The effects of primary school quality on school dropout among Kenyan girls and boys

Comparative Education Review

Volumn 44, Issue 2, 2000, Pages 113-145

  Lloyd, Cynthia B ^a   Mensch, Barbara S ^a   Clark, Wesley H ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0034395702     PISSN: 00104086     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1086/447600     Document Type: Article

References (72)

1. L. Summers, "Investing in All the People: Educating Women in Developing Countries," Seminar Paper no. 45 (World Bank, Economic Development Institute, Washington, D.C., 1994).
2. C. B. Lloyd, C. E. Kaufman, and P. Hewett, "The Spread of Primary Schooling in Sub-Saharan Africa: Implications for Fertility Change," Working Paper no. 127 (Population Council, Policy Research Division, New York, 1999).
3. See, e.g., C. B. Lloyd and A. K. Blanc, "Children's Schooling in Sub-Saharan Africa: The Role of Fathers, Mothers, and Others," Population and Development Review 22 (1996): 265-98; M. A. Hill and E. M. King, "Women's Education in Developing Countries: An Overview," in Women's Education in Developing Countries: Barriers, Benefits, and Policies, ed. E. M. King and M. A. Hill (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1993), pp. 1-50; Z. Sathar and C. B. Lloyd, "Who Gets Primary Schooling in Pakistan: Inequalities among and within Families," Pakistan Development Review 33 (1994): 103-34; C. B. Lloyd and A. Gage-Brandon, "High Fertility and Children's Schooling in Ghana: Sex Differences in Parental Contributions and Educational Outcomes," Population Studies 48 (1994): 293-306; D. T. Jamison and M. E. Lockheed, "Participating in Schooling: Determinants and Learning Outcomes in Nepal," Economic Development and Cultural Change 35 (1987): 279-306; and D. Chernichovsky, "Socioeconomic and Demographic Aspects of School Enrollment and Attendance in Rural Botswana," Economic Development and Cultural Change 33 (1985): 319-32, among many others.
4. See, e.g., C. B. Lloyd and A. K. Blanc, "Children's Schooling in Sub-Saharan Africa: The Role of Fathers, Mothers, and Others," Population and Development Review 22 (1996): 265-98; M. A. Hill and E. M. King, "Women's Education in Developing Countries: An Overview," in Women's Education in Developing Countries: Barriers, Benefits, and Policies, ed. E. M. King and M. A. Hill (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1993), pp. 1-50; Z. Sathar and C. B. Lloyd, "Who Gets Primary Schooling in Pakistan: Inequalities among and within Families," Pakistan Development Review 33 (1994): 103-34; C. B. Lloyd and A. Gage-Brandon, "High Fertility and Children's Schooling in Ghana: Sex Differences in Parental Contributions and Educational Outcomes," Population Studies 48 (1994): 293-306; D. T. Jamison and M. E. Lockheed, "Participating in Schooling: Determinants and Learning Outcomes in Nepal," Economic Development and Cultural Change 35 (1987): 279-306; and D. Chernichovsky, "Socioeconomic and Demographic Aspects of School Enrollment and Attendance in Rural Botswana," Economic Development and Cultural Change 33 (1985): 319-32, among many others.
5. See, e.g., C. B. Lloyd and A. K. Blanc, "Children's Schooling in Sub-Saharan Africa: The Role of Fathers, Mothers, and Others," Population and Development Review 22 (1996): 265-98; M. A. Hill and E. M. King, "Women's Education in Developing Countries: An Overview," in Women's Education in Developing Countries: Barriers, Benefits, and Policies, ed. E. M. King and M. A. Hill (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1993), pp. 1-50; Z. Sathar and C. B. Lloyd, "Who Gets Primary Schooling in Pakistan: Inequalities among and within Families," Pakistan Development Review 33 (1994): 103-34; C. B. Lloyd and A. Gage-Brandon, "High Fertility and Children's Schooling in Ghana: Sex Differences in Parental Contributions and Educational Outcomes," Population Studies 48 (1994): 293-306; D. T. Jamison and M. E. Lockheed, "Participating in Schooling: Determinants and Learning Outcomes in Nepal," Economic Development and Cultural Change 35 (1987): 279-306; and D. Chernichovsky, "Socioeconomic and Demographic Aspects of School Enrollment and Attendance in Rural Botswana," Economic Development and Cultural Change 33 (1985): 319-32, among many others.
6. See, e.g., C. B. Lloyd and A. K. Blanc, "Children's Schooling in Sub-Saharan Africa: The Role of Fathers, Mothers, and Others," Population and Development Review 22 (1996): 265-98; M. A. Hill and E. M. King, "Women's Education in Developing Countries: An Overview," in Women's Education in Developing Countries: Barriers, Benefits, and Policies, ed. E. M. King and M. A. Hill (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1993), pp. 1-50; Z. Sathar and C. B. Lloyd, "Who Gets Primary Schooling in Pakistan: Inequalities among and within Families," Pakistan Development Review 33 (1994): 103-34; C. B. Lloyd and A. Gage-Brandon, "High Fertility and Children's Schooling in Ghana: Sex Differences in Parental Contributions and Educational Outcomes," Population Studies 48 (1994): 293-306; D. T. Jamison and M. E. Lockheed, "Participating in Schooling: Determinants and Learning Outcomes in Nepal," Economic Development and Cultural Change 35 (1987): 279-306; and D. Chernichovsky, "Socioeconomic and Demographic Aspects of School Enrollment and Attendance in Rural Botswana," Economic Development and Cultural Change 33 (1985): 319-32, among many others.
