Hooks and hands, interests and enemies: Political thinking as political action

Political Studies

Volumn 48, Issue 2, 2000, Pages 223-238

  Barker, Rodney ^a  

^a LONDON SCHOOL OF ECONOMICS   (United Kingdom)

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[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 0034369628     PISSN: 00323217     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/1467-9248.00257     Document Type: Article

References (77)

1. 1 Desmond King has explained this characteristic of recent political science in the UK and the USA as in part a result of the political context within which funding for the social sciences originated. D. King, 'The politics of social research: institutionalizing public funding regimes in the United States and Britain', British Journal of Political Science, 28, 3 (1998), 415-444.
2. 2 Karl Marx, 'Theses on Feurbach, XI', in David McLellan (ed.), Karl Marx:-Selected Writings. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1977, p. 158.
3. 3 See Michael Freeden in this volume, p.302-322.
4. 4 Karl Marx, 'Towards a Critique of Hegel's "Philosophy of Right"' in McLellan, Karl Marx: Selected Writings, p.69.
5. 5 It could be argued that rational choice theory is dependent on mind. But it frequently assumes a mind with a mechanical and universal manner of operation that can be both observed and predicted.
6. 6 Jeremy Bentham, 'Anarchical Fallacies' in J. Bowring (ed.), Works. London: Simpkin, Marshall, 1843, vol. 2, p.501.
7. 7 Bentham, 'Anarchical Fallacies', p. 524, quoted Nancy L. Rosenblum, Bentham's Theory of the State. London: Harvard University Press, 1978, p.56.
8. 7 Bentham, 'Anarchical Fallacies', p. 524, quoted Nancy L. Rosenblum, Bentham's Theory of the State. London: Harvard University Press, 1978, p.56.
9. 8 Kenneth A. Shepsle, 'Comment' in Roger Noll (ed.), Regulatory Politics and the Social Sciences. Berkeley; University of California Press, 1985, pp.231-7 ('ideas don't effect changes, people do'), a remark which has the same logical character as the more familiar 'guns don't kill people, people do'. (Until recently, a seemingly devastating riposte to that argument was, 'try using a cucumber next time you're at the OK corral'. However, the following report weakens the case: 'A man who held up a bank in Glenties, Co. Donegal, with a cucumber has been given a six-month suspended jail sentence. James Conway held the cucumber, hidden by a plastic bag, like a weapon when he demanded IR£100.' The Independent, Thursday 15 October 1998, p.7.)
10. 9 As Stefan Collini long ago pointed out, 'It is one mark of the cynic that he sees other people's expressions of their principles as a kind of smokescreen for their putative "real interests", but even were he always correct it would not follow that the study of such statements was devoid of explanatory power. Even the most disingenuous legitimation involves an appeal to existing characterisations' Stefan Collini, Liberalism & Sociology: L.T Hobhouse & Political Argument in England 1880-1914. Cambridge; Cambridge University Press, 1979, p.10.
11. 10 Reviewing Green and Shapiro's Pathologies of Rational Choice Theory, Stewart Wood and Iain McLean make the damaging concession that the attack on rational choice theory and voting is justified, and that while it 'makes little sense to argue that voters are rational calculators, it makes a lot of sense to argue that legislators and lobbyists are', Political Studies, 43, 4 (1995), p. 706.
12. 11 Shepsle, 'Comment', p.233.
13. 12 Christopher Hood has commented that 'the further we move from "harder" to "softer" versions of the "primacy of ideas" approach, the harder it will be to distinguish "ideas" from "interests" '. Christopher Hood, Explaining Economic Policy Reversals. Buckingham; Open University Press, 1994, p.7.
14. 13 John Kurt Jacobsen, 'Much ado about ideas: the cognitive factor in economic policy', World Politics, 47, 2, (1995), p.283.
15. 14 Patrick Dunleavy, Democracy, Bureaucracy and Public Choice: Economic Explanations in Political Science. Hemel Hempstead; Harvester Wheatsheaf, 1991, pp. 54-7.
16. 15 Judith Goldstein and Robert O. Keohane (eds), Ideas and Foreign Policy: Beliefs, Institutions, and Political Change. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1993, pp. 13-14; Edward Rhodes, 'Do bureaucratic politics matter? Some disconfirming findings from the case of the U. S. Navy', World Politics, 47, 1, (1994), 1-41.
