"Kana sora ratswa ngaritswe": African nationalists and black workers - The 1948 general strike in colonial Zimbabwe

Journal of Historical Sociology

Volumn 13, Issue 3, 2000, Pages 289-324

  Phimister, Ian ^a   Raftopoulos, Brian ^b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF OXFORD   (United Kingdom)

^b UNIVERSITY OF ZIMBABWE   (Zimbabwe)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0034370671     PISSN: 09521909     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/1467-6443.00119     Document Type: Article

References (203)

1. The strike has been the subject matter of at least two novels, Peter Gibbs' Stronger than Armies and Doris Lessing's Landlocked.
2. The strike has been the subject matter of at least two novels, Peter Gibbs' Stronger than Armies and Doris Lessing's Landlocked.
3. R. Gray, The Two Nations (London 1960) 324-5, 326, 314, 316. See also J. van Velsen, 'Trends in African Nationalism in Southern Rhodesia', Kroniek van Afrika, 1964, 4, 146: 'the strikes of 1948 … were largely uncoordinated, spontaneous outbursts of popular anger'.
4. R. Gray, The Two Nations (London 1960) 324-5, 326, 314, 316. See also J. van Velsen, 'Trends in African Nationalism in Southern Rhodesia', Kroniek van Afrika, 1964, 4, 146: 'the strikes of 1948 … were largely uncoordinated, spontaneous outbursts of popular anger'.
5. O. Pollak, 'The impact of the Second World War on African labour organisation in Rhodesia', Rhodesian Journal of Economics, 1973, 7, 3, 132, 124, 135.
6. S. Thornton, 'The patterning of industrial conflict: African working class assertion and a collective employer response', 1979, unpub., 25-26, 39; and J Lunn, 'The political economy of protest: the strikes and unrest of 1948 in Southern Rhodesia', University of Manchester, unpub. BA Hons, 1982, 50-6, 99. See also V Gregson, 'The leadership in the General Strike of 1948 in Bulawayo', University of Manchester, unpub. BA Hons, 1979.
7. S. Thornton, 'The patterning of industrial conflict: African working class assertion and a collective employer response', 1979, unpub., 25-26, 39; and J Lunn, 'The political economy of protest: the strikes and unrest of 1948 in Southern Rhodesia', University of Manchester, unpub. BA Hons, 1982, 50-6, 99. See also V Gregson, 'The leadership in the General Strike of 1948 in Bulawayo', University of Manchester, unpub. BA Hons, 1979.
8. S. Thornton, 'The patterning of industrial conflict: African working class assertion and a collective employer response', 1979, unpub., 25-26, 39; and J Lunn, 'The political economy of protest: the strikes and unrest of 1948 in Southern Rhodesia', University of Manchester, unpub. BA Hons, 1982, 50-6, 99. See also V Gregson, 'The leadership in the General Strike of 1948 in Bulawayo', University of Manchester, unpub. BA Hons, 1979.
9. Thornton, 'Patterning of industrial conflict', 26, 41.
10. Lunn, 'Political economy of protest', 94, 99.
11. But see Lunn, 'The meaning of the 1948 General Strike in colonial Zimbabwe', unpub. 1994, for his most recent thoughts on this subject.
12. I. Phimister, An Economic and Social History of Zimbabwe 1890-1948: Capital accumulation and class struggle (London 1988), 273, 272; and B Raftopoulos, 'Nationalism and Labour in Salisbury 1945-1965', unpub. 1994.
13. I. Phimister, An Economic and Social History of Zimbabwe 1890-1948: Capital accumulation and class struggle (London 1988), 273, 272; and B Raftopoulos, 'Nationalism and Labour in Salisbury 1945-1965', unpub. 1994.
14. J. Hyslop, 'Trade unionism in the rise of African Nationalism: Bulawayo 1945-1963', Africa Perspective 1986, 1, 2, 44. See also T Barnes, '"We women worked so hard": Gender, Labour and Social Reproduction in colonial Harare, Zimbabwe, 1930-1956', University of Zimbabwe, unpub., PhD 1993; T Scarnecchia, 'The Politics of Gender and Class in the Creation of African Communities, Salisbury, 1937-1957', University of Michigan, unpub. PhD, 1994; and O Stuart, '"Good Boys", Footballers and Strikers: African Social Change in Bulawayo, 1933-1953', University of London, unpub. PhD, 1989.