7. See, e.g., C. B. Lloyd and A. K. Blanc, "Children's Schooling in Sub-Saharan Africa: The Role of Fathers, Mothers, and Others," Population and Development Review 22 (1996): 265-98; M. A. Hill and E. M. King, "Women's Education in Developing Countries: An Overview," in Women's Education in Developing Countries: Barriers, Benefits, and Policies, ed. E. M. King and M. A. Hill (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1993), pp. 1-50; Z. Sathar and C. B. Lloyd, "Who Gets Primary Schooling in Pakistan: Inequalities among and within Families," Pakistan Development Review 33 (1994): 103-34; C. B. Lloyd and A. Gage-Brandon, "High Fertility and Children's Schooling in Ghana: Sex Differences in Parental Contributions and Educational Outcomes," Population Studies 48 (1994): 293-306; D. T. Jamison and M. E. Lockheed, "Participating in Schooling: Determinants and Learning Outcomes in Nepal," Economic Development and Cultural Change 35 (1987): 279-306; and D. Chernichovsky, "Socioeconomic and Demographic Aspects of School Enrollment and Attendance in Rural Botswana," Economic Development and Cultural Change 33 (1985): 319-32, among many others.
8. See, e.g., C. B. Lloyd and A. K. Blanc, "Children's Schooling in Sub-Saharan Africa: The Role of Fathers, Mothers, and Others," Population and Development Review 22 (1996): 265-98; M. A. Hill and E. M. King, "Women's Education in Developing Countries: An Overview," in Women's Education in Developing Countries: Barriers, Benefits, and Policies, ed. E. M. King and M. A. Hill (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1993), pp. 1-50; Z. Sathar and C. B. Lloyd, "Who Gets Primary Schooling in Pakistan: Inequalities among and within Families," Pakistan Development Review 33 (1994): 103-34; C. B. Lloyd and A. Gage-Brandon, "High Fertility and Children's Schooling in Ghana: Sex Differences in Parental Contributions and Educational Outcomes," Population Studies 48 (1994): 293-306; D. T. Jamison and M. E. Lockheed, "Participating in Schooling: Determinants and Learning Outcomes in Nepal," Economic Development and Cultural Change 35 (1987): 279-306; and D. Chernichovsky, "Socioeconomic and Demographic Aspects of School Enrollment and Attendance in Rural Botswana," Economic Development and Cultural Change 33 (1985): 319-32, among many others.
9. J. R. Behrman and N. Birdsall, "The Quality of Schooling: Quantity Alone Is Misleading," American Economic Review 73 (1983): 928-46.
10. Sathar and Lloyd.
11. Lloyd and Gage-Brandon; J. W. Lee and R. J. Barro, "Schooling Quality in a Cross Section of Countries," Working Paper no. 6198 (National Bureau of Economic Research, Cambridge, Mass., 1997).
12. Lloyd and Gage-Brandon; J. W. Lee and R. J. Barro, "Schooling Quality in a Cross Section of Countries," Working Paper no. 6198 (National Bureau of Economic Research, Cambridge, Mass., 1997).
13. S. R. Khandker, V Lavy, and D. Filmer, "Schooling and Cognitive Achievements of Children in Morocco: Can the Government Improve Outcomes?" Discussion Paper no. 69 (World Bank, Washington, D.C., 1994); E. A. Hanushek and V. Lavy, "School Quality, Achievement Bias, and Dropout Behavior in Egypt," Working Paper no. 107 (World Bank Living Standards Measurement Study, Washington, D.C., 1994).
14. S. R. Khandker, V Lavy, and D. Filmer, "Schooling and Cognitive Achievements of Children in Morocco: Can the Government Improve Outcomes?" Discussion Paper no. 69 (World Bank, Washington, D.C., 1994); E. A. Hanushek and V. Lavy, "School Quality, Achievement Bias, and Dropout Behavior in Egypt," Working Paper no. 107 (World Bank Living Standards Measurement Study, Washington, D.C., 1994).
15. M. E. Lockheed and A. M. Verspoor, with D. Bloch et al., Improving Primary Education in Developing Countries (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1991).
16. Notable recent studies would include S. Appleton, Exam Determinants in Kenyan Primary School: Determinants and Gender Differences (Washington, D.C.: Economic Development Institute of the World Bank, 1995); P. Glewwe, M. E. Grosh, H. Jacoby, and M. E. Lockheed, "An Eclectic Approach to Estimating the Determinants of Achievement in Jamaican Primary Education," World Bank Economic Review 9 (1995): 231-58; P. Glewwe and H. Jacoby, "Student Achievement and Schooling Choice in Low Income Countries, "Journal of Human Resources 29 (1994): 843-64; J-P. Tan, J. Lane, and P. Coustere, "Putting Inputs to Work in Elementary Schools: What Can Be Done in the Philippines?" Economic Development and Cultural Changed (1997): 857-81; M. A. Lockheed and N. T. Longford, "A Multilevel Model of School Effectiveness in a Developing Country," Discussion Paper no. 69 (World Bank, Washington, D.C., 1989); Khandker, Lavy, and Filmer; B. Fuller, H. Hua, and C. W. Snyder, "When Girls Learn More than Boys: The Influence of Time in School and Pedagogy in Botswana," Comparative Education Review 38 (1994): 347-76; and B. Fuller and C. W. Snyder, "Vocal Teachers, Silent Pupils? Life in Botswana Classrooms," Comparative Education Review 35 (1991): 274-94. For reviews of a large and growing empirical literature, see B. Fuller and P. Clarke, "Raising School Effects While Ignoring Culture? Local Conditions and the Influence of Classroom Tools, Rules, and Pedagogy," Review of Educational Research 64 (1994): 119-57; R. W. Harbison and E. A. Hanushek, Educational Performance of the Poor: Lessons from Rural Northeast Brazil (New York: Oxford University Press, 1992); Lockheed and Verspoor, with Bloch et al.; B. Fuller, "What Factors Raise Achievement in the Third World?" Review of Educational Research 57(1987): 255-92; S. P. Heyneman and W. A. Loxley, "The Effect of Primary-School Quality on Academic Achievement across Twenty-Nine High-and Low-Income Countries," American Journal of Sociology 88 (1983): 1162-94.
