The politics of the selective gaze: Closed Circuit Television and the policing of public space

Crime, Law and Social Change

Volumn 34, Issue 2, 2000, Pages 183-210

  Williams, Katherine S ^a   Johnstone, Craig ^b  

^a ABERYSTWYTH UNIVERSITY   (United Kingdom)

^b SWANSEA UNIVERSITY   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0034364023     PISSN: 09254994     EISSN: 15730751     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1023/A:1008342610872     Document Type: Article

References (73)

1. Graham, S., "The Eyes Have It - CCTV as The 'Fifth Utility'," Town and Country Planning 1999 (68:10), 312-315 at 312.
2. Brown, B., CCTV in Town Centres: Three Case Studies (London: Home Office, 1995). Durham, P., "Why CCTV? A Cure Looking for an Illness", in Home Office, CCTV: Looking Out For You (London: Home Office, 1994). Honess, T. and E. Charman, Closed Circuit Television in Public Places (London: Home Office, 1992). Home Office, CCTV: Looking Out for You (London: Home Office, 1994). Tilley, N., Understanding Car Parks, Crime and CCTV: Evaluation Lessons from Safer Cities, Police Research Group, Crime Prevention Unit Series Paper 42. (London: Home Office, 1993).
3. Brown, B., CCTV in Town Centres: Three Case Studies (London: Home Office, 1995). Durham, P., "Why CCTV? A Cure Looking for an Illness", in Home Office, CCTV: Looking Out For You (London: Home Office, 1994). Honess, T. and E. Charman, Closed Circuit Television in Public Places (London: Home Office, 1992). Home Office, CCTV: Looking Out for You (London: Home Office, 1994). Tilley, N., Understanding Car Parks, Crime and CCTV: Evaluation Lessons from Safer Cities, Police Research Group, Crime Prevention Unit Series Paper 42. (London: Home Office, 1993).
4. Brown, B., CCTV in Town Centres: Three Case Studies (London: Home Office, 1995). Durham, P., "Why CCTV? A Cure Looking for an Illness", in Home Office, CCTV: Looking Out For You (London: Home Office, 1994). Honess, T. and E. Charman, Closed Circuit Television in Public Places (London: Home Office, 1992). Home Office, CCTV: Looking Out for You (London: Home Office, 1994). Tilley, N., Understanding Car Parks, Crime and CCTV: Evaluation Lessons from Safer Cities, Police Research Group, Crime Prevention Unit Series Paper 42. (London: Home Office, 1993).
5. Brown, B., CCTV in Town Centres: Three Case Studies (London: Home Office, 1995). Durham, P., "Why CCTV? A Cure Looking for an Illness", in Home Office, CCTV: Looking Out For You (London: Home Office, 1994). Honess, T. and E. Charman, Closed Circuit Television in Public Places (London: Home Office, 1992). Home Office, CCTV: Looking Out for You (London: Home Office, 1994). Tilley, N., Understanding Car Parks, Crime and CCTV: Evaluation Lessons from Safer Cities, Police Research Group, Crime Prevention Unit Series Paper 42. (London: Home Office, 1993).
6. Brown, B., CCTV in Town Centres: Three Case Studies (London: Home Office, 1995). Durham, P., "Why CCTV? A Cure Looking for an Illness", in Home Office, CCTV: Looking Out For You (London: Home Office, 1994). Honess, T. and E. Charman, Closed Circuit Television in Public Places (London: Home Office, 1992). Home Office, CCTV: Looking Out for You (London: Home Office, 1994). Tilley, N., Understanding Car Parks, Crime and CCTV: Evaluation Lessons from Safer Cities, Police Research Group, Crime Prevention Unit Series Paper 42. (London: Home Office, 1993).