15. J. Hyslop, 'Trade unionism in the rise of African Nationalism: Bulawayo 1945-1963', Africa Perspective 1986, 1, 2, 44. See also T Barnes, '"We women worked so hard": Gender, Labour and Social Reproduction in colonial Harare, Zimbabwe, 1930-1956', University of Zimbabwe, unpub., PhD 1993; T Scarnecchia, 'The Politics of Gender and Class in the Creation of African Communities, Salisbury, 1937-1957', University of Michigan, unpub. PhD, 1994; and O Stuart, '"Good Boys", Footballers and Strikers: African Social Change in Bulawayo, 1933-1953', University of London, unpub. PhD, 1989.
16. J. Hyslop, 'Trade unionism in the rise of African Nationalism: Bulawayo 1945-1963', Africa Perspective 1986, 1, 2, 44. See also T Barnes, '"We women worked so hard": Gender, Labour and Social Reproduction in colonial Harare, Zimbabwe, 1930-1956', University of Zimbabwe, unpub., PhD 1993; T Scarnecchia, 'The Politics of Gender and Class in the Creation of African Communities, Salisbury, 1937-1957', University of Michigan, unpub. PhD, 1994; and O Stuart, '"Good Boys", Footballers and Strikers: African Social Change in Bulawayo, 1933-1953', University of London, unpub. PhD, 1989.
17. J. Hyslop, 'Trade unionism in the rise of African Nationalism: Bulawayo 1945-1963', Africa Perspective 1986, 1, 2, 44. See also T Barnes, '"We women worked so hard": Gender, Labour and Social Reproduction in colonial Harare, Zimbabwe, 1930-1956', University of Zimbabwe, unpub., PhD 1993; T Scarnecchia, 'The Politics of Gender and Class in the Creation of African Communities, Salisbury, 1937-1957', University of Michigan, unpub. PhD, 1994; and O Stuart, '"Good Boys", Footballers and Strikers: African Social Change in Bulawayo, 1933-1953', University of London, unpub. PhD, 1989.
18. E. Dumbutshena, Zimbabwe Tragedy (Nairobi 1975), 44, 26.
19. ibid, 26.
20. ibid, 27. In an interview nearly 45 years later, Dumbutshena claimed that the words were Burombo's. See Ranger, Are We Not Also Men, 117, fn, 107.
21. ibid, 27. In an interview nearly 45 years later, Dumbutshena claimed that the words were Burombo's. See Ranger, Are We Not Also Men, 117, fn, 107.
22. Dumbutshena, Zimbabwe Tragedy, 27-8.
23. Pollak, 'Impact of the Second World War on African labour', 132-3.
24. Thornton, 'Patterning of industrial conflict', 41-2.
25. Lunn, 'Political economy of protest', 53. See also Hyslop, 'Trade unionism', 45.
26. Lunn, 'Political economy of protest', 53. See also Hyslop, 'Trade unionism', 45.
27. Dumbutshena, Zimbabwe Tragedy, 28. See also T Bull (ed), Rhodesian Perspective (London 1967), 116; and L Vambe, From Rhodesia to Zimbabwe (London 1976), 242-3.
28. Dumbutshena, Zimbabwe Tragedy, 28. See also T Bull (ed), Rhodesian Perspective (London 1967), 116; and L Vambe, From Rhodesia to Zimbabwe (London 1976), 242-3.
29. Dumbutshena, Zimbabwe Tragedy, 28. See also T Bull (ed), Rhodesian Perspective (London 1967), 116; and L Vambe, From Rhodesia to Zimbabwe (London 1976), 242-3.
30. N. Bhebe Benjamin Burombo. African Politics in Zimbabwe 1947-1958 (Harare 1989), 70, 71-2.
31. ibid, 124.
32. This convention is well established in the subject's literature, but for two recent examples, see N. Sambureni, 'Industrial development in Southern Rhodesia. A case study of Salisbury 1930s-1955', unpub. 1991; and P Warhurst, 'African trade unions in Southern Rhodesia, 1948-56: Prelude to mass nationalism?', unpub. 1991. The quotation comes from p. 5 of the latter.