17. Notable recent studies would include S. Appleton, Exam Determinants in Kenyan Primary School: Determinants and Gender Differences (Washington, D.C.: Economic Development Institute of the World Bank, 1995); P. Glewwe, M. E. Grosh, H. Jacoby, and M. E. Lockheed, "An Eclectic Approach to Estimating the Determinants of Achievement in Jamaican Primary Education," World Bank Economic Review 9 (1995): 231-58; P. Glewwe and H. Jacoby, "Student Achievement and Schooling Choice in Low Income Countries, "Journal of Human Resources 29 (1994): 843-64; J-P. Tan, J. Lane, and P. Coustere, "Putting Inputs to Work in Elementary Schools: What Can Be Done in the Philippines?" Economic Development and Cultural Changed (1997): 857-81; M. A. Lockheed and N. T. Longford, "A Multilevel Model of School Effectiveness in a Developing Country," Discussion Paper no. 69 (World Bank, Washington, D.C., 1989); Khandker, Lavy, and Filmer; B. Fuller, H. Hua, and C. W. Snyder, "When Girls Learn More than Boys: The Influence of Time in School and Pedagogy in Botswana," Comparative Education Review 38 (1994): 347-76; and B. Fuller and C. W. Snyder, "Vocal Teachers, Silent Pupils? Life in Botswana Classrooms," Comparative Education Review 35 (1991): 274-94. For reviews of a large and growing empirical literature, see B. Fuller and P. Clarke, "Raising School Effects While Ignoring Culture? Local Conditions and the Influence of Classroom Tools, Rules, and Pedagogy," Review of Educational Research 64 (1994): 119-57; R. W. Harbison and E. A. Hanushek, Educational Performance of the Poor: Lessons from Rural Northeast Brazil (New York: Oxford University Press, 1992); Lockheed and Verspoor, with Bloch et al.; B. Fuller, "What Factors Raise Achievement in the Third World?" Review of Educational Research 57(1987): 255-92; S. P. Heyneman and W. A. Loxley, "The Effect of Primary-School Quality on Academic Achievement across Twenty-Nine High-and Low-Income Countries," American Journal of Sociology 88 (1983): 1162-94.
18. Notable recent studies would include S. Appleton, Exam Determinants in Kenyan Primary School: Determinants and Gender Differences (Washington, D.C.: Economic Development Institute of the World Bank, 1995); P. Glewwe, M. E. Grosh, H. Jacoby, and M. E. Lockheed, "An Eclectic Approach to Estimating the Determinants of Achievement in Jamaican Primary Education," World Bank Economic Review 9 (1995): 231-58; P. Glewwe and H. Jacoby, "Student Achievement and Schooling Choice in Low Income Countries, "Journal of Human Resources 29 (1994): 843-64; J-P. Tan, J. Lane, and P. Coustere, "Putting Inputs to Work in Elementary Schools: What Can Be Done in the Philippines?" Economic Development and Cultural Changed (1997): 857-81; M. A. Lockheed and N. T. Longford, "A Multilevel Model of School Effectiveness in a Developing Country," Discussion Paper no. 69 (World Bank, Washington, D.C., 1989); Khandker, Lavy, and Filmer; B. Fuller, H. Hua, and C. W. Snyder, "When Girls Learn More than Boys: The Influence of Time in School and Pedagogy in Botswana," Comparative Education Review 38 (1994): 347-76; and B. Fuller and C. W. Snyder, "Vocal Teachers, Silent Pupils? Life in Botswana Classrooms," Comparative Education Review 35 (1991): 274-94. For reviews of a large and growing empirical literature, see B. Fuller and P. Clarke, "Raising School Effects While Ignoring Culture? Local Conditions and the Influence of Classroom Tools, Rules, and Pedagogy," Review of Educational Research 64 (1994): 119-57; R. W. Harbison and E. A. Hanushek, Educational Performance of the Poor: Lessons from Rural Northeast Brazil (New York: Oxford University Press, 1992); Lockheed and Verspoor, with Bloch et al.; B. Fuller, "What Factors Raise Achievement in the Third World?" Review of Educational Research 57(1987): 255-92; S. P. Heyneman and W. A. Loxley, "The Effect of Primary-School Quality on Academic Achievement across Twenty-Nine High-and Low-Income Countries," American Journal of Sociology 88 (1983): 1162-94.
19. Notable recent studies would include S. Appleton, Exam Determinants in Kenyan Primary School: Determinants and Gender Differences (Washington, D.C.: Economic Development Institute of the World Bank, 1995); P. Glewwe, M. E. Grosh, H. Jacoby, and M. E. Lockheed, "An Eclectic Approach to Estimating the Determinants of Achievement in Jamaican Primary Education," World Bank Economic Review 9 (1995): 231-58; P. Glewwe and H. Jacoby, "Student Achievement and Schooling Choice in Low Income Countries, "Journal of Human Resources 29 (1994): 843-64; J-P. Tan, J. Lane, and P. Coustere, "Putting Inputs to Work in Elementary Schools: What Can Be Done in the Philippines?" Economic Development and Cultural Changed (1997): 857-81; M. A. Lockheed and N. T. Longford, "A Multilevel Model of School Effectiveness in a Developing Country," Discussion Paper no. 69 (World Bank, Washington, D.C., 1989); Khandker, Lavy, and Filmer; B. Fuller, H. Hua, and C. W. Snyder, "When Girls Learn More than Boys: The Influence of Time in School and Pedagogy in Botswana," Comparative Education Review 38 (1994): 347-76; and B. Fuller and C. W. Snyder, "Vocal Teachers, Silent Pupils? Life in Botswana Classrooms," Comparative Education Review 35 (1991): 274-94. For reviews of a large and growing empirical literature, see B. Fuller and P. Clarke, "Raising School Effects While Ignoring Culture? Local Conditions and the Influence of Classroom Tools, Rules, and Pedagogy," Review of Educational Research 64 (1994): 119-57; R. W. Harbison and E. A. Hanushek, Educational Performance of the Poor: Lessons from Rural Northeast Brazil (New York: Oxford University Press, 1992); Lockheed and Verspoor, with Bloch et al.; B. Fuller, "What Factors Raise Achievement in the Third World?" Review of Educational Research 57(1987): 255-92; S. P. Heyneman and W. A. Loxley, "The Effect of Primary-School Quality on Academic Achievement across Twenty-Nine High-and Low-Income Countries," American Journal of Sociology 88 (1983): 1162-94.