7. Crang, M., "Watching the City: Video, Surveillance and Resistance", Environment and Planning A 1996 (28:12), 2099-2103. Davies, S.G., "The Case Against: CCTV Should Not be Introduced", International Journal of Risk, Security and Crime Prevention 1994 (1), 327-331. Ditton, J., Does Closed Circuit Television Prevent Crime? (Edinburgh: Scottish Centre for Criminology, 1996). Ditton, J., E. Short, S. Phillips, C. Morris and G. Armstrong, The Effect of Closed Circuit Television on Recorded Crime Rates and Public Concern About Crime in Glasgow (Edinburgh: Central Research Unit, The Scottish Office, 1999). Fyfe, N.R. and J. Bannister, "City watching: closed circuit television in public spaces", Area 1996 (28:1), 37-46. Fyfe, N.R. and J. Bannister, "'The Eyes Upon the Street' : Closed Circuit Television Surveillance and the City", in Fyfe N.R. (ed.), Images of the Street: Representation, Experience and Control in Public Space (London: Routledge, 1998). Graham, S., J. Brooks and D. Heery, "Towns on television: Closed circuit TV in British towns and cities," Local Government Studies 1996 (22:3), 1-27. Graham, S., "The Eyes Have It - CCTV as the 'Fifth Utility'," Town and Country Planning 1999 (68:10), 312-315. Graham, S., "The Eyes Have It: CCTV as the 'Fifth Utility'," Environment and Planning B: Planning and Design 1999 (26:5), 639-642. Groombridge, N. and K. Murji, Obscured by Cameras? CCTV and Policing (Criminal Justice Matters No. 17. Autumn. London: Institute of the Study and Treatment of Delinquency, 1994). Horne, C.J., "The Case For: CCTV Should be Introduced", International Journal of Risk, Security and Crime Prevention 1996 (1), 317-326. Norris, C. and G. Armstrong, The Unforgiving Eye: CCTV Surveillance in Public Spaces (University of Hull: Centre for Criminology, 1997). Norris, C. and G. Armstrong, The Maximum Surveyllance Society (Berg: Oxford, 1999). Norris, C., J. Morgan and G. Armstrong, eds., Surveillance, Closed Circuit Television and Social Control (Aldershot: Ashgate, 1998). Short, E. and J. Ditton, Does Closed Circuit Television Prevent Crime? An Evaluation of the Use of CCTV Surveillance Cameras in Airdrie Town Centre (Edinburgh: Scottish Office, Central Research Unit, 1996). Short, E. and J. Ditton, "Seen and Now Heard: Talking to the Targets of Open Street CCTV" British Journal of Criminology 1998 (38:3), 404-428.
8. Crang, M., "Watching the City: Video, Surveillance and Resistance", Environment and Planning A 1996 (28:12), 2099-2103. Davies, S.G., "The Case Against: CCTV Should Not be Introduced", International Journal of Risk, Security and Crime Prevention 1994 (1), 327-331. Ditton, J., Does Closed Circuit Television Prevent Crime? (Edinburgh: Scottish Centre for Criminology, 1996). Ditton, J., E. Short, S. Phillips, C. Morris and G. Armstrong, The Effect of Closed Circuit Television on Recorded Crime Rates and Public Concern About Crime in Glasgow (Edinburgh: Central Research Unit, The Scottish Office, 1999). Fyfe, N.R. and J. Bannister, "City watching: closed circuit television in public spaces", Area 1996 (28:1), 37-46. Fyfe, N.R. and J. Bannister, "'The Eyes Upon the Street' : Closed Circuit Television Surveillance and the City", in Fyfe N.R. (ed.), Images of the Street: Representation, Experience and Control in Public Space (London: Routledge, 1998). Graham, S., J. Brooks and D. Heery, "Towns on television: Closed circuit TV in British towns and cities," Local Government Studies 1996 (22:3), 1-27. Graham, S., "The Eyes Have It - CCTV as the 'Fifth Utility'," Town and Country Planning 1999 (68:10), 312-315. Graham, S., "The Eyes Have It: CCTV as the 'Fifth Utility'," Environment and Planning B: Planning and Design 1999 (26:5), 639-642. Groombridge, N. and K. Murji, Obscured by Cameras? CCTV and Policing (Criminal Justice Matters No. 17. Autumn. London: Institute of the Study and Treatment of Delinquency, 1994). Horne, C.J., "The Case For: CCTV Should be Introduced", International Journal of Risk, Security and Crime Prevention 1996 (1), 317-326. Norris, C. and G. Armstrong, The Unforgiving Eye: CCTV Surveillance in Public Spaces (University of Hull: Centre for Criminology, 1997). Norris, C. and G. Armstrong, The Maximum Surveyllance Society (Berg: Oxford, 1999). Norris, C., J. Morgan and G. Armstrong, eds., Surveillance, Closed Circuit Television and Social Control (Aldershot: Ashgate, 1998). Short, E. and J. Ditton, Does Closed Circuit Television Prevent Crime? An Evaluation of the Use of CCTV Surveillance Cameras in Airdrie Town Centre (Edinburgh: Scottish Office, Central Research Unit, 1996). Short, E. and J. Ditton, "Seen and Now Heard: Talking to the Targets of Open Street CCTV" British Journal of Criminology 1998 (38:3), 404-428.