33. This convention is well established in the subject's literature, but for two recent examples, see N. Sambureni, 'Industrial development in Southern Rhodesia. A case study of Salisbury 1930s-1955', unpub. 1991; and P Warhurst, 'African trade unions in Southern Rhodesia, 1948-56: Prelude to mass nationalism?', unpub. 1991. The quotation comes from p. 5 of the latter.
34. For important exceptions to this general rule, see Barnes, "We women worked so hard"'; Lunn, 'The meaning of the 1948 General Strike'; and Scarnecchia, 'The politics of gender and class'.
35. For important exceptions to this general rule, see Barnes, "We women worked so hard"'; Lunn, 'The meaning of the 1948 General Strike'; and Scarnecchia, 'The politics of gender and class'.
36. For important exceptions to this general rule, see Barnes, "We women worked so hard"'; Lunn, 'The meaning of the 1948 General Strike'; and Scarnecchia, 'The politics of gender and class'.
37. Gray, Two Nations, 257. For elaboration, see Phimister, 'Secondary industrialisation in Southern Africa: the 1948 Customs Agreement between Southern Rhodesia and South Africa', Journal of Southern African Studies, 1991, 17, 3.
38. Gray, Two Nations, 257. For elaboration, see Phimister, 'Secondary industrialisation in Southern Africa: the 1948 Customs Agreement between Southern Rhodesia and South Africa', Journal of Southern African Studies, 1991, 17, 3.
39. M. Dodds, 'Upheaval and the urban "moral economy": the case of Bulawayo', University of Manchester, unpub. BA Hons, 1986, 67; and Raftopoulos, 'Nationalism and labour in Salisbury', 15.
40. M. Dodds, 'Upheaval and the urban "moral economy": the case of Bulawayo', University of Manchester, unpub. BA Hons, 1986, 67; and Raftopoulos, 'Nationalism and labour in Salisbury', 15.
41. Report of the Director of African Administration, Salisbury, 1956.
42. ibid, 1957, 10.
43. Raftopoulos, 'Nationalism and labour in Salisbury', 37, 40.
44. African Weekly, 6 Nov 1946.
45. S517, Internal Security April 1948-December 1950, CID Report on RICU meeting, 9 Oct 1949. All file references are to the National Archives, Harare, Zimbabwe.
46. African Weekly, 21 Aug 1946.
47. Lunn, 'Political economy of protest', 89-90; and Raftopoulos, 'Nationalism and labour in Salisbury', 2-5.
48. Lunn, 'Political economy of protest', 89-90; and Raftopoulos, 'Nationalism and labour in Salisbury', 2-5.
49. See amongst others, A Turner, 'The growth of railway unionism in the Rhodesias, 1944-55', in R Sandbrook and R Cohen (eds), The Development of an African Working Class (London 1975).
50. What follows is a revised and expanded version of Phimister, Economic and Social History of Zimbabwe, 264-274; Raftopoulos, 'Nationalism and labour in Salisbury', 6-48; and Raftopoulos, 'The Labour Movement in Zimbabwe: 1945-1965', in Raftopoulos and Phimister (eds), Keep on Knocking. A History of the Labour Movement in Zimbabwe 1900-97 (Harare 1997), 55-71.
51. What follows is a revised and expanded version of Phimister, Economic and Social History of Zimbabwe, 264-274; Raftopoulos, 'Nationalism and labour in Salisbury', 6-48; and Raftopoulos, 'The Labour Movement in Zimbabwe: 1945-1965', in Raftopoulos and Phimister (eds), Keep on Knocking. A History of the Labour Movement in Zimbabwe 1900-97 (Harare 1997), 55-71.
52. What follows is a revised and expanded version of Phimister, Economic and Social History of Zimbabwe, 264-274; Raftopoulos, 'Nationalism and labour in Salisbury', 6-48; and Raftopoulos, 'The Labour Movement in Zimbabwe: 1945-1965', in Raftopoulos and Phimister (eds), Keep on Knocking. A History of the Labour Movement in Zimbabwe 1900-97 (Harare 1997), 55-71.
53. As cited in Gray, Two Nations, 319.
54. ZBZ 1/2/1, Report by Officer Commanding CID on the African Strike which broke out at various places in Southern Rhodesia during April 1948.