20. Notable recent studies would include S. Appleton, Exam Determinants in Kenyan Primary School: Determinants and Gender Differences (Washington, D.C.: Economic Development Institute of the World Bank, 1995); P. Glewwe, M. E. Grosh, H. Jacoby, and M. E. Lockheed, "An Eclectic Approach to Estimating the Determinants of Achievement in Jamaican Primary Education," World Bank Economic Review 9 (1995): 231-58; P. Glewwe and H. Jacoby, "Student Achievement and Schooling Choice in Low Income Countries, "Journal of Human Resources 29 (1994): 843-64; J-P. Tan, J. Lane, and P. Coustere, "Putting Inputs to Work in Elementary Schools: What Can Be Done in the Philippines?" Economic Development and Cultural Changed (1997): 857-81; M. A. Lockheed and N. T. Longford, "A Multilevel Model of School Effectiveness in a Developing Country," Discussion Paper no. 69 (World Bank, Washington, D.C., 1989); Khandker, Lavy, and Filmer; B. Fuller, H. Hua, and C. W. Snyder, "When Girls Learn More than Boys: The Influence of Time in School and Pedagogy in Botswana," Comparative Education Review 38 (1994): 347-76; and B. Fuller and C. W. Snyder, "Vocal Teachers, Silent Pupils? Life in Botswana Classrooms," Comparative Education Review 35 (1991): 274-94. For reviews of a large and growing empirical literature, see B. Fuller and P. Clarke, "Raising School Effects While Ignoring Culture? Local Conditions and the Influence of Classroom Tools, Rules, and Pedagogy," Review of Educational Research 64 (1994): 119-57; R. W. Harbison and E. A. Hanushek, Educational Performance of the Poor: Lessons from Rural Northeast Brazil (New York: Oxford University Press, 1992); Lockheed and Verspoor, with Bloch et al.; B. Fuller, "What Factors Raise Achievement in the Third World?" Review of Educational Research 57(1987): 255-92; S. P. Heyneman and W. A. Loxley, "The Effect of Primary-School Quality on Academic Achievement across Twenty-Nine High-and Low-Income Countries," American Journal of Sociology 88 (1983): 1162-94.
21. Notable recent studies would include S. Appleton, Exam Determinants in Kenyan Primary School: Determinants and Gender Differences (Washington, D.C.: Economic Development Institute of the World Bank, 1995); P. Glewwe, M. E. Grosh, H. Jacoby, and M. E. Lockheed, "An Eclectic Approach to Estimating the Determinants of Achievement in Jamaican Primary Education," World Bank Economic Review 9 (1995): 231-58; P. Glewwe and H. Jacoby, "Student Achievement and Schooling Choice in Low Income Countries, "Journal of Human Resources 29 (1994): 843-64; J-P. Tan, J. Lane, and P. Coustere, "Putting Inputs to Work in Elementary Schools: What Can Be Done in the Philippines?" Economic Development and Cultural Changed (1997): 857-81; M. A. Lockheed and N. T. Longford, "A Multilevel Model of School Effectiveness in a Developing Country," Discussion Paper no. 69 (World Bank, Washington, D.C., 1989); Khandker, Lavy, and Filmer; B. Fuller, H. Hua, and C. W. Snyder, "When Girls Learn More than Boys: The Influence of Time in School and Pedagogy in Botswana," Comparative Education Review 38 (1994): 347-76; and B. Fuller and C. W. Snyder, "Vocal Teachers, Silent Pupils? Life in Botswana Classrooms," Comparative Education Review 35 (1991): 274-94. For reviews of a large and growing empirical literature, see B. Fuller and P. Clarke, "Raising School Effects While Ignoring Culture? Local Conditions and the Influence of Classroom Tools, Rules, and Pedagogy," Review of Educational Research 64 (1994): 119-57; R. W. Harbison and E. A. Hanushek, Educational Performance of the Poor: Lessons from Rural Northeast Brazil (New York: Oxford University Press, 1992); Lockheed and Verspoor, with Bloch et al.; B. Fuller, "What Factors Raise Achievement in the Third World?" Review of Educational Research 57(1987): 255-92; S. P. Heyneman and W. A. Loxley, "The Effect of Primary-School Quality on Academic Achievement across Twenty-Nine High-and Low-Income Countries," American Journal of Sociology 88 (1983): 1162-94.
22. Notable recent studies would include S. Appleton, Exam Determinants in Kenyan Primary School: Determinants and Gender Differences (Washington, D.C.: Economic Development Institute of the World Bank, 1995); P. Glewwe, M. E. Grosh, H. Jacoby, and M. E. Lockheed, "An Eclectic Approach to Estimating the Determinants of Achievement in Jamaican Primary Education," World Bank Economic Review 9 (1995): 231-58; P. Glewwe and H. Jacoby, "Student Achievement and Schooling Choice in Low Income Countries, "Journal of Human Resources 29 (1994): 843-64; J-P. Tan, J. Lane, and P. Coustere, "Putting Inputs to Work in Elementary Schools: What Can Be Done in the Philippines?" Economic Development and Cultural Changed (1997): 857-81; M. A. Lockheed and N. T. Longford, "A Multilevel Model of School Effectiveness in a Developing Country," Discussion Paper no. 69 (World Bank, Washington, D.C., 1989); Khandker, Lavy, and Filmer; B. Fuller, H. Hua, and C. W. Snyder, "When Girls Learn More than Boys: The Influence of Time in School and Pedagogy in Botswana," Comparative Education Review 38 (1994): 347-76; and B. Fuller and C. W. Snyder, "Vocal Teachers, Silent Pupils? Life in Botswana Classrooms," Comparative Education Review 35 (1991): 274-94. For reviews of a large and growing empirical literature, see B. Fuller and P. Clarke, "Raising School Effects While Ignoring Culture? Local Conditions and the Influence of Classroom Tools, Rules, and Pedagogy," Review of Educational Research 64 (1994): 119-57; R. W. Harbison and E. A. Hanushek, Educational Performance of the Poor: Lessons from Rural Northeast Brazil (New York: Oxford University Press, 1992); Lockheed and Verspoor, with Bloch et al.; B. Fuller, "What Factors Raise Achievement in the Third World?" Review of Educational Research 57(1987): 255-92; S. P. Heyneman and W. A. Loxley, "The Effect of Primary-School Quality on Academic Achievement across Twenty-Nine High-and Low-Income Countries," American Journal of Sociology 88 (1983): 1162-94.
