pp. 543-84; Dicken, Global Shift, pp. 330-2. See also more generally, A. Kawahara, The Origin of Competitive Strength: Fifty Years of the Auto Industry in Japan and the US (Kyoto: Kyoto University Press, 1997).
88. See Dicken, Global Shift, pp. 271-2, for elaboration of the types of support provided, and some of the biggest examples in terms of financial support provided by states.
89. See for example Robert Gwynne, 'New Horizons? The Third World Motor Vehicle Industry in an International Framework', in Law, Restructuring the Global Automobile Industry, pp. 61-87; Graeme Maxton and John Wormald, Driving Over a Cliff? Business Lessons from the World's Car Industry (Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1995), pp. 132-41.
90. See for example Robert Gwynne, 'New Horizons? The Third World Motor Vehicle Industry in an International Framework', in Law, Restructuring the Global Automobile Industry, pp. 61-87; Graeme Maxton and John Wormald, Driving Over a Cliff? Business Lessons from the World's Car Industry (Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1995), pp. 132-41.
91. Richard Overy, 'Heralds of Modernity: Cars and Planes from Invention to Necessity', in Mikulas Teich and Roy Porter (eds.), Fin de Siecle and its Legacy (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990), pp. 54-79, at p. 71. The role the car played in stimulating economic growth is central to some of the classic histories of the car, such as John Rae, The Road and the Car in American Life (Cambridge MA: MIT Press, 1971), and Flink, Car Culture; Automobile Age. Flink, Car Culture, p. 167, suggests that the saturation of the market for cars in the late 1920s in the US was one factor in producing the Depression. For other expressions of the central role played by the car industry in stimulating economic growth, see for example Ross, Fast Cars, Clean Bodies, p. 19); IEA (1993) Cars and Climate Change, International Energy Agency, Paris; Wolf, Car Mania , p. 124; and Dicken, who quotes business management analyst Peter Drucker in the middle of the century thus: 'the automobile industry stands for modern industry all over the globe. It is to the twentieth century what the Lancashire cotton mills were to the early nineteenth century: the industry of industries'. See Dicken, Global Shift, p. 316; Peter Drucker, The Concept of the Corporation (New York: John Day, 1946).
92. Richard Overy, 'Heralds of Modernity: Cars and Planes from Invention to Necessity', in Mikulas Teich and Roy Porter (eds.), Fin de Siecle and its Legacy (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990), pp. 54-79, at p. 71. The role the car played in stimulating economic growth is central to some of the classic histories of the car, such as John Rae, The Road and the Car in American Life (Cambridge MA: MIT Press, 1971), and Flink, Car Culture; Automobile Age. Flink, Car Culture, p. 167, suggests that the saturation of the market for cars in the late 1920s in the US was one factor in producing the Depression. For other expressions of the central role played by the car industry in stimulating economic growth, see for example Ross, Fast Cars, Clean Bodies, p. 19); IEA (1993) Cars and Climate Change, International Energy Agency, Paris; Wolf, Car Mania , p. 124; and Dicken, who quotes business management analyst Peter Drucker in the middle of the century thus: 'the automobile industry stands for modern industry all over the globe. It is to the twentieth century what the Lancashire cotton mills were to the early nineteenth century: the industry of industries'. See Dicken, Global Shift, p. 316; Peter Drucker, The Concept of the Corporation (New York: John Day, 1946).
93. Richard Overy, 'Heralds of Modernity: Cars and Planes from Invention to Necessity', in Mikulas Teich and Roy Porter (eds.), Fin de Siecle and its Legacy (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990), pp. 54-79, at p. 71. The role the car played in stimulating economic growth is central to some of the classic histories of the car, such as John Rae, The Road and the Car in American Life (Cambridge MA: MIT Press, 1971), and Flink, Car Culture; Automobile Age. Flink, Car Culture, p. 167, suggests that the saturation of the market for cars in the late 1920s in the US was one factor in producing the Depression. For other expressions of the central role played by the car industry in stimulating economic growth, see for example Ross, Fast Cars, Clean Bodies, p. 19); IEA (1993) Cars and Climate Change, International Energy Agency, Paris; Wolf, Car Mania , p. 124; and Dicken, who quotes business management analyst Peter Drucker in the middle of the century thus: 'the automobile industry stands for modern industry all over the globe. It is to the twentieth century what the Lancashire cotton mills were to the early nineteenth century: the industry of industries'. See Dicken, Global Shift, p. 316; Peter Drucker, The Concept of the Corporation (New York: John Day, 1946).