55. ibid. See also S1561/19, Commission of Enquiry into Native Disturbances, Salisbury, 19 June 1948 (First Day): 'The Federation … was really the voice of organised labour. The Voice, however, acted on entirely different principles … they wished to speak, not only for organised Trades Unions, but for, what might be termed, the Native in the street - the houseboy, the farm boy, etc, and that is the main difference between these … two organisations'.
56. ZBZ 1/2/1, Report by Officer Commanding CID on the African Strike….
57. ibid, Native Affairs, Memorandum No 21, 11 June 1948 and attached correspondence. See also, Gregson, 'Leadership of the General Strike', appendix B.
58. S 1561/19, Commission of Enquiry into Native Disturbances.
59. As cited in Gregson, 'Leadership of the General Strike', 69.
60. ZBZ 1/2/1, Report by Officer Commanding CID on the African Strike….
61. The term is Stuart's. See his '"Good Boys", Footballers and Strikers', passim.
62. ZBZ 1/2/1, Report by Officer Commanding CID on the African Strike….
63. Bantu Mirror, 6 Dec 1941; 11 Mar 1944; 6 April 1946; 9 Aug 1947.
64. ibid, Staff Officer to the Commissioner of Police, to the Commissioner of Native Labour, 9 Oct 1947.
65. T. Ranger, Are We Not Also Men? The Samkange Family and African Politics in Zimbabwe, 1920-1964 (London 1995), 113.
66. ZBZ 1/2/1, Report by Officer Commanding CID on the African Strike….
67. ibid.
68. Bhebe, Benjamin Burombo, 42.
69. ZBZ 1/2/1, Report by Officer Commanding CID on the African Strike…; ibid, Memorandum of meeting of delegates of Native Societies: Gwelo, 10 April 1948.
70. A. Irvine, The Balance of Payments of Rhodesia and Nyasaland 1945-1954 (London 1959), 342, 625-30.
71. Thornton, 'Patterning of industrial conflict', 27.
72. Report of Commission appointed by His Excellency The Governor to inquire into and report on all matters concerning recent Native disturbances in the Colony and to recommend any action which may seem desirable in the public interest, 1948, 6.
73. Thornton, 'Patterning of industrial conflict', 29.
74. Bulawayo Chronicle, 17 Aug 1946.
75. Bantu Mirror, 19 July 1947.
76. ZBZ 1/2/1, Report by Officer Commanding CID on the African Strike….
77. ibid, Staff Officer to the Commissioner of Police, to the Commissioner of Native Labour, 9 Oct 1947.
78. Thornton, 'Patterning of industrial conflict', 35.
79. ZBZ 1/2/1, Native Affairs, Memorandum No. 15, 17 Dec 1947, and attached correspondence.
80. Lunn, Capital and Labour on the Rhodesian Railway System, 1888-1947 (London 1997), 137.
81. ZBZ 1/3/1, Memorandum on the Causes and Happenings which led to the Recent Unrest of Native Labourers culminating in Strikes, 5 May 1948.
82. Vambe, From Rhodesia to Zimbabwe, 242.
83. Sambureni, 'Industrial Development in Southern Rhodesia', 8.
84. ZBZ 1/2/1, Report by Officer Commanding CID on the African Strike….
85. ibid.
86. ibid.
87. S1561/19, African Unrest leading up to African General Strike of April 1948, 20 July 1948.
88. ZBZ 1/2/1, Report by Officer Commanding CID on the African Strike….
89. ibid.
90. ibid.
91. S1561/19, African Unrest. See also ZBZ 1/2/1, Det. Sergeant, D O'Bryen, CID, Byo, to Officer Commanding CID, Byo, 9 April 1948.
92. Bulawayo Chronicle, 12 April 1948.
93. As cited in Ranger, Are We Not Also Men, 117.
94. Paragraph constructed from ZBZ 1/2/1, Report by Officer Commanding CID on the African Strike…; Bulawayo Chronicle 12 April 1948, 6 Aug 1948; ZBZ 1/2/2, Det. Sergeant, D O'Bryen CID, Byo, to Officer Commanding CID, Byo, 16 Apr 1948; interviews with Grey Bango and Mkushi Khumalo, 1995; and Gregson, 'Leadership in the General Strike', 9, 72.