23. Notable recent studies would include S. Appleton, Exam Determinants in Kenyan Primary School: Determinants and Gender Differences (Washington, D.C.: Economic Development Institute of the World Bank, 1995); P. Glewwe, M. E. Grosh, H. Jacoby, and M. E. Lockheed, "An Eclectic Approach to Estimating the Determinants of Achievement in Jamaican Primary Education," World Bank Economic Review 9 (1995): 231-58; P. Glewwe and H. Jacoby, "Student Achievement and Schooling Choice in Low Income Countries, "Journal of Human Resources 29 (1994): 843-64; J-P. Tan, J. Lane, and P. Coustere, "Putting Inputs to Work in Elementary Schools: What Can Be Done in the Philippines?" Economic Development and Cultural Changed (1997): 857-81; M. A. Lockheed and N. T. Longford, "A Multilevel Model of School Effectiveness in a Developing Country," Discussion Paper no. 69 (World Bank, Washington, D.C., 1989); Khandker, Lavy, and Filmer; B. Fuller, H. Hua, and C. W. Snyder, "When Girls Learn More than Boys: The Influence of Time in School and Pedagogy in Botswana," Comparative Education Review 38 (1994): 347-76; and B. Fuller and C. W. Snyder, "Vocal Teachers, Silent Pupils? Life in Botswana Classrooms," Comparative Education Review 35 (1991): 274-94. For reviews of a large and growing empirical literature, see B. Fuller and P. Clarke, "Raising School Effects While Ignoring Culture? Local Conditions and the Influence of Classroom Tools, Rules, and Pedagogy," Review of Educational Research 64 (1994): 119-57; R. W. Harbison and E. A. Hanushek, Educational Performance of the Poor: Lessons from Rural Northeast Brazil (New York: Oxford University Press, 1992); Lockheed and Verspoor, with Bloch et al.; B. Fuller, "What Factors Raise Achievement in the Third World?" Review of Educational Research 57(1987): 255-92; S. P. Heyneman and W. A. Loxley, "The Effect of Primary-School Quality on Academic Achievement across Twenty-Nine High-and Low-Income Countries," American Journal of Sociology 88 (1983): 1162-94.
24. Notable recent studies would include S. Appleton, Exam Determinants in Kenyan Primary School: Determinants and Gender Differences (Washington, D.C.: Economic Development Institute of the World Bank, 1995); P. Glewwe, M. E. Grosh, H. Jacoby, and M. E. Lockheed, "An Eclectic Approach to Estimating the Determinants of Achievement in Jamaican Primary Education," World Bank Economic Review 9 (1995): 231-58; P. Glewwe and H. Jacoby, "Student Achievement and Schooling Choice in Low Income Countries, "Journal of Human Resources 29 (1994): 843-64; J-P. Tan, J. Lane, and P. Coustere, "Putting Inputs to Work in Elementary Schools: What Can Be Done in the Philippines?" Economic Development and Cultural Changed (1997): 857-81; M. A. Lockheed and N. T. Longford, "A Multilevel Model of School Effectiveness in a Developing Country," Discussion Paper no. 69 (World Bank, Washington, D.C., 1989); Khandker, Lavy, and Filmer; B. Fuller, H. Hua, and C. W. Snyder, "When Girls Learn More than Boys: The Influence of Time in School and Pedagogy in Botswana," Comparative Education Review 38 (1994): 347-76; and B. Fuller and C. W. Snyder, "Vocal Teachers, Silent Pupils? Life in Botswana Classrooms," Comparative Education Review 35 (1991): 274-94. For reviews of a large and growing empirical literature, see B. Fuller and P. Clarke, "Raising School Effects While Ignoring Culture? Local Conditions and the Influence of Classroom Tools, Rules, and Pedagogy," Review of Educational Research 64 (1994): 119-57; R. W. Harbison and E. A. Hanushek, Educational Performance of the Poor: Lessons from Rural Northeast Brazil (New York: Oxford University Press, 1992); Lockheed and Verspoor, with Bloch et al.; B. Fuller, "What Factors Raise Achievement in the Third World?" Review of Educational Research 57(1987): 255-92; S. P. Heyneman and W. A. Loxley, "The Effect of Primary-School Quality on Academic Achievement across Twenty-Nine High-and Low-Income Countries," American Journal of Sociology 88 (1983): 1162-94.