94. Richard Overy, 'Heralds of Modernity: Cars and Planes from Invention to Necessity', in Mikulas Teich and Roy Porter (eds.), Fin de Siecle and its Legacy (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990), pp. 54-79, at p. 71. The role the car played in stimulating economic growth is central to some of the classic histories of the car, such as John Rae, The Road and the Car in American Life (Cambridge MA: MIT Press, 1971), and Flink, Car Culture; Automobile Age. Flink, Car Culture, p. 167, suggests that the saturation of the market for cars in the late 1920s in the US was one factor in producing the Depression. For other expressions of the central role played by the car industry in stimulating economic growth, see for example Ross, Fast Cars, Clean Bodies, p. 19); IEA (1993) Cars and Climate Change, International Energy Agency, Paris; Wolf, Car Mania , p. 124; and Dicken, who quotes business management analyst Peter Drucker in the middle of the century thus: 'the automobile industry stands for modern industry all over the globe. It is to the twentieth century what the Lancashire cotton mills were to the early nineteenth century: the industry of industries'. See Dicken, Global Shift, p. 316; Peter Drucker, The Concept of the Corporation (New York: John Day, 1946).
95. Richard Overy, 'Heralds of Modernity: Cars and Planes from Invention to Necessity', in Mikulas Teich and Roy Porter (eds.), Fin de Siecle and its Legacy (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990), pp. 54-79, at p. 71. The role the car played in stimulating economic growth is central to some of the classic histories of the car, such as John Rae, The Road and the Car in American Life (Cambridge MA: MIT Press, 1971), and Flink, Car Culture; Automobile Age. Flink, Car Culture, p. 167, suggests that the saturation of the market for cars in the late 1920s in the US was one factor in producing the Depression. For other expressions of the central role played by the car industry in stimulating economic growth, see for example Ross, Fast Cars, Clean Bodies, p. 19); IEA (1993) Cars and Climate Change, International Energy Agency, Paris; Wolf, Car Mania , p. 124; and Dicken, who quotes business management analyst Peter Drucker in the middle of the century thus: 'the automobile industry stands for modern industry all over the globe. It is to the twentieth century what the Lancashire cotton mills were to the early nineteenth century: the industry of industries'. See Dicken, Global Shift, p. 316; Peter Drucker, The Concept of the Corporation (New York: John Day, 1946).
96. Richard Overy, 'Heralds of Modernity: Cars and Planes from Invention to Necessity', in Mikulas Teich and Roy Porter (eds.), Fin de Siecle and its Legacy (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990), pp. 54-79, at p. 71. The role the car played in stimulating economic growth is central to some of the classic histories of the car, such as John Rae, The Road and the Car in American Life (Cambridge MA: MIT Press, 1971), and Flink, Car Culture; Automobile Age. Flink, Car Culture, p. 167, suggests that the saturation of the market for cars in the late 1920s in the US was one factor in producing the Depression. For other expressions of the central role played by the car industry in stimulating economic growth, see for example Ross, Fast Cars, Clean Bodies, p. 19); IEA (1993) Cars and Climate Change, International Energy Agency, Paris; Wolf, Car Mania , p. 124; and Dicken, who quotes business management analyst Peter Drucker in the middle of the century thus: 'the automobile industry stands for modern industry all over the globe. It is to the twentieth century what the Lancashire cotton mills were to the early nineteenth century: the industry of industries'. See Dicken, Global Shift, p. 316; Peter Drucker, The Concept of the Corporation (New York: John Day, 1946).