9. Crang, M., "Watching the City: Video, Surveillance and Resistance", Environment and Planning A 1996 (28:12), 2099-2103. Davies, S.G., "The Case Against: CCTV Should Not be Introduced", International Journal of Risk, Security and Crime Prevention 1994 (1), 327-331. Ditton, J., Does Closed Circuit Television Prevent Crime? (Edinburgh: Scottish Centre for Criminology, 1996). Ditton, J., E. Short, S. Phillips, C. Morris and G. Armstrong, The Effect of Closed Circuit Television on Recorded Crime Rates and Public Concern About Crime in Glasgow (Edinburgh: Central Research Unit, The Scottish Office, 1999). Fyfe, N.R. and J. Bannister, "City watching: closed circuit television in public spaces", Area 1996 (28:1), 37-46. Fyfe, N.R. and J. Bannister, "'The Eyes Upon the Street' : Closed Circuit Television Surveillance and the City", in Fyfe N.R. (ed.), Images of the Street: Representation, Experience and Control in Public Space (London: Routledge, 1998). Graham, S., J. Brooks and D. Heery, "Towns on television: Closed circuit TV in British towns and cities," Local Government Studies 1996 (22:3), 1-27. Graham, S., "The Eyes Have It - CCTV as the 'Fifth Utility'," Town and Country Planning 1999 (68:10), 312-315. Graham, S., "The Eyes Have It: CCTV as the 'Fifth Utility'," Environment and Planning B: Planning and Design 1999 (26:5), 639-642. Groombridge, N. and K. Murji, Obscured by Cameras? CCTV and Policing (Criminal Justice Matters No. 17. Autumn. London: Institute of the Study and Treatment of Delinquency, 1994). Horne, C.J., "The Case For: CCTV Should be Introduced", International Journal of Risk, Security and Crime Prevention 1996 (1), 317-326. Norris, C. and G. Armstrong, The Unforgiving Eye: CCTV Surveillance in Public Spaces (University of Hull: Centre for Criminology, 1997). Norris, C. and G. Armstrong, The Maximum Surveyllance Society (Berg: Oxford, 1999). Norris, C., J. Morgan and G. Armstrong, eds., Surveillance, Closed Circuit Television and Social Control (Aldershot: Ashgate, 1998). Short, E. and J. Ditton, Does Closed Circuit Television Prevent Crime? An Evaluation of the Use of CCTV Surveillance Cameras in Airdrie Town Centre (Edinburgh: Scottish Office, Central Research Unit, 1996). Short, E. and J. Ditton, "Seen and Now Heard: Talking to the Targets of Open Street CCTV" British Journal of Criminology 1998 (38:3), 404-428.