25. Notable recent studies would include S. Appleton, Exam Determinants in Kenyan Primary School: Determinants and Gender Differences (Washington, D.C.: Economic Development Institute of the World Bank, 1995); P. Glewwe, M. E. Grosh, H. Jacoby, and M. E. Lockheed, "An Eclectic Approach to Estimating the Determinants of Achievement in Jamaican Primary Education," World Bank Economic Review 9 (1995): 231-58; P. Glewwe and H. Jacoby, "Student Achievement and Schooling Choice in Low Income Countries, "Journal of Human Resources 29 (1994): 843-64; J-P. Tan, J. Lane, and P. Coustere, "Putting Inputs to Work in Elementary Schools: What Can Be Done in the Philippines?" Economic Development and Cultural Changed (1997): 857-81; M. A. Lockheed and N. T. Longford, "A Multilevel Model of School Effectiveness in a Developing Country," Discussion Paper no. 69 (World Bank, Washington, D.C., 1989); Khandker, Lavy, and Filmer; B. Fuller, H. Hua, and C. W. Snyder, "When Girls Learn More than Boys: The Influence of Time in School and Pedagogy in Botswana," Comparative Education Review 38 (1994): 347-76; and B. Fuller and C. W. Snyder, "Vocal Teachers, Silent Pupils? Life in Botswana Classrooms," Comparative Education Review 35 (1991): 274-94. For reviews of a large and growing empirical literature, see B. Fuller and P. Clarke, "Raising School Effects While Ignoring Culture? Local Conditions and the Influence of Classroom Tools, Rules, and Pedagogy," Review of Educational Research 64 (1994): 119-57; R. W. Harbison and E. A. Hanushek, Educational Performance of the Poor: Lessons from Rural Northeast Brazil (New York: Oxford University Press, 1992); Lockheed and Verspoor, with Bloch et al.; B. Fuller, "What Factors Raise Achievement in the Third World?" Review of Educational Research 57(1987): 255-92; S. P. Heyneman and W. A. Loxley, "The Effect of Primary-School Quality on Academic Achievement across Twenty-Nine High-and Low-Income Countries," American Journal of Sociology 88 (1983): 1162-94.
26. Notable recent studies would include S. Appleton, Exam Determinants in Kenyan Primary School: Determinants and Gender Differences (Washington, D.C.: Economic Development Institute of the World Bank, 1995); P. Glewwe, M. E. Grosh, H. Jacoby, and M. E. Lockheed, "An Eclectic Approach to Estimating the Determinants of Achievement in Jamaican Primary Education," World Bank Economic Review 9 (1995): 231-58; P. Glewwe and H. Jacoby, "Student Achievement and Schooling Choice in Low Income Countries, "Journal of Human Resources 29 (1994): 843-64; J-P. Tan, J. Lane, and P. Coustere, "Putting Inputs to Work in Elementary Schools: What Can Be Done in the Philippines?" Economic Development and Cultural Changed (1997): 857-81; M. A. Lockheed and N. T. Longford, "A Multilevel Model of School Effectiveness in a Developing Country," Discussion Paper no. 69 (World Bank, Washington, D.C., 1989); Khandker, Lavy, and Filmer; B. Fuller, H. Hua, and C. W. Snyder, "When Girls Learn More than Boys: The Influence of Time in School and Pedagogy in Botswana," Comparative Education Review 38 (1994): 347-76; and B. Fuller and C. W. Snyder, "Vocal Teachers, Silent Pupils? Life in Botswana Classrooms," Comparative Education Review 35 (1991): 274-94. For reviews of a large and growing empirical literature, see B. Fuller and P. Clarke, "Raising School Effects While Ignoring Culture? Local Conditions and the Influence of Classroom Tools, Rules, and Pedagogy," Review of Educational Research 64 (1994): 119-57; R. W. Harbison and E. A. Hanushek, Educational Performance of the Poor: Lessons from Rural Northeast Brazil (New York: Oxford University Press, 1992); Lockheed and Verspoor, with Bloch et al.; B. Fuller, "What Factors Raise Achievement in the Third World?" Review of Educational Research 57(1987): 255-92; S. P. Heyneman and W. A. Loxley, "The Effect of Primary-School Quality on Academic Achievement across Twenty-Nine High-and Low-Income Countries," American Journal of Sociology 88 (1983): 1162-94.
27. Notable recent studies would include S. Appleton, Exam Determinants in Kenyan Primary School: Determinants and Gender Differences (Washington, D.C.: Economic Development Institute of the World Bank, 1995); P. Glewwe, M. E. Grosh, H. Jacoby, and M. E. Lockheed, "An Eclectic Approach to Estimating the Determinants of Achievement in Jamaican Primary Education," World Bank Economic Review 9 (1995): 231-58; P. Glewwe and H. Jacoby, "Student Achievement and Schooling Choice in Low Income Countries, "Journal of Human Resources 29 (1994): 843-64; J-P. Tan, J. Lane, and P. Coustere, "Putting Inputs to Work in Elementary Schools: What Can Be Done in the Philippines?" Economic Development and Cultural Changed (1997): 857-81; M. A. Lockheed and N. T. Longford, "A Multilevel Model of School Effectiveness in a Developing Country," Discussion Paper no. 69 (World Bank, Washington, D.C., 1989); Khandker, Lavy, and Filmer; B. Fuller, H. Hua, and C. W. Snyder, "When Girls Learn More than Boys: The Influence of Time in School and Pedagogy in Botswana," Comparative Education Review 38 (1994): 347-76; and B. Fuller and C. W. Snyder, "Vocal Teachers, Silent Pupils? Life in Botswana Classrooms," Comparative Education Review 35 (1991): 274-94. For reviews of a large and growing empirical literature, see B. Fuller and P. Clarke, "Raising School Effects While Ignoring Culture? Local Conditions and the Influence of Classroom Tools, Rules, and Pedagogy," Review of Educational Research 64 (1994): 119-57; R. W. Harbison and E. A. Hanushek, Educational Performance of the Poor: Lessons from Rural Northeast Brazil (New York: Oxford University Press, 1992); Lockheed and Verspoor, with Bloch et al.; B. Fuller, "What Factors Raise Achievement in the Third World?" Review of Educational Research 57(1987): 255-92; S. P. Heyneman and W. A. Loxley, "The Effect of Primary-School Quality on Academic Achievement across Twenty-Nine High-and Low-Income Countries," American Journal of Sociology 88 (1983): 1162-94.