95. S1561/19, Evidence of Captain Borland, CID, Byo, 19 July 1948.
96. ZBZ 1/3/1, Memorandum on Native Strikes and Native Unrest, Bulawayo, 11 May 1948.
97. Bulawayo Chronicle, 12 April 1948.
98. ZBZ 1/2/1, Report by Officer Commanding CID on the African Strike….
99. ZBZ 1/2/2, Det. Sergeant D O'Bryen … to Officer Commanding CID, Byo, 16 April 1948; and Report of Commission … concerning recent Native disturbances, 12.
100. ZBZ 1/2/2, Det. Sergeant D O'Bryen … to Officer Commanding CID, Byo, 16 April 1948.
101. ZBZ 1/2/1, Report by Officer Commanding CID on the African Strike….
102. ZBZ 1/3/1, Statement, Edward Jonathan Davies, n.d.
103. ZBZ 1/2/2, Det. Sergeant D O'Bryen … to Officer Commanding CID, Byo, 16 April 1948. 84 ZBZ 1/2/2, Det. Sergeant D O'Bryen … to Officer Commanding CID, Byo, 16 April 1948.
104. ZBZ 1/2/1, Report by Officer Commanding CID on the African Strike….
105. As reported in the Bulawayo Chronicle, 6 Aug 1948.
106. ZBZ 1/2/1, Report by Officer Commanding CID on the African Strike….
107. ibid. See also S1561/19, Evidence of Captain Borland.
108. New Rhodesia, 23 April 1948.
109. Bulawayo Chronicle, 15 April 1948.
110. ZBZ 1/2/1, Report by Officer Commanding CID on the African Strike….
111. Bulawayo Chronicle, 15 April 1948.
112. ZBZ 1/2/2, Det. Sergeant D O'Bryen, to Officer Commanding CID, Byo, 16 April 1948.
113. ZBZ 1/3/1, Memorandum on Native Strikes….
114. S517, Bulawayo Report, Officer Commanding Police, Bulawayo District, 30 April 1948.
115. ibid. See also Bulawayo Chronicle, 15 April 1948.
116. ibid. See also Bulawayo Chronicle, 15 April 1948.
117. Southern Rhodesia Legislative Assembly Debates, 30 June 1948, cols 1610-13. For discussion of Government policy in a wider context, notably the rural areas, see Phimister, Economic and Social History of Zimbabwe, 273-82; and Gray, Two Nations, passim.
118. Southern Rhodesia Legislative Assembly Debates, 30 June 1948, cols 1610-13. For discussion of Government policy in a wider context, notably the rural areas, see Phimister, Economic and Social History of Zimbabwe, 273-82; and Gray, Two Nations, passim.
119. Southern Rhodesia Legislative Assembly Debates, 30 June 1948, cols 1610-13. For discussion of Government policy in a wider context, notably the rural areas, see Phimister, Economic and Social History of Zimbabwe, 273-82; and Gray, Two Nations, passim.
120. Bulawayo Chronicle, 15 April 1948.
121. Bulawayo Chronicle, 16 April 1948.
122. ibid.
123. S517, Bulawayo Report, 30 April 1948.
124. ZBZ 1/2/2, Det. Sergeant D O'Bryen, to Officer Commanding CID, Byo, 16 April 1948.
125. ibid.
126. ZBZ 1/2/2, Det. Sergeant D O'Bryen, to Officer Commanding CID. Byo, 16 April 1948.
127. S517, Bulawayo Report, 30 April 1948.
128. Bulawayo Chronicle, 16 April 1948.
129. ibid.
130. S517, Bulawayo Report, 30 April 1948.
131. That Burombo did not act alone in this matter is quite clear from the evidence cited above. Neither Kumalo nor Samkange disassociated themselves from his remarks at the time. See espec. Bhebe, Benjamin Burombo, 70.
132. Dumbutshena, Zimbabwe Tragedy, 28.
133. ZBZ 1/3/1, P. Gibbs … 17 July 1948; and Bulawayo Chronicle, 16 April 1948.
134. L. Gann and M. Gelfand, Huggins of Rhodesia (London 1964), 178.
135. ZBZ 1/2/1, Report by Officer Commanding CID on the African Strike…. See also Dodds, 'Upheaval and the urban "moral economy"', 71-75.