10. Crang, M., "Watching the City: Video, Surveillance and Resistance", Environment and Planning A 1996 (28:12), 2099-2103. Davies, S.G., "The Case Against: CCTV Should Not be Introduced", International Journal of Risk, Security and Crime Prevention 1994 (1), 327-331. Ditton, J., Does Closed Circuit Television Prevent Crime? (Edinburgh: Scottish Centre for Criminology, 1996). Ditton, J., E. Short, S. Phillips, C. Morris and G. Armstrong, The Effect of Closed Circuit Television on Recorded Crime Rates and Public Concern About Crime in Glasgow (Edinburgh: Central Research Unit, The Scottish Office, 1999). Fyfe, N.R. and J. Bannister, "City watching: closed circuit television in public spaces", Area 1996 (28:1), 37-46. Fyfe, N.R. and J. Bannister, "'The Eyes Upon the Street' : Closed Circuit Television Surveillance and the City", in Fyfe N.R. (ed.), Images of the Street: Representation, Experience and Control in Public Space (London: Routledge, 1998). Graham, S., J. Brooks and D. Heery, "Towns on television: Closed circuit TV in British towns and cities," Local Government Studies 1996 (22:3), 1-27. Graham, S., "The Eyes Have It - CCTV as the 'Fifth Utility'," Town and Country Planning 1999 (68:10), 312-315. Graham, S., "The Eyes Have It: CCTV as the 'Fifth Utility'," Environment and Planning B: Planning and Design 1999 (26:5), 639-642. Groombridge, N. and K. Murji, Obscured by Cameras? CCTV and Policing (Criminal Justice Matters No. 17. Autumn. London: Institute of the Study and Treatment of Delinquency, 1994). Horne, C.J., "The Case For: CCTV Should be Introduced", International Journal of Risk, Security and Crime Prevention 1996 (1), 317-326. Norris, C. and G. Armstrong, The Unforgiving Eye: CCTV Surveillance in Public Spaces (University of Hull: Centre for Criminology, 1997). Norris, C. and G. Armstrong, The Maximum Surveyllance Society (Berg: Oxford, 1999). Norris, C., J. Morgan and G. Armstrong, eds., Surveillance, Closed Circuit Television and Social Control (Aldershot: Ashgate, 1998). Short, E. and J. Ditton, Does Closed Circuit Television Prevent Crime? An Evaluation of the Use of CCTV Surveillance Cameras in Airdrie Town Centre (Edinburgh: Scottish Office, Central Research Unit, 1996). Short, E. and J. Ditton, "Seen and Now Heard: Talking to the Targets of Open Street CCTV" British Journal of Criminology 1998 (38:3), 404-428.
11. Crang, M., "Watching the City: Video, Surveillance and Resistance", Environment and Planning A 1996 (28:12), 2099-2103. Davies, S.G., "The Case Against: CCTV Should Not be Introduced", International Journal of Risk, Security and Crime Prevention 1994 (1), 327-331. Ditton, J., Does Closed Circuit Television Prevent Crime? (Edinburgh: Scottish Centre for Criminology, 1996). Ditton, J., E. Short, S. Phillips, C. Morris and G. Armstrong, The Effect of Closed Circuit Television on Recorded Crime Rates and Public Concern About Crime in Glasgow (Edinburgh: Central Research Unit, The Scottish Office, 1999). Fyfe, N.R. and J. Bannister, "City watching: closed circuit television in public spaces", Area 1996 (28:1), 37-46. Fyfe, N.R. and J. Bannister, "'The Eyes Upon the Street' : Closed Circuit Television Surveillance and the City", in Fyfe N.R. (ed.), Images of the Street: Representation, Experience and Control in Public Space (London: Routledge, 1998). Graham, S., J. Brooks and D. Heery, "Towns on television: Closed circuit TV in British towns and cities," Local Government Studies 1996 (22:3), 1-27. Graham, S., "The Eyes Have It - CCTV as the 'Fifth Utility'," Town and Country Planning 1999 (68:10), 312-315. Graham, S., "The Eyes Have It: CCTV as the 'Fifth Utility'," Environment and Planning B: Planning and Design 1999 (26:5), 639-642. Groombridge, N. and K. Murji, Obscured by Cameras? CCTV and Policing (Criminal Justice Matters No. 17. Autumn. London: Institute of the Study and Treatment of Delinquency, 1994). Horne, C.J., "The Case For: CCTV Should be Introduced", International Journal of Risk, Security and Crime Prevention 1996 (1), 317-326. Norris, C. and G. Armstrong, The Unforgiving Eye: CCTV Surveillance in Public Spaces (University of Hull: Centre for Criminology, 1997). Norris, C. and G. Armstrong, The Maximum Surveyllance Society (Berg: Oxford, 1999). Norris, C., J. Morgan and G. Armstrong, eds., Surveillance, Closed Circuit Television and Social Control (Aldershot: Ashgate, 1998). Short, E. and J. Ditton, Does Closed Circuit Television Prevent Crime? An Evaluation of the Use of CCTV Surveillance Cameras in Airdrie Town Centre (Edinburgh: Scottish Office, Central Research Unit, 1996). Short, E. and J. Ditton, "Seen and Now Heard: Talking to the Targets of Open Street CCTV" British Journal of Criminology 1998 (38:3), 404-428.