28. Notable recent studies would include S. Appleton, Exam Determinants in Kenyan Primary School: Determinants and Gender Differences (Washington, D.C.: Economic Development Institute of the World Bank, 1995); P. Glewwe, M. E. Grosh, H. Jacoby, and M. E. Lockheed, "An Eclectic Approach to Estimating the Determinants of Achievement in Jamaican Primary Education," World Bank Economic Review 9 (1995): 231-58; P. Glewwe and H. Jacoby, "Student Achievement and Schooling Choice in Low Income Countries, "Journal of Human Resources 29 (1994): 843-64; J-P. Tan, J. Lane, and P. Coustere, "Putting Inputs to Work in Elementary Schools: What Can Be Done in the Philippines?" Economic Development and Cultural Changed (1997): 857-81; M. A. Lockheed and N. T. Longford, "A Multilevel Model of School Effectiveness in a Developing Country," Discussion Paper no. 69 (World Bank, Washington, D.C., 1989); Khandker, Lavy, and Filmer; B. Fuller, H. Hua, and C. W. Snyder, "When Girls Learn More than Boys: The Influence of Time in School and Pedagogy in Botswana," Comparative Education Review 38 (1994): 347-76; and B. Fuller and C. W. Snyder, "Vocal Teachers, Silent Pupils? Life in Botswana Classrooms," Comparative Education Review 35 (1991): 274-94. For reviews of a large and growing empirical literature, see B. Fuller and P. Clarke, "Raising School Effects While Ignoring Culture? Local Conditions and the Influence of Classroom Tools, Rules, and Pedagogy," Review of Educational Research 64 (1994): 119-57; R. W. Harbison and E. A. Hanushek, Educational Performance of the Poor: Lessons from Rural Northeast Brazil (New York: Oxford University Press, 1992); Lockheed and Verspoor, with Bloch et al.; B. Fuller, "What Factors Raise Achievement in the Third World?" Review of Educational Research 57(1987): 255-92; S. P. Heyneman and W. A. Loxley, "The Effect of Primary-School Quality on Academic Achievement across Twenty-Nine High-and Low-Income Countries," American Journal of Sociology 88 (1983): 1162-94.
29. With the notable exception of Glewwe and Jacoby.
30. For further discussion of this point, see C. B. Lloyd and B. S. Mensch, "Implications of Formal Schooling for Girls' Transitions to Adulthood in Developing Countries," in Critical Perspectives on Schooling and Fertility in the Developing World, ed. C. H. Bledsoe, J. B. Casterline, J. A. Johnson-Kuhn, and J. G. Haaga (Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press, 1999), pp. 50-104.
31. Glewwe and Jacoby.
32. See A. Bommier and S. Lambert, "Educational Demand and Age of School Enrollment in Tanzania" (paper presented at the annual meeting of the Population Association of America, Washington, D.C., March 27-29, 1997), for some empirical documentation of this point for Tanzania.
33. For full citations to this literature, see B. S. Mensch and C. B. Lloyd, "Gender Differences in the Schooling Experiences of Adolescents in Low-Income Countries: The Case of Kenya," Studies, in Family Planning 29 (1998): 167-84.
34. Glewwe and Jacoby.
35. Although the publication and distribution of textbooks is usually organized at the national level by the ministry of education, schools are not always responsible for their distribution. Sometimes they are only available commercially through bookstores, in which case parents are responsible for their purchase.
36. A successful transition to adulthood is one in which a young person is allowed to grow to develop her or his full potential physically, intellectually, and emotionally before taking on adult roles. School has much to contribute to the full development of human capabilities beyond the acquisition of academic knowledge and skills. Education has consumption as well as investment value, as Sen asserts in explaining his preference for the concept of human capability rather than the more familiar concept of human capital. Investments in human capability not only enhance individuals' productive capacity but their ability to "lead freer and more fulfilling lives" (A. Sen, "Editorial: Human Capital and Human Capability." World Development 25 [1997]: 1959-61).
37. Appleton (n. 9 above) looked at the effect of teachers' attitudes toward the aptitudes or "teach-ability" of boys and girls but did not explore other aspects of the school environment that might be different for the two sexes.
38. M. Sadker and D. Sadker have documented all the subtle ways in which girls may receive discouraging messages from teachers in the classrooms through hundreds of hours of observation in U.S. classrooms. See M. Sadker and D. Sadker, Failing at Fairness: How Our Schools Cheat Girls (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1995).
39. Fuller, Hua, and Snyder (n. 9 above).
40. For example, Fuller, Hua, and Snyder.
41. Choice of the specific primary schools to be visited was based on the goal of a minimum of 60 percent coverage of the school-going adolescents in each cluster.
42. Our sample of 36 primary schools included 12 formerly harambee schools. The term harambee is unique to Kenya but basically means community-based schools formed on the basis of local initiatives. See Kilemi Mwiria, "Kenya's Harambee Secondary School Movement: The Contradictions of Public Policy," Comparative Education Review 34 (1990): 350-68. In 1989, the government abolished the distinction between harambee schools and government schools. Since then, both are considered public schools, and both are eligible for government assistance, mostly in supply of teachers and support for teachers' salaries. In the view of a former deputy chief inspector of schools from the ministry of education, the government does quite well in supplying teachers to both types of schools, and effectively there is no longer any meaningful difference between them (B. Macau, conversation with author, May 1996).
43. See A. Ajayi et al., Schooling and the Experience of Adolescents in Kenya (Nairobi: Population Council, 1997), for further details.
44. Virtually all respondents of both sexes (over 99 percent) in Nakuru and Nyeri have been to school. In Kilifi, 96 percent of boys and 89 percent of girls have been to school at some point (see Ajayi et al.).