97. Richard Overy, 'Heralds of Modernity: Cars and Planes from Invention to Necessity', in Mikulas Teich and Roy Porter (eds.), Fin de Siecle and its Legacy (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990), pp. 54-79, at p. 71. The role the car played in stimulating economic growth is central to some of the classic histories of the car, such as John Rae, The Road and the Car in American Life (Cambridge MA: MIT Press, 1971), and Flink, Car Culture; Automobile Age. Flink, Car Culture, p. 167, suggests that the saturation of the market for cars in the late 1920s in the US was one factor in producing the Depression. For other expressions of the central role played by the car industry in stimulating economic growth, see for example Ross, Fast Cars, Clean Bodies, p. 19); IEA (1993) Cars and Climate Change, International Energy Agency, Paris; Wolf, Car Mania , p. 124; and Dicken, who quotes business management analyst Peter Drucker in the middle of the century thus: 'the automobile industry stands for modern industry all over the globe. It is to the twentieth century what the Lancashire cotton mills were to the early nineteenth century: the industry of industries'. See Dicken, Global Shift, p. 316; Peter Drucker, The Concept of the Corporation (New York: John Day, 1946).
98. Richard Overy, 'Heralds of Modernity: Cars and Planes from Invention to Necessity', in Mikulas Teich and Roy Porter (eds.), Fin de Siecle and its Legacy (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990), pp. 54-79, at p. 71. The role the car played in stimulating economic growth is central to some of the classic histories of the car, such as John Rae, The Road and the Car in American Life (Cambridge MA: MIT Press, 1971), and Flink, Car Culture; Automobile Age. Flink, Car Culture, p. 167, suggests that the saturation of the market for cars in the late 1920s in the US was one factor in producing the Depression. For other expressions of the central role played by the car industry in stimulating economic growth, see for example Ross, Fast Cars, Clean Bodies, p. 19); IEA (1993) Cars and Climate Change, International Energy Agency, Paris; Wolf, Car Mania , p. 124; and Dicken, who quotes business management analyst Peter Drucker in the middle of the century thus: 'the automobile industry stands for modern industry all over the globe. It is to the twentieth century what the Lancashire cotton mills were to the early nineteenth century: the industry of industries'. See Dicken, Global Shift, p. 316; Peter Drucker, The Concept of the Corporation (New York: John Day, 1946).
99. Richard Overy, 'Heralds of Modernity: Cars and Planes from Invention to Necessity', in Mikulas Teich and Roy Porter (eds.), Fin de Siecle and its Legacy (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990), pp. 54-79, at p. 71. The role the car played in stimulating economic growth is central to some of the classic histories of the car, such as John Rae, The Road and the Car in American Life (Cambridge MA: MIT Press, 1971), and Flink, Car Culture; Automobile Age. Flink, Car Culture, p. 167, suggests that the saturation of the market for cars in the late 1920s in the US was one factor in producing the Depression. For other expressions of the central role played by the car industry in stimulating economic growth, see for example Ross, Fast Cars, Clean Bodies, p. 19); IEA (1993) Cars and Climate Change, International Energy Agency, Paris; Wolf, Car Mania , p. 124; and Dicken, who quotes business management analyst Peter Drucker in the middle of the century thus: 'the automobile industry stands for modern industry all over the globe. It is to the twentieth century what the Lancashire cotton mills were to the early nineteenth century: the industry of industries'. See Dicken, Global Shift, p. 316; Peter Drucker, The Concept of the Corporation (New York: John Day, 1946).
100. Wolf, Car Mania, p. 73; also Rupert, Producing Hegemony.
101. Wolf, Car Mania, p. 73; also Rupert, Producing Hegemony.
102. See Marcia Lowe, Alternatives to the Automobile: Transport for Livable Cities, Worldwatch Paper 98 (Washington, DC: Worldwatch Institute, 1990), pp. 7-8, or Harry Dimitriou, 'Transport Problems of Third World Cities', in Harry Dimitriou (ed., assisted by George Banjo), Transport Planning for Third World Cities (London: Routledge, 1990), pp. 50-84. Dimitriou also suggests (at pp. 52-3) that the increase in car ownership in developing countries has been stimulated by aggressive marketing techniques by car manufacturers in the early 1980s because of reduced demand in industrialized countries because of the recession and general saturation of markets.
103. See Marcia Lowe, Alternatives to the Automobile: Transport for Livable Cities, Worldwatch Paper 98 (Washington, DC: Worldwatch Institute, 1990), pp. 7-8, or Harry Dimitriou, 'Transport Problems of Third World Cities', in Harry Dimitriou (ed., assisted by George Banjo), Transport Planning for Third World Cities (London: Routledge, 1990), pp. 50-84. Dimitriou also suggests (at pp. 52-3) that the increase in car ownership in developing countries has been stimulated by aggressive marketing techniques by car manufacturers in the early 1980s because of reduced demand in industrialized countries because of the recession and general saturation of markets.