12. Crang, M., "Watching the City: Video, Surveillance and Resistance", Environment and Planning A 1996 (28:12), 2099-2103. Davies, S.G., "The Case Against: CCTV Should Not be Introduced", International Journal of Risk, Security and Crime Prevention 1994 (1), 327-331. Ditton, J., Does Closed Circuit Television Prevent Crime? (Edinburgh: Scottish Centre for Criminology, 1996). Ditton, J., E. Short, S. Phillips, C. Morris and G. Armstrong, The Effect of Closed Circuit Television on Recorded Crime Rates and Public Concern About Crime in Glasgow (Edinburgh: Central Research Unit, The Scottish Office, 1999). Fyfe, N.R. and J. Bannister, "City watching: closed circuit television in public spaces", Area 1996 (28:1), 37-46. Fyfe, N.R. and J. Bannister, "'The Eyes Upon the Street' : Closed Circuit Television Surveillance and the City", in Fyfe N.R. (ed.), Images of the Street: Representation, Experience and Control in Public Space (London: Routledge, 1998). Graham, S., J. Brooks and D. Heery, "Towns on television: Closed circuit TV in British towns and cities," Local Government Studies 1996 (22:3), 1-27. Graham, S., "The Eyes Have It - CCTV as the 'Fifth Utility'," Town and Country Planning 1999 (68:10), 312-315. Graham, S., "The Eyes Have It: CCTV as the 'Fifth Utility'," Environment and Planning B: Planning and Design 1999 (26:5), 639-642. Groombridge, N. and K. Murji, Obscured by Cameras? CCTV and Policing (Criminal Justice Matters No. 17. Autumn. London: Institute of the Study and Treatment of Delinquency, 1994). Horne, C.J., "The Case For: CCTV Should be Introduced", International Journal of Risk, Security and Crime Prevention 1996 (1), 317-326. Norris, C. and G. Armstrong, The Unforgiving Eye: CCTV Surveillance in Public Spaces (University of Hull: Centre for Criminology, 1997). Norris, C. and G. Armstrong, The Maximum Surveyllance Society (Berg: Oxford, 1999). Norris, C., J. Morgan and G. Armstrong, eds., Surveillance, Closed Circuit Television and Social Control (Aldershot: Ashgate, 1998). Short, E. and J. Ditton, Does Closed Circuit Television Prevent Crime? An Evaluation of the Use of CCTV Surveillance Cameras in Airdrie Town Centre (Edinburgh: Scottish Office, Central Research Unit, 1996). Short, E. and J. Ditton, "Seen and Now Heard: Talking to the Targets of Open Street CCTV" British Journal of Criminology 1998 (38:3), 404-428.