45. For further details, see Mensch and Lloyd (n. 14 above).
46. In each visited classroom, the job of the researchers was to mark down each interaction between a student and teacher and to determine its nature. The goal was to assess whether teachers pay more attention to boys than to girls and provide boys with more encouragement or whether they treat girls and boys equally. In constructing variables to measure "good" interactions, the attempt was made to include all events recorded by our observers that had a positive or supportive tone - or at least those that did not have a negative one. Thus, instances were included of students reading aloud; students making presentations in front of the class; teachers instructing or explaining; teachers acknowledging, extending, amplifying, or praising correct answers; teachers completing, explaining, or seeking responses to students' questions; and teachers positively acknowledging, expanding upon, or encouraging students' comments. We base this procedure on the earlier work of Sadker and Sadker (n. 19 above) in U.S. classrooms.
47. Mensch and Lloyd, p. 174.
48. Ibid.
49. Ibid.
50. Ibid.
51. Mensch and Lloyd (n. 14 above).
52. The metric differs between the teacher and head teacher form of this variable in table 1 because there is only one head teacher per school.
53. Further details about sampling and about the survey can be found in Ajayi et al. (n. 24 above).
54. Of the 754 adolescents in the sample who had ever been to school, 189 did not provide an age at entry into school. For these adolescents, the authors were able to estimate the age at entry from other information provided. Taking as the base age either current age for those still in school or the age at school leaving for those no longer in school, age of entry was calculated as the base age minus (1) the number of standards reached by the adolescent plus (2) the number of standards repeated by the adolescent plus (3) the number of years the adolescent stated that he or she temporarily withdrew from school. One year was added back into the resulting age for those students still in school who had not had their birthdays at the time of the survey. Testing this approach on those students who did list valid school starting ages, we determined that the formula yielded estimates to within 1 year of the reported age in 92 percent of the cases.
55. The Kenyan national sampling frame was relatively old at the time of the survey, and much variability occurred in the size of the clusters considered, thus demonstrating the mobility of the Kenyan population. These data are likely to exaggerate the range of school choice somewhat if some of the adolescents and their families have migrated into the cluster after completing or dropping out of a primary school located elsewhere.
56. Estimation of a full model would require a separate estimation of a model of school choice in which the choice of a particular school relative to other choices and relative to not going to school would he modeled as a function of characteristics of the school chosen as well as of the alternatives available. Unfortunately, we do not have data on all the alternative choices. Therefore, we have to satisfy ourselves that the bias, if present, is unlikely to be large.
57. The household possessions index ranges in value from zero to 10. Each household's score is calculated by adding a value of one to the index for the possession of each of the following items: a metal or tile roof, 5 minutes' distance or less from a water source, an improved pit/flush toilet, a radio, a television, at least one sleeping room for every two people in the household, a bicycle, ownership of land, ownership of livestock, and ownership of a market stall or shop.
58. From the particular peculiarities of the sample, in which only three-fourths of the schools contained adolescents from the sample who had dropped out, the precision of the estimates will be compro-
59. Nine percent of adolescents in our sample lived with neither parent, 13 percent did not live with their mother, and 43 percent did not live with their father. In cases of fostering, we would expect that both parental factors and residential household factors may be salient to their schooling decisions.
60. Because of the small sample size, the level of significance given is higher than usual - i.e., P < .10 is noted, along with P < .05 and P < .01.
61. Although many researchers include a marital-status variable, few have access to information about whether a child's parents are still married to each other. This variable is important because it may reflect the extent of support and commitment to that child's education.
62. Total fees were chosen as a proxy for all material inputs beyond the teaching staff because the ministry of education pays teachers' salaries; total school fees cover all other expenses incurred by attending the school.
63. If English is spoken in class, school quality is assumed to be better than if it is not because the primary school leaving exams are given in English. Therefore, students who are taught in English are presumably better prepared for these exams. If teachers do not speak English fluently, however, the quality of instruction may suffer.
64. Because the duration of classes and the composition of classes by sex vary, we adjusted the number of good events to a "standard class" of 40 min. in duration with 20 students of each sex.
65. In a final iteration of the statistical analysis, a girl was added to the sample whose school had not previously been identified but who turned out, after some further investigation, to attend one of the 36 schools in our sample. The effect on our statistical results of adding this one girl to our sample was surprising: some previously significant effects associated with schooling became less significant or insignificant in model 3. This led us to investigate the composition of our sample more systematically. This in turn raised questions about the possibility that one or two cases might be unduly influencing our results. Mindful of our small sample and desirous of achieving some reasonably stable and believable results, we decided to rerun both models 2 and 3 while excluding all extreme outlier observations, not just the suspect case that had brought this problem to light. Our criterion for excluding a case was that it appear in the ninety-ninth percentile of at least three of the four influence tatistics that are available for logistic regression in STATA: "hat" = a measure of the distance of a given pattern of independent variables from the average covariate pattern; "dx2" = a measure of the decrease in the Pearson chi-squaregoodness-of-
66. For models 2 and 3, the mother's educational categories - primary and secondary - were collapsed because the coefficient lor mother's secondary could not be estimated. No girls whose mothers had secondary education dropped out of school.
67. Mensch and Lloyd (n. 14 above).
68. The new variables for level of harassment and boy/girl harassment-level difference can be a little confusing and require further explanation. First of all, it should be noted that the variable for overall level of harassment has been reversed so that it runs - like all basic school variables - in a "positive" direction. Thus, a higher score on this variable means students report less harassment at the school. The same thing has been done with the component parts of the boy/girl harassment-level variable, that is, a measure of nonharassment of girls has been subtracted from a measure of nonharassment of boys. Thus, a higher score on this variable means that, at the school in question, students report that boys are harassed less, relative to girls, or to put it the other way, that girls are harassed more, relative to boys.
69. Adolescents with missing information on the current status of their parents' marriage had to be dropped in this model due to collinearity, which resulted in a loss of 13 girls and 10 boys.
70. See n. 48 above.
71. S. El-Tawila, C. B. Lloyd, B. S. Mensch, and H. Wassef, The School Environment in Egypt: A Situation Analysis of Public Preparatory Schools (Cairo: Population Council, in press).
72. An asterisk (*) indicates that there is a possible gender difference for these items.