136. ZBZ 1/3/1, Memorandum on Native Strikes….
137. Pollak, 'Impact of the Second World War on African Labour', 133.
138. Raftopoulos and Phimister (eds), Keep on Knocking, 70.
139. ibid.
140. ZBZ 1/2/1, Report by Officer Commanding CID on the African Strike… In the event, the authorities obtained enough co-operation from the Federation to convict Burombo, but insufficient hard evidence to make the charge stick. See Pollak, 'Impact of the Second World War on African Labour', 134: 'Virtually all the witnesses against Burombo were members of the Federation and were Matabele. Burombo was found guilty in Magistrates Court and fined £5. He appealed and the ruling was overturned'.
141. Bulawayo Chronicle, 17 April 1948.
142. ZBZ 1/3/1, Memorandum on Native Strikes….
143. S 517, Bulawayo Report, 30 April 1948.
144. Report of Commission… concerning recent Native disturbances, 26.
145. Lunn, 'Political economy of protest', 56-7.
146. ZBZ 1/3/1, Native Strikes… 19 May 1948.
147. H.Mss. CR 4/1/1, 'My experience during African Strike in Salisbury from Monday, 19th April, 1948 to Thursday, 22nd April 1948', encl. in C Mzingeli to A Cripps, 29 July 1948.
148. ZBZ 1/2/1, Report by Officer Commanding CID on the African Strike….
149. S 1561/19, Evidence of Samkange. See also Evidence of G Ballenden, Director of Native Administration for City Council of Salisbury.
150. H. Mss. CR 4/1/1, 'My experience during African Strike…'.
151. ibid. Amongst those skilled workers who had no intention of striking were drivers; see S 1561/19, Evidence of J.V. de Souza.
152. ZBZ 1/2/2, Causes of the Strike in Bulawayo, by Tennyson Hlabangana, n.d.
153. Sambureni, 'Industrial Development', 47-54.
154. Gray, Two Nations, 285-7, 321-2, and Raftopolous, 'Gender, nationalist politics and the fight for the city: Harare 1940-1950s', Southern African Feminist Review, 1995.
155. Gray, Two Nations, 285-7, 321-2, and Raftopolous, 'Gender, nationalist politics and the fight for the city: Harare 1940-1950s', Southern African Feminist Review, 1995.
156. ZBZ 1/2/1, Native Affairs Memorandum no. 18, 25 Feb 1948. See also S 1561/19, Evidence of B J Mnyanda.
157. H. Mss. ANG 1/4/10, 'Report of an Investigation into the Effect on Africans in Salisbury of the Implementation of the native (Urban Areas) Accommodation and Registration Act of 1946', Percy Ibbotson, Feb 1949. See also B.J. Mnyanda, In Search of Truth. A Commentary on certain aspects of Southern Rhodesia's Native Policy (Bombay 1954), 9.
158. Vambe, From Rhodesia to Zimbabwe, 238.
159. West, 'African middle-class formation', 367.
160. ZBZ 1/2/1, Report by Officer Commanding CID on the African Strike….
161. ibid, Native Affairs, Memorandum No 3, 6 Aug 1947.
162. ZBZ 1/2/1, Report by Officer Commanding CID on the African Strike….
163. ibid. See especially, Vambe, From Rhodesia to Zimbabwe, 238-40.
164. ibid. See especially, Vambe, From Rhodesia to Zimbabwe, 238-40.
165. ZBZ, 1/3/1, C Mzingeli to The Chairman, Commission of Enquiry: Native Disturbances, 16 Aug 1948.
166. ZBZ 1/2/1, Report by Officer Commanding CID on the African Strike….
167. Vambe, From Rhodesia to Zimbabwe, 243.
168. S 1561/19, Evidence of Patrick Pazarangu.
169. Vambe, From Rhodesia to Zimbabwe, 243-4. See also Raftopoulos and Phimister (eds), Keep on Knocking, 68.
170. Vambe, From Rhodesia to Zimbabwe, 243-4. See also Raftopoulos and Phimister (eds), Keep on Knocking, 68.
171. H. Mss CR 4/1/1, 'My experience during African Strike…'.
172. ibid.
173. ZBZ 1/3/1, E M Mtepuka to The General Secretary, RICU, Salisbury, 21 May 1948, as cited in C Mzingeli to The Chairman, Commission of Enquiry: Native Disturbances, 16 Aug 1948. See also Raftopoulos and Phimister (eds), Keep on Knocking, 71.