13. Crang, M., "Watching the City: Video, Surveillance and Resistance", Environment and Planning A 1996 (28:12), 2099-2103. Davies, S.G., "The Case Against: CCTV Should Not be Introduced", International Journal of Risk, Security and Crime Prevention 1994 (1), 327-331. Ditton, J., Does Closed Circuit Television Prevent Crime? (Edinburgh: Scottish Centre for Criminology, 1996). Ditton, J., E. Short, S. Phillips, C. Morris and G. Armstrong, The Effect of Closed Circuit Television on Recorded Crime Rates and Public Concern About Crime in Glasgow (Edinburgh: Central Research Unit, The Scottish Office, 1999). Fyfe, N.R. and J. Bannister, "City watching: closed circuit television in public spaces", Area 1996 (28:1), 37-46. Fyfe, N.R. and J. Bannister, "'The Eyes Upon the Street' : Closed Circuit Television Surveillance and the City", in Fyfe N.R. (ed.), Images of the Street: Representation, Experience and Control in Public Space (London: Routledge, 1998). Graham, S., J. Brooks and D. Heery, "Towns on television: Closed circuit TV in British towns and cities," Local Government Studies 1996 (22:3), 1-27. Graham, S., "The Eyes Have It - CCTV as the 'Fifth Utility'," Town and Country Planning 1999 (68:10), 312-315. Graham, S., "The Eyes Have It: CCTV as the 'Fifth Utility'," Environment and Planning B: Planning and Design 1999 (26:5), 639-642. Groombridge, N. and K. Murji, Obscured by Cameras? CCTV and Policing (Criminal Justice Matters No. 17. Autumn. London: Institute of the Study and Treatment of Delinquency, 1994). Horne, C.J., "The Case For: CCTV Should be Introduced", International Journal of Risk, Security and Crime Prevention 1996 (1), 317-326. Norris, C. and G. Armstrong, The Unforgiving Eye: CCTV Surveillance in Public Spaces (University of Hull: Centre for Criminology, 1997). Norris, C. and G. Armstrong, The Maximum Surveyllance Society (Berg: Oxford, 1999). Norris, C., J. Morgan and G. Armstrong, eds., Surveillance, Closed Circuit Television and Social Control (Aldershot: Ashgate, 1998). Short, E. and J. Ditton, Does Closed Circuit Television Prevent Crime? An Evaluation of the Use of CCTV Surveillance Cameras in Airdrie Town Centre (Edinburgh: Scottish Office, Central Research Unit, 1996). Short, E. and J. Ditton, "Seen and Now Heard: Talking to the Targets of Open Street CCTV" British Journal of Criminology 1998 (38:3), 404-428.
14. Crang, M., "Watching the City: Video, Surveillance and Resistance", Environment and Planning A 1996 (28:12), 2099-2103. Davies, S.G., "The Case Against: CCTV Should Not be Introduced", International Journal of Risk, Security and Crime Prevention 1994 (1), 327-331. Ditton, J., Does Closed Circuit Television Prevent Crime? (Edinburgh: Scottish Centre for Criminology, 1996). Ditton, J., E. Short, S. Phillips, C. Morris and G. Armstrong, The Effect of Closed Circuit Television on Recorded Crime Rates and Public Concern About Crime in Glasgow (Edinburgh: Central Research Unit, The Scottish Office, 1999). Fyfe, N.R. and J. Bannister, "City watching: closed circuit television in public spaces", Area 1996 (28:1), 37-46. Fyfe, N.R. and J. Bannister, "'The Eyes Upon the Street' : Closed Circuit Television Surveillance and the City", in Fyfe N.R. (ed.), Images of the Street: Representation, Experience and Control in Public Space (London: Routledge, 1998). Graham, S., J. Brooks and D. Heery, "Towns on television: Closed circuit TV in British towns and cities," Local Government Studies 1996 (22:3), 1-27. Graham, S., "The Eyes Have It - CCTV as the 'Fifth Utility'," Town and Country Planning 1999 (68:10), 312-315. Graham, S., "The Eyes Have It: CCTV as the 'Fifth Utility'," Environment and Planning B: Planning and Design 1999 (26:5), 639-642. Groombridge, N. and K. Murji, Obscured by Cameras? CCTV and Policing (Criminal Justice Matters No. 17. Autumn. London: Institute of the Study and Treatment of Delinquency, 1994). Horne, C.J., "The Case For: CCTV Should be Introduced", International Journal of Risk, Security and Crime Prevention 1996 (1), 317-326. Norris, C. and G. Armstrong, The Unforgiving Eye: CCTV Surveillance in Public Spaces (University of Hull: Centre for Criminology, 1997). Norris, C. and G. Armstrong, The Maximum Surveyllance Society (Berg: Oxford, 1999). Norris, C., J. Morgan and G. Armstrong, eds., Surveillance, Closed Circuit Television and Social Control (Aldershot: Ashgate, 1998). Short, E. and J. Ditton, Does Closed Circuit Television Prevent Crime? An Evaluation of the Use of CCTV Surveillance Cameras in Airdrie Town Centre (Edinburgh: Scottish Office, Central Research Unit, 1996). Short, E. and J. Ditton, "Seen and Now Heard: Talking to the Targets of Open Street CCTV" British Journal of Criminology 1998 (38:3), 404-428.