104. Brian Hoyle and Jose Smith, 'Transport and Development', in B. S. Hoyle and R. D. Knowles (eds.), Modern Transport Geography (Chichester: John Wiley, 1992), pp. 11-32; Rodney Tolley and Brian Turton, Transport Systems, Policy and Planning: A Geographical Approach (Harlow: Longman, 1995), p. 76.
105. Brian Hoyle and Jose Smith, 'Transport and Development', in B. S. Hoyle and R. D. Knowles (eds.), Modern Transport Geography (Chichester: John Wiley, 1992), pp. 11-32; Rodney Tolley and Brian Turton, Transport Systems, Policy and Planning: A Geographical Approach (Harlow: Longman, 1995), p. 76.
106. David Simon, Transport and Development in the Third World (London: Routledge, 1996).
107. The studies just cited all note how car ownership in developing countries is concentrated in the relatively high income NICs, and make the connections to a relatively high income in such terms. Sometimes, countries also promote the car over its alternatives in order to promote an emerging indigenous car industry, as for example in China's attempts to restrict bicycle use in Beijing to enable faster movement by car. On this see Henry Chu, 'Four Wheels Good, Two Wheels Bad in busy Beijing', The Guardian (London), 31 October 1998, emphasizing the connection to China's emerging car industry.
108. Ross, Fast Cars, Clean Bodies, p. 19.
109. Michel Aglietta, A Theory of Capitalist Regulation (London: New Left Books, 1979). For reviews of what is meant by Fordism, see for example David Harvey, The Condition of Postmodernity (Oxford: Blackwell, 1990), and on the centrality of the car industry to Fordism, see David Gartman, Auto Opium: A Social History of American Automobile Design (London: Routledge, 1994), or Rupert, Producing Hegemony.
110. Michel Aglietta, A Theory of Capitalist Regulation (London: New Left Books, 1979). For reviews of what is meant by Fordism, see for example David Harvey, The Condition of Postmodernity (Oxford: Blackwell, 1990), and on the centrality of the car industry to Fordism, see David Gartman, Auto Opium: A Social History of American Automobile Design (London: Routledge, 1994), or Rupert, Producing Hegemony.
111. Michel Aglietta, A Theory of Capitalist Regulation (London: New Left Books, 1979). For reviews of what is meant by Fordism, see for example David Harvey, The Condition of Postmodernity (Oxford: Blackwell, 1990), and on the centrality of the car industry to Fordism, see David Gartman, Auto Opium: A Social History of American Automobile Design (London: Routledge, 1994), or Rupert, Producing Hegemony.
112. Michel Aglietta, A Theory of Capitalist Regulation (London: New Left Books, 1979). For reviews of what is meant by Fordism, see for example David Harvey, The Condition of Postmodernity (Oxford: Blackwell, 1990), and on the centrality of the car industry to Fordism, see David Gartman, Auto Opium: A Social History of American Automobile Design (London: Routledge, 1994), or Rupert, Producing Hegemony.
113. Aglietta, Theory of Capitalist Regulation, p. 159, quoted in Peter Freund and George Martin, 'The Commodity that is Eating the World: The Automobile, the Environment, and Capitalism', Capitalism, Nature, Socialism, 7:4 (1996), p. 8.
114. Aglietta, Theory of Capitalist Regulation, p. 159, quoted in Peter Freund and George Martin, 'The Commodity that is Eating the World: The Automobile, the Environment, and Capitalism', Capitalism, Nature, Socialism, 7:4 (1996), p. 8.
115. For example, Bob Jessop, State Theory: Putting Capitalist States in their Place (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1990).
116. Overy, 'Heralds of Modernity', p. 61.
117. McShane, Down the Asphalt Path, p. 113.
118. For more on early opposition to cars, see for example Wall, Earth First! and the Anti-Roads Movement, pp. 17-39; Paterson, 'Car Trouble'; Hamer, Wheels within Wheels.
119. For more on early opposition to cars, see for example Wall, Earth First! and the Anti-Roads Movement, pp. 17-39; Paterson, 'Car Trouble'; Hamer, Wheels within Wheels.
