Variability in impression formation: Investigating the role of motivation, capacity, and the categorization process

Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin

Volumn 26, Issue 3, 2000, Pages 355-373

  Reynolds, Katherine J ^a   Oakes, Penelope J ^b  

^a AUSTRALIAN NATIONAL UNIVERSITY   (Australia)

^b NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0034398812     PISSN: 01461672     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/0146167200265008     Document Type: Article

References (69)

1. Allport, G. W. (1954). The nature of prejudice. Cambridge, MA: Addison-Wesley.
2. Asch, S. E., & Zukier, H. (1984). Thinking about persons. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 46(6), 1230-1240.
3. Bodenhausen, G. V. (1990). Stereotypes as judgemental heuristics: Evidence of circadian variations in discrimination. Psychological Science, 1, 319-322.
4. Bodenhausen, G. V., & Wyer, R. S. (1985). Effects of stereotypes on decision making and information-processing strategies. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 48, 267-282.
5. Brewer, M. B. (1988). A dual process model of impression formation. In T. K. Srull & R. S. Wyer (Eds.), Advances in social cognition (Vol. 1, pp. 1-36). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
6. Brewer, M. B. (1998). Category-based versus person-based perception. In W. Stroebe & M. Hewstone (Eds.), European Review of Social Psychology (Vol. 9, pp. 77-106). Chichester, UK: Wiley.
7. Bruner, J. S. (1957). On perceptual readiness. Psychological Review, 64, 123-152.
8. Depret, E. & Fiske, S. T. (1999). Perceiving the powerful: Intriguing individuals versus threatening groups. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 35, 461-480.
9. Erber, R., & Fiske, S. T. (1984). Outcome dependency and attention to inconsistent information. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 47, 709-726.
10. Fiske, S. T. (1988) Compare and contrast: Brewer's dual process model and Fiske et al.'s continuum model. In T. K. Srull & R. S. Wyer (Eds.), Advances in Social Cognition (Vol. 1, pp. 65-76). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
11. Fiske, S. T., & Depret, E. (1996). Control, interdependence and power: Understanding social cognition in its social context. European Review of Social Psychology, 7, 31-61.
12. Fiske, S. T., Goodwin, S. A., Operario, D., & Stevens, L. (1996, July 13-18). The continuum model, power, and stereotyping. Paper presented at the General Meeting of the European Association of Experimental Social Psychology, Gmunden, Austria.
13. Fiske, S. T., Lin, M., & Neuberg, S. L. (1999). The continuum model: Ten years later. In S. Chaiken & Y. Trope (Eds.), Dual process theories in social psychology (pp. 231-254). New York: Guilford.
14. Fiske, S. T., & Neuberg, S. L. (1989). Category-based and individuating processes as a function of information and motivation: Evidence from our laboratory. In D. Bar-Tal, C. F. Graumann, A. W. Kruglanski, & W. Stroebe (Eds.), Stereotyping and prejudice: Changing conceptions (pp. 83-103). New York: Springer-Verlag.
15. Fiske, S. T., & Neuberg, S. L. (1990). A continuum of impression formation, from category-based to individuating processes: Influences of information and motivation on attention and interpretation. In M. P. Zanna (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 23, pp. 1-73). New York: Random House.
16. Fiske, S. T., Neuberg, S. L., Beattie, A. E., & Milberg, S. J. (1987). Category-based and attribute-based reactions to others: Some informational conditions of stereotyping and individuating processes. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 23, 399-427.
17. Fiske, S. T., & Taylor, S. E. (1991). Social cognition. New York: McGraw-Hill. (Original work published 1984)
18. Hamilton, D. L. & Sherman, S. J. (1996). Perceiving persons and groups. Psychological Review, 103, 336-355.
19. Hamilton, D. L., Stroessner, S. J., & Driscoll, D. M. (1994). Social cognition and the study of stereotyping. In P. G. Devine, D. L. Hamilton, & T. M. Ostrom (Eds.), Social cognition: Contributions to classic issues in social psychology. New York: Springer-Verlag.
20. Haslam, S. A., Oakes, P. J., Turner, J. C., & McGarty, C. (1995a). Social categorization and group homogeneity: Changes in the perceived applicability of stereotype content as a function of comparative context and trait favourableness. British Journal of Social Psychology, 34, 139-160.
21. Haslam, S. A., Oakes, P. J., Turner, J. C., & McGarty, C. (1995b). Social identity, self-categorization and the perceived homogeneity in ingroups and outgroups: The interaction between social motivation and cognition. In R. Sorrentino & E. T. Higgins (Eds.), Handbook of motivation and cognition (Vol. 3). New York: Guilford.