17. 15 Judith Goldstein and Robert O. Keohane (eds), Ideas and Foreign Policy: Beliefs, Institutions, and Political Change. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1993, pp. 13-14; Edward Rhodes, 'Do bureaucratic politics matter? Some disconfirming findings from the case of the U. S. Navy', World Politics, 47, 1, (1994), 1-41.
18. 16 See for instance Diane Stone, 'Learning lessons and transferring policy across time, space and disciplines', Politics, 19, 1 (1999), 51-9; David Dolowitz and David Marsh, 'Who learns from whom: a review of the policy transfer literature', Political Studies, 44, 2 (1996), 343-57; Desmond King and Randall Hansen, 'Experts at work: state autonomy, social learning and eugenic sterilization in 1930s Britain', British Journal of Political Science, 29, 1(1999), 77-107 ; John Greenaway, 'Policy learning and the drink question in Britain: 1850-1950, Political Studies, 46, 5, (1998); Peter Hall, 'Policy paradigms, social learning, and the state: the case of economic policy-making in Britain', Comparative Politics, 25, (1993), 275-96; C. Radaelli, 'The role of knowledge in the policy process', Journal of European Public Policy, 2, (1995), 159-83; A. Hann, 'Sharpening up Sabatier: belief systems and public policy', Politics, 15 (1995), 19-26; Peter John, 'Ideas and interests; agendas and implementation: an evolutionary explanation of policy change in British local government finance', Journal of Politics and International Relations 1, 1 (1999), 39-62.
19. 16 See for instance Diane Stone, 'Learning lessons and transferring policy across time, space and disciplines', Politics, 19, 1 (1999), 51-9; David Dolowitz and David Marsh, 'Who learns from whom: a review of the policy transfer literature', Political Studies, 44, 2 (1996), 343-57; Desmond King and Randall Hansen, 'Experts at work: state autonomy, social learning and eugenic sterilization in 1930s Britain', British Journal of Political Science, 29, 1(1999), 77-107 ; John Greenaway, 'Policy learning and the drink question in Britain: 1850-1950, Political Studies, 46, 5, (1998); Peter Hall, 'Policy paradigms, social learning, and the state: the case of economic policy-making in Britain', Comparative Politics, 25, (1993), 275-96; C. Radaelli, 'The role of knowledge in the policy process', Journal of European Public Policy, 2, (1995), 159-83; A. Hann, 'Sharpening up Sabatier: belief systems and public policy', Politics, 15 (1995), 19-26; Peter John, 'Ideas and interests; agendas and implementation: an evolutionary explanation of policy change in British local government finance', Journal of Politics and International Relations 1, 1 (1999), 39-62.
20. 16 See for instance Diane Stone, 'Learning lessons and transferring policy across time, space and disciplines', Politics, 19, 1 (1999), 51-9; David Dolowitz and David Marsh, 'Who learns from whom: a review of the policy transfer literature', Political Studies, 44, 2 (1996), 343-57; Desmond King and Randall Hansen, 'Experts at work: state autonomy, social learning and eugenic sterilization in 1930s Britain', British Journal of Political Science, 29, 1(1999), 77-107 ; John Greenaway, 'Policy learning and the drink question in Britain: 1850-1950, Political Studies, 46, 5, (1998); Peter Hall, 'Policy paradigms, social learning, and the state: the case of economic policy-making in Britain', Comparative Politics, 25, (1993), 275-96; C. Radaelli, 'The role of knowledge in the policy process', Journal of European Public Policy, 2, (1995), 159-83; A. Hann, 'Sharpening up Sabatier: belief systems and public policy', Politics, 15 (1995), 19-26; Peter John, 'Ideas and interests; agendas and implementation: an evolutionary explanation of policy change in British local government finance', Journal of Politics and International Relations 1, 1 (1999), 39-62.