120. For more on early opposition to cars, see for example Wall, Earth First! and the Anti-Roads Movement, pp. 17-39; Paterson, 'Car Trouble'; Hamer, Wheels within Wheels.
121. McShane, Down the Asphalt Path, p. 115.
122. Ibid., pp. 109-110.
123. Quoted in Wernick,'(Re-)Imaging Technology', p. 71.
124. Wolf, Car Mania, p. 89.
125. Dennis Wood, The Power of Maps (New York: Guilford Press, 1992), p. 107, cited in Freund and Martin, Ecology of the Automobile, p. 82.
126. Dennis Wood, The Power of Maps (New York: Guilford Press, 1992), p. 107, cited in Freund and Martin, Ecology of the Automobile, p. 82.
127. Langdon Winner, 'Do Artifacts have Politics?', Daedalus, 109 (1980), pp. 121-36; Wajcman, Feminism Confronts Technology, pp. 131-3.
128. Langdon Winner, 'Do Artifacts have Politics?', Daedalus, 109 (1980), pp. 121-36; Wajcman, Feminism Confronts Technology, pp. 131-3.
129. Richard O. Davies, The Age of Asphalt: The Automobile, the Freeway, and the Condition of Metropolitan America (Philadeplhia: J. B. Lippincott, 1975); Hamer, Wheels within Wheels. Hamer, Wheels within Wheels.
130. Richard O. Davies, The Age of Asphalt: The Automobile, the Freeway, and the Condition of Metropolitan America (Philadeplhia: J. B. Lippincott, 1975); Hamer, Wheels within Wheels. Hamer, Wheels within Wheels.
131. Richard O. Davies, The Age of Asphalt: The Automobile, the Freeway, and the Condition of Metropolitan America (Philadeplhia: J. B. Lippincott, 1975); Hamer, Wheels within Wheels. Hamer, Wheels within Wheels.
132. Davies, Age of Asphalt; see also Gordon, Steering a New Course, pp. 12-13.
133. Davies, Age of Asphalt; see also Gordon, Steering a New Course, pp. 12-13.
134. Wolf, Car Mania, pp 75-81, 117-123.
135. Tom Athanasiou, Divided Planet: The Ecology of Rich and Poor (Boston: Little, Brown, 1996), p. 264.
136. Hamer, Wheels within Wheels, p. 22.
137. Hamer, Wheels within Wheels; Wolf, Car Mania, p. 84; Wajcman, Feminism Confronts Technology, p. 128; Freund and Martin, Ecology of the Automobile, p. 135; UNCTC, Climate Change and Transnational Corporations: Analysis and Trends (New York: United Nations Center on Transnational Corporations, New York. 1992), pp. 55-6.
138. Hamer, Wheels within Wheels; Wolf, Car Mania, p. 84; Wajcman, Feminism Confronts Technology, p. 128; Freund and Martin, Ecology of the Automobile, p. 135; UNCTC, Climate Change and Transnational Corporations: Analysis and Trends (New York: United Nations Center on Transnational Corporations, New York. 1992), pp. 55-6.
139. Hamer, Wheels within Wheels; Wolf, Car Mania, p. 84; Wajcman, Feminism Confronts Technology, p. 128; Freund and Martin, Ecology of the Automobile, p. 135; UNCTC, Climate Change and Transnational Corporations: Analysis and Trends (New York: United Nations Center on Transnational Corporations, New York. 1992), pp. 55-6.
140. Hamer, Wheels within Wheels; Wolf, Car Mania, p. 84; Wajcman, Feminism Confronts Technology, p. 128; Freund and Martin, Ecology of the Automobile, p. 135; UNCTC, Climate Change and Transnational Corporations: Analysis and Trends (New York: United Nations Center on Transnational Corporations, New York. 1992), pp. 55-6.
141. Hamer, Wheels within Wheels; Wolf, Car Mania, p. 84; Wajcman, Feminism Confronts Technology, p. 128; Freund and Martin, Ecology of the Automobile, p. 135; UNCTC, Climate Change and Transnational Corporations: Analysis and Trends (New York: United Nations Center on Transnational Corporations, New York. 1992), pp. 55-6.