174. H. Mss CR 4/1/1, 'My experience during African Strike…'.
175. Bantu Mirror, 1 May 1948.
176. Report of Commission… concerning recent Native disturbances, 27.
177. H. Mss CR 4/1/1, 'My experience during African Strike…'.
178. Bantu Mirror, 1 May 1948. For Vambe's description of Pazarangu, see his From Rhodesia to Zimbabwe, 198. See also Scarnecchia, 'From Township Advisory Board elections to Nationalist Political Mobilisation: creating populist politics in the African residential areas of Salisbury, Rhodesia, 1948-1962', 2-6.
179. Bantu Mirror, 1 May 1948. For Vambe's description of Pazarangu, see his From Rhodesia to Zimbabwe, 198. See also Scarnecchia, 'From Township Advisory Board elections to Nationalist Political Mobilisation: creating populist politics in the African residential areas of Salisbury, Rhodesia, 1948-1962', 2-6.
180. As cited in Scarnecchia, 'From Township Advisory Board elections to Nationalist Political Mobilisation', 5.
181. H. Mss CR 4/1/1, 'My experience during African Strike…'.
182. ibid.
183. Vambe, From Rhodesia to Zimbabwe, 245.
184. ZBZ 1/3/1, Native Strikes … 19 May 1948.
185. S 1561/19, Evidence of B J Mnyanda.
186. Bantu Mirror, 1 May 1948.
187. ZBZ 1/3/1, Native Strikes … 19 May 1948.
188. For the most recent example, see D Johnson, 'The war and the revolt of the working people in colonial Zimbabwe (Southern Rhodesia)', South Asia Bulletin. Comparative Studies of South Asia, Africa and the Middle East, 1995, 15.
189. See especially Dumbutshena, Zimbabwe Tragedy; Bhebe, Benjamin Burombo; Vambe, From Rhodesia to Zimbabwe, and C Utete, The Road to Zimbabwe: The Political Economy of Settler Colonialism, National Liberation and Foreign Intervention (Washington 1979).
190. See especially Dumbutshena, Zimbabwe Tragedy; Bhebe, Benjamin Burombo; Vambe, From Rhodesia to Zimbabwe, and C Utete, The Road to Zimbabwe: The Political Economy of Settler Colonialism, National Liberation and Foreign Intervention (Washington 1979).
191. See especially Dumbutshena, Zimbabwe Tragedy; Bhebe, Benjamin Burombo; Vambe, From Rhodesia to Zimbabwe, and C Utete, The Road to Zimbabwe: The Political Economy of Settler Colonialism, National Liberation and Foreign Intervention (Washington 1979).
192. See especially Dumbutshena, Zimbabwe Tragedy; Bhebe, Benjamin Burombo; Vambe, From Rhodesia to Zimbabwe, and C Utete, The Road to Zimbabwe: The Political Economy of Settler Colonialism, National Liberation and Foreign Intervention (Washington 1979).
193. See, for example, Thornton 'Patterning of industrial conflict', 41-2; and Lunn, 'Political economy of protest', 53.
194. See, for example, Thornton 'Patterning of industrial conflict', 41-2; and Lunn, 'Political economy of protest', 53.
195. But see Scarnecchia, 'From Township Advisory Board elections to Nationalist Political Mobilisation'.
196. Barnes, '"So that a labourer could live with his family"', 106.
197. Again, see Dumbutshena, Zimbabwe Tragedy, 27-8; Bhebe, Benjamin Burombo, 70-2; and Utete, The Road to Zimbabwe, 44.
198. Again, see Dumbutshena, Zimbabwe Tragedy, 27-8; Bhebe, Benjamin Burombo, 70-2; and Utete, The Road to Zimbabwe, 44.
199. Again, see Dumbutshena, Zimbabwe Tragedy, 27-8; Bhebe, Benjamin Burombo, 70-2; and Utete, The Road to Zimbabwe, 44.
200. Ranger, Are We Not also Men? 95.
201. Johnson, 'War and the Revolt of the Working People', 87 fn 94.
202. Utete, The Road to Zimbabwe, 44.
203. D. Beach, War and Politics in Zimbabwe 1840-1990 (Gweru 1986), 146-7.