21. 16 See for instance Diane Stone, 'Learning lessons and transferring policy across time, space and disciplines', Politics, 19, 1 (1999), 51-9; David Dolowitz and David Marsh, 'Who learns from whom: a review of the policy transfer literature', Political Studies, 44, 2 (1996), 343-57; Desmond King and Randall Hansen, 'Experts at work: state autonomy, social learning and eugenic sterilization in 1930s Britain', British Journal of Political Science, 29, 1(1999), 77-107 ; John Greenaway, 'Policy learning and the drink question in Britain: 1850-1950, Political Studies, 46, 5, (1998); Peter Hall, 'Policy paradigms, social learning, and the state: the case of economic policy-making in Britain', Comparative Politics, 25, (1993), 275-96; C. Radaelli, 'The role of knowledge in the policy process', Journal of European Public Policy, 2, (1995), 159-83; A. Hann, 'Sharpening up Sabatier: belief systems and public policy', Politics, 15 (1995), 19-26; Peter John, 'Ideas and interests; agendas and implementation: an evolutionary explanation of policy change in British local government finance', Journal of Politics and International Relations 1, 1 (1999), 39-62.
22. 16 See for instance Diane Stone, 'Learning lessons and transferring policy across time, space and disciplines', Politics, 19, 1 (1999), 51-9; David Dolowitz and David Marsh, 'Who learns from whom: a review of the policy transfer literature', Political Studies, 44, 2 (1996), 343-57; Desmond King and Randall Hansen, 'Experts at work: state autonomy, social learning and eugenic sterilization in 1930s Britain', British Journal of Political Science, 29, 1(1999), 77-107 ; John Greenaway, 'Policy learning and the drink question in Britain: 1850-1950, Political Studies, 46, 5, (1998); Peter Hall, 'Policy paradigms, social learning, and the state: the case of economic policy-making in Britain', Comparative Politics, 25, (1993), 275-96; C. Radaelli, 'The role of knowledge in the policy process', Journal of European Public Policy, 2, (1995), 159-83; A. Hann, 'Sharpening up Sabatier: belief systems and public policy', Politics, 15 (1995), 19-26; Peter John, 'Ideas and interests; agendas and implementation: an evolutionary explanation of policy change in British local government finance', Journal of Politics and International Relations 1, 1 (1999), 39-62.
23. 16 See for instance Diane Stone, 'Learning lessons and transferring policy across time, space and disciplines', Politics, 19, 1 (1999), 51-9; David Dolowitz and David Marsh, 'Who learns from whom: a review of the policy transfer literature', Political Studies, 44, 2 (1996), 343-57; Desmond King and Randall Hansen, 'Experts at work: state autonomy, social learning and eugenic sterilization in 1930s Britain', British Journal of Political Science, 29, 1(1999), 77-107 ; John Greenaway, 'Policy learning and the drink question in Britain: 1850-1950, Political Studies, 46, 5, (1998); Peter Hall, 'Policy paradigms, social learning, and the state: the case of economic policy-making in Britain', Comparative Politics, 25, (1993), 275-96; C. Radaelli, 'The role of knowledge in the policy process', Journal of European Public Policy, 2, (1995), 159-83; A. Hann, 'Sharpening up Sabatier: belief systems and public policy', Politics, 15 (1995), 19-26; Peter John, 'Ideas and interests; agendas and implementation: an evolutionary explanation of policy change in British local government finance', Journal of Politics and International Relations 1, 1 (1999), 39-62.
24. 16 See for instance Diane Stone, 'Learning lessons and transferring policy across time, space and disciplines', Politics, 19, 1 (1999), 51-9; David Dolowitz and David Marsh, 'Who learns from whom: a review of the policy transfer literature', Political Studies, 44, 2 (1996), 343-57; Desmond King and Randall Hansen, 'Experts at work: state autonomy, social learning and eugenic sterilization in 1930s Britain', British Journal of Political Science, 29, 1(1999), 77-107 ; John Greenaway, 'Policy learning and the drink question in Britain: 1850-1950, Political Studies, 46, 5, (1998); Peter Hall, 'Policy paradigms, social learning, and the state: the case of economic policy-making in Britain', Comparative Politics, 25, (1993), 275-96; C. Radaelli, 'The role of knowledge in the policy process', Journal of European Public Policy, 2, (1995), 159-83; A. Hann, 'Sharpening up Sabatier: belief systems and public policy', Politics, 15 (1995), 19-26; Peter John, 'Ideas and interests; agendas and implementation: an evolutionary explanation of policy change in British local government finance', Journal of Politics and International Relations 1, 1 (1999), 39-62.