142. Wajcman, Feminism Confronts Technology, p. 128. McShane, Down the Asphalt Path, p. 115, and Freund and Martin, Ecology of the Automobile, pp. 135-6, both allude however to how this collusion was also made possible both by the monopolies which the tram companies inevitably formed and which were resented by their users, and by corruption on the part of the tram companies. More generally, Wolf, Car Mania, pp. 81-4 suggests that in the US, competition between road and rail early in the twentieth century reflected competition between the two leading groups of industrialists Vanderbilt/Morgan, and Rockefeller. A number of factors, including the recession of the 1920s, favoured the latter group, and thus the car industry (Rockefeller having large stakes both in Ford and in Standard Oil, with Morgan involved not only in railroads, but also particularly in banking which was obviously hit hard by the recessions). For an account which suggests that the collusion was unimportant, see Gordon, Steering a New Course, p. 20, citing James A. Dunn, Miles to Go: European and American Transportation Policies (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1981). David J. St Clair, The Motorization of American Cities (New York: Praeger, 1988), argues, between these positions, that the role of GM and others was crucial but cannot properly be called a 'conspiracy'. However, he is at pains to show that the motorization of US cities was not the 'natural' result of people's innate desire for cars.
143. Wajcman, Feminism Confronts Technology, p. 128. McShane, Down the Asphalt Path, p. 115, and Freund and Martin, Ecology of the Automobile, pp. 135-6, both allude however to how this collusion was also made possible both by the monopolies which the tram companies inevitably formed and which were resented by their users, and by corruption on the part of the tram companies. More generally, Wolf, Car Mania, pp. 81-4 suggests that in the US, competition between road and rail early in the twentieth century reflected competition between the two leading groups of industrialists Vanderbilt/Morgan, and Rockefeller. A number of factors, including the recession of the 1920s, favoured the latter group, and thus the car industry (Rockefeller having large stakes both in Ford and in Standard Oil, with Morgan involved not only in railroads, but also particularly in banking which was obviously hit hard by the recessions). For an account which suggests that the collusion was unimportant, see Gordon, Steering a New Course, p. 20, citing James A. Dunn, Miles to Go: European and American Transportation Policies (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1981). David J. St Clair, The Motorization of American Cities (New York: Praeger, 1988), argues, between these positions, that the role of GM and others was crucial but cannot properly be called a 'conspiracy'. However, he is at pains to show that the motorization of US cities was not the 'natural' result of people's innate desire for cars.
144. Wajcman, Feminism Confronts Technology, p. 128. McShane, Down the Asphalt Path, p. 115, and Freund and Martin, Ecology of the Automobile, pp. 135-6, both allude however to how this collusion was also made possible both by the monopolies which the tram companies inevitably formed and which were resented by their users, and by corruption on the part of the tram companies. More generally, Wolf, Car Mania, pp. 81-4 suggests that in the US, competition between road and rail early in the twentieth century reflected competition between the two leading groups of industrialists Vanderbilt/Morgan, and Rockefeller. A number of factors, including the recession of the 1920s, favoured the latter group, and thus the car industry (Rockefeller having large stakes both in Ford and in Standard Oil, with Morgan involved not only in railroads, but also particularly in banking which was obviously hit hard by the recessions). For an account which suggests that the collusion was unimportant, see Gordon, Steering a New Course, p. 20, citing James A. Dunn, Miles to Go: European and American Transportation Policies (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1981). David J. St Clair, The Motorization of American Cities (New York: Praeger, 1988), argues, between these positions, that the role of GM and others was crucial but cannot properly be called a 'conspiracy'. However, he is at pains to show that the motorization of US cities was not the 'natural' result of people's innate desire for cars.
145. Wajcman, Feminism Confronts Technology, p. 128. McShane, Down the Asphalt Path, p. 115, and Freund and Martin, Ecology of the Automobile, pp. 135-6, both allude however to how this collusion was also made possible both by the monopolies which the tram companies inevitably formed and which were resented by their users, and by corruption on the part of the tram companies. More generally, Wolf, Car Mania, pp. 81-4 suggests that in the US, competition between road and rail early in the twentieth century reflected competition between the two leading groups of industrialists Vanderbilt/Morgan, and Rockefeller. A number of factors, including the recession of the 1920s, favoured the latter group, and thus the car industry (Rockefeller having large stakes both in Ford and in Standard Oil, with Morgan involved not only in railroads, but also particularly in banking which was obviously hit hard by the recessions). For an account which suggests that the collusion was unimportant, see Gordon, Steering a New Course, p. 20, citing James A. Dunn, Miles to Go: European and American Transportation Policies (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1981). David J. St Clair, The Motorization of American Cities (New York: Praeger, 1988), argues, between these positions, that the role of GM and others was crucial but cannot properly be called a 'conspiracy'. However, he is at pains to show that the motorization of US cities was not the 'natural' result of people's innate desire for cars.