22. Haslam, S. A., & Turner, J. C. (1992). Context-dependent variation in social stereotyping 2: The relationship between frame of reference, self-categorization and accentuation. European Journal of Social Psychology, 22, 251-278.
23. Haslam, S. A., & Turner, J. C. (1995). Context-dependent variation in social stereotyping 3: Extremism as a self-categorical basis for polarized judgment. European Journal of Social Psychology, 25, 341-371.
24. Haslam, S. A., Turner, J. C, Oakes, P. J., McGarty, C., & Hayes, B. K. (1992). Context-dependent variation in social stereotyping 1: The effects of intergroup relations as mediated by social change and frame of reference. European Journal of Social Psychology, 22, 3-20.
25. Hogg, M. A., & Turner, J. C. (1987). Intergroup behaviour, self-stereotyping and the salience of social categories. British Journal of Social Psychology, 26, 325-340.
26. Judd, C. M., & Park, B. (1993). Outgroup homogeneity: Judgments of variability at the individual and group levels. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 54, 778-788.
27. Katz, D., & Braly, K. (1933). Racial stereotypes of one hundred college students. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 28, 280-290.
28. Kogan, N., & Wallach, M. A. (1964). Risk taking: A study of cognition and personality. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.
29. Linville, P. W., & Jones, E. E. (1980). Polarized appraisals of outgroup members. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 38, 689-703.
30. Lippmann W. (1922). Public opinion. New York: Harcourt Brace.
31. Macrae, C. N., Hewstone, M., & Griffiths, R. J. (1993). Processing load and memory for stereotype-based information. European Journal of Social Psychology, 23, 77-87.
32. Macrae, C. N., Milne, A. B., & Bodenhausen, G. V. (1994). Stereotypes as energy-saving devices: A peek inside the cognitive toolbox. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 66(1), 37-47.
33. Macrae, C. N., Stangor, C., & Hewstone, M. (Eds.). (1996). Stereotypes and stereotyping. New York: Guilford.
34. Medin, D. L. (1988). Social categorization: Structures, processes and purposes. In T. K. Srull & R. S. Wyer (Eds.), Advances in social cognition (Vol. 1, pp. 119-126). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
35. Neisser, U. (Ed.). (1987). Concepts and conceptual development: Ecological and intellectual factors in categorization. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
36. Neuberg, S. L. (1989). The goal of forming accurate impressions during social interactions: Attenuating the impact of negative expecfancies. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 56, 374-386.
37. Neuberg, S. L., & Fiske, S. T. (1987). Motivational influences on impression formation: Outcome dependency, accuracy-driven attention, and individuating processes. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 55, 431-444.
38. Nolan, M., Haslam, S. A., Spears, R., & Oakes, P. J. (1999). An examination of resource-based and fit-based theories of stereotyping under cognitive load and fit. European Journal of Social Psychology, 29, 641-663.
39. Oakes P. J. (1987). The salience of social categories. In J. C. Turner, M. A. Hogg, P. J. Oakes, S. D. Reicher, & M. S. Wetherell (Eds.), Rediscovering the social group: A self-categorization theory. Oxford, UK: Blackwell.
40. Oakes, P. J. (1996). The categorization process: Cognition and the group in the social psychology of stereotyping. In W. P. Robinson (Ed.), Social groups and identities: Developing the legacy of Henri Tajfel. Oxford, UK: Butterworth Heineman.
41. Oakes, P. J., Haslam, S. A., & Turner, J. C. (1994). Stereotyping and social reality. Oxford, UK: Blackwell.
42. Oakes, P. J., & Reynolds, K. J. (1997). Asking the accuracy question: Is measurement the answer? In R. Spears, P. J. Oakes, N. Ellemers, & S. A. Haslam (Eds.), The social psychology of stereotyping and group life. Oxford, UK: Blackwell.
43. Oakes, P. J., & Turner, J. C. (1990). Is limited information processing capacity the cause of social stereotyping? In W. Stroebe & M. Hewstone (Eds.), European review of social psychology (Vol. 1). Chichester, UK: Wiley.
44. Oakes, P. J., Turner, J. C., & Haslam, S. A. (1991). Perceiving people as group members: The role of fit in the salience of social categorizations. British Journal of Social Psychology, 30, 125-144.
45. Pendry, L. F., & Macrae, C. N. (1994). Stereotypes and mental life: The case of the motivated but thwarted tactician. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 30, 303-325.