25. 16 See for instance Diane Stone, 'Learning lessons and transferring policy across time, space and disciplines', Politics, 19, 1 (1999), 51-9; David Dolowitz and David Marsh, 'Who learns from whom: a review of the policy transfer literature', Political Studies, 44, 2 (1996), 343-57; Desmond King and Randall Hansen, 'Experts at work: state autonomy, social learning and eugenic sterilization in 1930s Britain', British Journal of Political Science, 29, 1(1999), 77-107 ; John Greenaway, 'Policy learning and the drink question in Britain: 1850-1950, Political Studies, 46, 5, (1998); Peter Hall, 'Policy paradigms, social learning, and the state: the case of economic policy-making in Britain', Comparative Politics, 25, (1993), 275-96; C. Radaelli, 'The role of knowledge in the policy process', Journal of European Public Policy, 2, (1995), 159-83; A. Hann, 'Sharpening up Sabatier: belief systems and public policy', Politics, 15 (1995), 19-26; Peter John, 'Ideas and interests; agendas and implementation: an evolutionary explanation of policy change in British local government finance', Journal of Politics and International Relations 1, 1 (1999), 39-62.
26. 17 Shepsle, 'Comment', p. 234.
27. 18 As Randall Collins argues when casting doubt on the importance, or frequent existence, of philosophical 'isolates' and as Andrew Chadwick argues in this special issue. Randall Collins, The Sociology of Philosophies: a Global Theory of Intellectual Change. Cambridge MA: Belknap Press/Harvard University Press, 1999.
28. 19 Christopher Hood uses the image of ideas as meteors, 'hitting the world of public policy with sudden and devastating effect'. Christopher Hood, Explaining Economic Policy Reversals. Buckingham: Open University Press, 1994, p.5.
29. 20 And perhaps as statements which are immediately they are made seen as in some sense beyond the maker of those statements, who is now the observer. 'When the mind is like a hall in which thought is like a voice speaking, the voice is always that of someone else.' Wallace Stevens, quoted John Burnside, A Normal Skin. London: Jonathan Cape, 1997, p. vii.
30. 21 E. P. Thompson, Whigs and Hunters. London: Allen Lane, 1975, p. 263; 'And the rulers were, in serious senses, whether willingly or unwillingly, the prisoners of their own rhetoric; they played the games of power according to rules which suited them, but they could not break those rules or the whole game would be thrown away.'
31. 22 Shepsle, 'Comment', p. 235
32. 23 Robert Keohane comments of rational choice accounts of human action that they are 'a theoretically useful simplification of reality rather than a true reflection of it'. Robert O. Keohane, After Hegemony: Cooperation and Discord in the World Political Economy. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1984, p. 108, quoted in Goldstein, and Keohane (eds), Ideas and Foreign Policy: Beliefs, Institutions, and Political Change, p. 5. But the insight cannot stop there. If people act as if they were rational, and if all rational action has this quality, then even the most un-utilitarian actions must be analysed to discover what metaphor of rationality, and what understanding of the thinking of the actors, would render them comprehensible.
33. 23 Robert Keohane comments of rational choice accounts of human action that they are 'a theoretically useful simplification of reality rather than a true reflection of it'. Robert O. Keohane, After Hegemony: Cooperation and Discord in the World Political Economy. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1984, p. 108, quoted in Goldstein, and Keohane (eds), Ideas and Foreign Policy: Beliefs, Institutions, and Political Change, p. 5. But the insight cannot stop there. If people act as if they were rational, and if all rational action has this quality, then even the most un-utilitarian actions must be analysed to discover what metaphor of rationality, and what understanding of the thinking of the actors, would render them comprehensible.
34. 24 I have argued this myself elsewhere. Rodney Barker, Political Ideas in Modern Britain in and after the Twentieth Century. London: Routledge, 1997, pp.4-6.
35. 25 Jacobsen, 'Much ado about ideas', p.293.
36. 26 Karl Freund, The Hands of Orlac (1934).
37. 27 This can be compared with the comment of Ball, Farr and Hanson that 'politics is a linguistically constituted activity', Terence Ball, James Farr and Russell L. Hanson (eds), Political Innovation and Conceptual Change. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989, p. ix.