146. Wajcman, Feminism Confronts Technology, p. 128. McShane, Down the Asphalt Path, p. 115, and Freund and Martin, Ecology of the Automobile, pp. 135-6, both allude however to how this collusion was also made possible both by the monopolies which the tram companies inevitably formed and which were resented by their users, and by corruption on the part of the tram companies. More generally, Wolf, Car Mania, pp. 81-4 suggests that in the US, competition between road and rail early in the twentieth century reflected competition between the two leading groups of industrialists Vanderbilt/Morgan, and Rockefeller. A number of factors, including the recession of the 1920s, favoured the latter group, and thus the car industry (Rockefeller having large stakes both in Ford and in Standard Oil, with Morgan involved not only in railroads, but also particularly in banking which was obviously hit hard by the recessions). For an account which suggests that the collusion was unimportant, see Gordon, Steering a New Course, p. 20, citing James A. Dunn, Miles to Go: European and American Transportation Policies (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1981). David J. St Clair, The Motorization of American Cities (New York: Praeger, 1988), argues, between these positions, that the role of GM and others was crucial but cannot properly be called a 'conspiracy'. However, he is at pains to show that the motorization of US cities was not the 'natural' result of people's innate desire for cars.
147. Wajcman, Feminism Confronts Technology, p. 128. McShane, Down the Asphalt Path, p. 115, and Freund and Martin, Ecology of the Automobile, pp. 135-6, both allude however to how this collusion was also made possible both by the monopolies which the tram companies inevitably formed and which were resented by their users, and by corruption on the part of the tram companies. More generally, Wolf, Car Mania, pp. 81-4 suggests that in the US, competition between road and rail early in the twentieth century reflected competition between the two leading groups of industrialists Vanderbilt/Morgan, and Rockefeller. A number of factors, including the recession of the 1920s, favoured the latter group, and thus the car industry (Rockefeller having large stakes both in Ford and in Standard Oil, with Morgan involved not only in railroads, but also particularly in banking which was obviously hit hard by the recessions). For an account which suggests that the collusion was unimportant, see Gordon, Steering a New Course, p. 20, citing James A. Dunn, Miles to Go: European and American Transportation Policies (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1981). David J. St Clair, The Motorization of American Cities (New York: Praeger, 1988), argues, between these positions, that the role of GM and others was crucial but cannot properly be called a 'conspiracy'. However, he is at pains to show that the motorization of US cities was not the 'natural' result of people's innate desire for cars.
148. Wajcman, Feminism Confronts Technology, p. 128. McShane, Down the Asphalt Path, p. 115, and Freund and Martin, Ecology of the Automobile, pp. 135-6, both allude however to how this collusion was also made possible both by the monopolies which the tram companies inevitably formed and which were resented by their users, and by corruption on the part of the tram companies. More generally, Wolf, Car Mania, pp. 81-4 suggests that in the US, competition between road and rail early in the twentieth century reflected competition between the two leading groups of industrialists Vanderbilt/Morgan, and Rockefeller. A number of factors, including the recession of the 1920s, favoured the latter group, and thus the car industry (Rockefeller having large stakes both in Ford and in Standard Oil, with Morgan involved not only in railroads, but also particularly in banking which was obviously hit hard by the recessions). For an account which suggests that the collusion was unimportant, see Gordon, Steering a New Course, p. 20, citing James A. Dunn, Miles to Go: European and American Transportation Policies (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1981). David J. St Clair, The Motorization of American Cities (New York: Praeger, 1988), argues, between these positions, that the role of GM and others was crucial but cannot properly be called a 'conspiracy'. However, he is at pains to show that the motorization of US cities was not the 'natural' result of people's innate desire for cars.
149. Sachs, For the Love of the Automobile, p. 27.