46. Pratto, F., & Bargh, J. A. (1991). Stereotyping based on apparently individuating information: Trait and global components of sex stereotypes under attention overload. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 27, 2646.
47. Reicher, S., Hopkins, N., & Condor, S. (1997). Stereotype construction as a strategy of influence. In R. Spears, P. J. Oakes, N. Ellemers, & S. A. Haslam (Eds.), The social psychology of stereotyping and group life. Oxford, UK: Blackwell.
48. Reynolds, K. J. (1997). Beyond the information given: Capacity, context and the categorization process in impression formation. Unpublished doctoral thesis, Australian National University.
49. Reynolds, K. J., Jetten, J., Young, H., Yzerbyt, V., & Spears, R. (1998) Beyond the resources given: The impact of self-other categorization and attentional capacity on stereotyping. Manuscript submitted for publication.
50. Reynolds, K. J., & Oakes, P. J. (1999). Understanding the impression formation process: A self-categorization theory perspective. In T. Sugiman, M. Karasawa, J. Lui, & C. Ward (Eds.), Progress in Asian social psychology: Theoretical and empirical contributions (Vol. 2, pp. 213-235). Seoul, South Korea: Kyoyook-Kwahak-Sa.
51. Riley, T., & Fiske, S. T. (1991). Interdependence and the social context of impression formation. European Bulletin of Cognitive Psychology, 11, 173-192.
52. Rothbart, M., Fulero, S., Jensen, C., Howard, J., & Birrell, P. (1978). From individual to group impressions: Availability heuristics in stereotype formation. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 14, 237-255.
53. Ruscher, J. B., & Fiske, S. T. (1990). Interpersonal competition can cause individuating processes. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 58, 832-843.
54. Ruscher, J. B., Fiske, S. T., Miki, H., & Van Manen, S. (1991). Individuating processes in competition: Interpersonal versus intergroup. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 17(6), 595-605.
55. Sherif, M. (1967). Group conflict and co-operation: Their social psychology. London: Routledge Kegan Paul.
56. Simon, B. (1992). The perception of ingroup and outgroup homogeneity: Reintroducing the social context. In W. Strobe & M. Hewstone (Eds.), European review of social psychology (Vol. 3). Chichester, UK: Wiley.
57. Simon, B., Pantaleo, G., & Mummendey, A. (1995). Unique individual or interchangeable group member? The accentuation of intragroup differences versus similarities as an indicator of the individual self versus the collective self. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 69, 106-119.
58. Spears, R., & Haslam, S. A. (1997). Stereotyping and the burden of cognitive load. In R. Spears, P. J. Oakes, N. Ellemers, & S. A. Haslam (Eds.), The social psychology of stereotyping and group life. Oxford, UK: Blackwell.
59. Spears, R., Haslam, S. A., & Jansen, R. (1999). The effects of cognitive load on social categorization in the category confusion paradigm. European Journal of Social Psychology, 29, 621-639.
60. Stangor, C., & Duan, C. (1991). Effects of multiple task demands upon memory for information about social groups. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 27, 357-378.
61. Stephan, W. G. (1985). Intergroup relations. In G. Lindzey & E. Aronson (Eds.), Handbook of social psychology (Vol. 2). New York: Random House.
62. Tabachnick, B. G., & Fidell, L. S. (1989). Using multivariate statistics. New York: HarperCollins.
63. Tajfel, H. (1981). Human groups and social categories. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
64. Tajfel, H., & Turner, J. C. (1979). An integrative theory of intergroup conflict. In W. G. Austin & S. Worschel (Eds.), The social psychology of intergroup relations. Monterey, CA: Brooks/Cole.
65. Turner, J. C. (1985). Social categorization and the self-concept: A social cognitive theory of group behaviour. In E. J. Lawler (Ed.), Advances in group processes (Vol. 2). Greenwich, CT: JAI.
66. Turner, J. C., Hogg, M. A., Oakes, P. J., Reicher, S. D., & Wetherell, M. S. (1987). Rediscovering the social group: A self-categorization theory. Oxford, UK: Blackwell.
67. Turner, J. C., Oakes, P. J., Haslam, S. A., & McGarty, C. A. (1994). Self and collective: Cognition and social context. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 20, 454-463.
68. Wilder, D. A. (1984). Predictions of belief homogeneity and similarity following social categorization. British Journal of Social Psychology, 23, 323-333.
69. Yzerbyt, V. Y., Rocher, S., & Schadron, G. (1997). Stereotypes as explanations. In R. Spears, P. J. Oakes, N. Ellemers, & S. A. Haslam (Eds.), The social psychology of stereotyping and group life. Oxford, UK: Blackwell.