38. 28 Max Weber in Guenther Roth and Claus Wittich (eds), Economy and Society, two volumes. London: University of California Press, 1978, p.4.
39. 29 See for instance the account in Keith Dowding, Rational Choice and Political Power. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar, 1991, p. 23.
40. 30 As Margaret Archer puts it, ideas and interests are 'not separate entities, only analytically separable ones'. Margaret Archer, Culture and Agency: The Place of Culture in Social Theory. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988, fn. 86 p. xiii quoted Jacobsen, 'Much ado about ideas', p. 309.
41. 30 As Margaret Archer puts it, ideas and interests are 'not separate entities, only analytically separable ones'. Margaret Archer, Culture and Agency: The Place of Culture in Social Theory. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988, fn. 86 p. xiii quoted Jacobsen, 'Much ado about ideas', p. 309.
42. 31 Michael Freeden, Ideologies and Political Theory: a Conceptual Approach. Oxford: Clarendon, 1996.
43. 32 Goldstein and Keohane, Ideas and Foreign Policy: Beliefs, Institutions, and Political Change; Robert D. Putnam with Robert Leonardi and Raffaella Nanetti, Making Democracy Work: Civic Traditions in Modern Italy. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1993; Rhodes, 'Do bureaucratic politics matter?'; Abrar, Lovenduski and Margetts in this volume, pp.239-261.
44. 32 Goldstein and Keohane, Ideas and Foreign Policy: Beliefs, Institutions, and Political Change; Robert D. Putnam with Robert Leonardi and Raffaella Nanetti, Making Democracy Work: Civic Traditions in Modern Italy. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1993; Rhodes, 'Do bureaucratic politics matter?'; Abrar, Lovenduski and Margetts in this volume, pp.239-261.
45. 32 Goldstein and Keohane, Ideas and Foreign Policy: Beliefs, Institutions, and Political Change; Robert D. Putnam with Robert Leonardi and Raffaella Nanetti, Making Democracy Work: Civic Traditions in Modern Italy. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1993; Rhodes, 'Do bureaucratic politics matter?'; Abrar, Lovenduski and Margetts in this volume, pp.239-261.
46. 32 Goldstein and Keohane, Ideas and Foreign Policy: Beliefs, Institutions, and Political Change; Robert D. Putnam with Robert Leonardi and Raffaella Nanetti, Making Democracy Work: Civic Traditions in Modern Italy. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1993; Rhodes, 'Do bureaucratic politics matter?'; Abrar, Lovenduski and Margetts in this volume, pp.239-261.
47. 33 It is an account less removed than might at first appear from Hayek's Darwinian account of the evolution of institutions.
48. 34 Conflicts between groups depended upon ideas, he argued, and 'one can deflate a bubble idea with a prick of logic'. E. Barker, 'The discredited state', Political Quarterly, February 1915, p.113.
49. 35 The sociological theory of exclusion deals with a similar and related observation. See for instance Frank Parkin, Marxism and Class Theory: a Bourgeois Critique. London: Tavistock, 1979.
50. 36 'Once we have rejected the notion of a transcendental "real self", however, it seems difficult to make any form of references to "real reasons" behind an action.' Erik Ringmar, Identity, Interest and Action: a Cultural Explanation of Sweden's Intervention in the Thirty Years War. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996, p.60.
51. 37 Ringmar, Identity, Interest and Actioni, p.165.
52. 38 And not only within political science. Edmund White points out the observation, by novelists as varied as Kurt Vonnegut and Philip Hensher, that rulers and politicians choose to have enemies in order to consolidate the identity of their own societies. Edmund White, 'Sinister blandishments', London Review of Books, 20, 17, 3 September 1998, p.18. A similar reading can be made of the wars presented, by cinema, to the subjugated population of 1984.
53. 39 Adam Ferguson in Vincenzo Merolle (ed.). The Correspondence of Adam Ferguson. London: Pickering, 1995.
54. 40 Carl Schmitt, The Concept of the Political (translated and introduced by George Schwab, with a new foreword by Tracy B. Strong). Chicago IL: University of Chicago Press, 1996.
55. 41 C. A. R. Crosland, The Future of Socialism. London: Jonathan Cape, 1956, p. 100.
56. 42 Eric Hobsbawm, Age of Extremes: the Short Twentieth Century 1914-1991. London: Michael Joseph, 1994, p.4
57. 43 Paul Hirst (ed.). The Pluralist Theory of the State: Selected Writings of G. D. H. Cole, J. N. Figgis, and H. J. Laski. London: Routledge, 1989; Paul Hirst, Associative Democracy: New Forms of Economic and Social Governance. Cambridge: Polity, 1994; Paul Hirst, 'Introduction', The Collected Works of Harold Laski, 10 volumes. London: Routledge: Paul Hirst, From Statism to Pluralism: Democracy, Civil Society and Global Politics. London: UCL Press, 1997.
58. 43 Paul Hirst (ed.). The Pluralist Theory of the State: Selected Writings of G. D. H. Cole, J. N. Figgis, and H. J. Laski. London: Routledge, 1989; Paul Hirst, Associative Democracy: New Forms of Economic and Social Governance. Cambridge: Polity, 1994; Paul Hirst, 'Introduction', The Collected Works of Harold Laski, 10 volumes. London: Routledge: Paul Hirst, From Statism to Pluralism: Democracy, Civil Society and Global Politics. London: UCL Press, 1997.
59. 43 Paul Hirst (ed.). The Pluralist Theory of the State: Selected Writings of G. D. H. Cole, J. N. Figgis, and H. J. Laski. London: Routledge, 1989; Paul Hirst, Associative Democracy: New Forms of Economic and Social Governance. Cambridge: Polity, 1994; Paul Hirst, 'Introduction', The Collected Works of Harold Laski, 10 volumes. London: Routledge: Paul Hirst, From Statism to Pluralism: Democracy, Civil Society and Global Politics. London: UCL Press, 1997.
60. 43 Paul Hirst (ed.). The Pluralist Theory of the State: Selected Writings of G. D. H. Cole, J. N. Figgis, and H. J. Laski. London: Routledge, 1989; Paul Hirst, Associative Democracy: New Forms of Economic and Social Governance. Cambridge: Polity, 1994; Paul Hirst, 'Introduction', The Collected Works of Harold Laski, 10 volumes. London: Routledge: Paul Hirst, From Statism to Pluralism: Democracy, Civil Society and Global Politics. London: UCL Press, 1997.
61. 44 John Gray, Hayek on Liberty. Oxford: Blackwell, 1984; John Gray, The Undoing of Conservatism. London: 1994; John Gray, After Social Democracy. London: Demos, 1996; John Gray, Endgames. Cambridge: Polity, 1997; John Gray and David Willens, Is Conservatism Dead? London: Profile Books, 1997; John Gray, Beyond the New Right. London: Routledge, 1993; John Gray, Post-Liberalism: Studies in Political Thought. London: Routledge, 1993; John Gray, Enlightenment's Wake: Politics and Culture at the Close of the Modern Age. London: Routledge, 1995.
62. 44 John Gray, Hayek on Liberty. Oxford: Blackwell, 1984; John Gray, The Undoing of Conservatism. London: 1994; John Gray, After Social Democracy. London: Demos, 1996; John Gray, Endgames. Cambridge: Polity, 1997; John Gray and David Willens, Is Conservatism Dead? London: Profile Books, 1997; John Gray, Beyond the New Right. London: Routledge, 1993; John Gray, Post-Liberalism: Studies in Political Thought. London: Routledge, 1993; John Gray, Enlightenment's Wake: Politics and Culture at the Close of the Modern Age. London: Routledge, 1995.
63. 44 John Gray, Hayek on Liberty. Oxford: Blackwell, 1984; John Gray, The Undoing of Conservatism. London: 1994; John Gray, After Social Democracy. London: Demos, 1996; John Gray, Endgames. Cambridge: Polity, 1997; John Gray and David Willens, Is Conservatism Dead? London: Profile Books, 1997; John Gray, Beyond the New Right. London: Routledge, 1993; John Gray, Post-Liberalism: Studies in Political Thought. London: Routledge, 1993; John Gray, Enlightenment's Wake: Politics and Culture at the Close of the Modern Age. London: Routledge, 1995.
64. 44 John Gray, Hayek on Liberty. Oxford: Blackwell, 1984; John Gray, The Undoing of Conservatism. London: 1994; John Gray, After Social Democracy. London: Demos, 1996; John Gray, Endgames. Cambridge: Polity, 1997; John Gray and David Willens, Is Conservatism Dead? London: Profile Books, 1997; John Gray, Beyond the New Right. London: Routledge, 1993; John Gray, Post-Liberalism: Studies in Political Thought. London: Routledge, 1993; John Gray, Enlightenment's Wake: Politics and Culture at the Close of the Modern Age. London: Routledge, 1995.
65. 44 John Gray, Hayek on Liberty. Oxford: Blackwell, 1984; John Gray, The Undoing of Conservatism. London: 1994; John Gray, After Social Democracy. London: Demos, 1996; John Gray, Endgames. Cambridge: Polity, 1997; John Gray and David Willens, Is Conservatism Dead? London: Profile Books, 1997; John Gray, Beyond the New Right. London: Routledge, 1993; John Gray, Post-Liberalism: Studies in Political Thought. London: Routledge, 1993; John Gray, Enlightenment's Wake: Politics and Culture at the Close of the Modern Age. London: Routledge, 1995.
66. 44 John Gray, Hayek on Liberty. Oxford: Blackwell, 1984; John Gray, The Undoing of Conservatism. London: 1994; John Gray, After Social Democracy. London: Demos, 1996; John Gray, Endgames. Cambridge: Polity, 1997; John Gray and David Willens, Is Conservatism Dead? London: Profile Books, 1997; John Gray, Beyond the New Right. London: Routledge, 1993; John Gray, Post-Liberalism: Studies in Political Thought. London: Routledge, 1993; John Gray, Enlightenment's Wake: Politics and Culture at the Close of the Modern Age. London: Routledge, 1995.
67. 44 John Gray, Hayek on Liberty. Oxford: Blackwell, 1984; John Gray, The Undoing of Conservatism. London: 1994; John Gray, After Social Democracy. London: Demos, 1996; John Gray, Endgames. Cambridge: Polity, 1997; John Gray and David Willens, Is Conservatism Dead? London: Profile Books, 1997; John Gray, Beyond the New Right. London: Routledge, 1993; John Gray, Post-Liberalism: Studies in Political Thought. London: Routledge, 1993; John Gray, Enlightenment's Wake: Politics and Culture at the Close of the Modern Age. London: Routledge, 1995.
68. 44 John Gray, Hayek on Liberty. Oxford: Blackwell, 1984; John Gray, The Undoing of Conservatism. London: 1994; John Gray, After Social Democracy. London: Demos, 1996; John Gray, Endgames. Cambridge: Polity, 1997; John Gray and David Willens, Is Conservatism Dead? London: Profile Books, 1997; John Gray, Beyond the New Right. London: Routledge, 1993; John Gray, Post-Liberalism: Studies in Political Thought. London: Routledge, 1993; John Gray, Enlightenment's Wake: Politics and Culture at the Close of the Modern Age. London: Routledge, 1995.
69. 45 Andrew Gamble, Hayek: the Iron Cage of Liberty. Cambridge: Polity, 1996; Hilary Wainwright, Arguments for a New Left: Answering the Free Market Right. Oxford: Blackwell, 1994.
70. 45 Andrew Gamble, Hayek: the Iron Cage of Liberty. Cambridge: Polity, 1996; Hilary Wainwright, Arguments for a New Left: Answering the Free Market Right. Oxford: Blackwell, 1994.
71. 46 Hirst, The Pluralist Theory of the State, p.6.
72. 47 Gray, Hayek on Liberty, p.113.
73. 48 Gray, Beyond the New Right, p.5.
74. 49 Wainwright, Arguments for a New Left, p. 261.
75. 50 The life and survival of institutions can be observed making similar journeys, none more dramatic perhaps than that of state security organizations such as MI5 in the UK, who having lost their defining enemy with the collapse of managerial communism in the Soviet Union, soon lost its replacement with the cessation of political violence in Northern Ireland, and had swiftly to bring on the understudy's understudy in the shape of international crime and drugs.
76. 51 This is a point raised in relation to constructivism in international relations theory by Jeffrey T. Checkel, 'The constructivist turn in international relations theory', World Politics 50, 2 (1998), 324-348.
77. 52 Shepsle, 'Comment', p.234.