15. Crang, M., "Watching the City: Video, Surveillance and Resistance", Environment and Planning A 1996 (28:12), 2099-2103. Davies, S.G., "The Case Against: CCTV Should Not be Introduced", International Journal of Risk, Security and Crime Prevention 1994 (1), 327-331. Ditton, J., Does Closed Circuit Television Prevent Crime? (Edinburgh: Scottish Centre for Criminology, 1996). Ditton, J., E. Short, S. Phillips, C. Morris and G. Armstrong, The Effect of Closed Circuit Television on Recorded Crime Rates and Public Concern About Crime in Glasgow (Edinburgh: Central Research Unit, The Scottish Office, 1999). Fyfe, N.R. and J. Bannister, "City watching: closed circuit television in public spaces", Area 1996 (28:1), 37-46. Fyfe, N.R. and J. Bannister, "'The Eyes Upon the Street' : Closed Circuit Television Surveillance and the City", in Fyfe N.R. (ed.), Images of the Street: Representation, Experience and Control in Public Space (London: Routledge, 1998). Graham, S., J. Brooks and D. Heery, "Towns on television: Closed circuit TV in British towns and cities," Local Government Studies 1996 (22:3), 1-27. Graham, S., "The Eyes Have It - CCTV as the 'Fifth Utility'," Town and Country Planning 1999 (68:10), 312-315. Graham, S., "The Eyes Have It: CCTV as the 'Fifth Utility'," Environment and Planning B: Planning and Design 1999 (26:5), 639-642. Groombridge, N. and K. Murji, Obscured by Cameras? CCTV and Policing (Criminal Justice Matters No. 17. Autumn. London: Institute of the Study and Treatment of Delinquency, 1994). Horne, C.J., "The Case For: CCTV Should be Introduced", International Journal of Risk, Security and Crime Prevention 1996 (1), 317-326. Norris, C. and G. Armstrong, The Unforgiving Eye: CCTV Surveillance in Public Spaces (University of Hull: Centre for Criminology, 1997). Norris, C. and G. Armstrong, The Maximum Surveyllance Society (Berg: Oxford, 1999). Norris, C., J. Morgan and G. Armstrong, eds., Surveillance, Closed Circuit Television and Social Control (Aldershot: Ashgate, 1998). Short, E. and J. Ditton, Does Closed Circuit Television Prevent Crime? An Evaluation of the Use of CCTV Surveillance Cameras in Airdrie Town Centre (Edinburgh: Scottish Office, Central Research Unit, 1996). Short, E. and J. Ditton, "Seen and Now Heard: Talking to the Targets of Open Street CCTV" British Journal of Criminology 1998 (38:3), 404-428.
16. Crang, M., "Watching the City: Video, Surveillance and Resistance", Environment and Planning A 1996 (28:12), 2099-2103. Davies, S.G., "The Case Against: CCTV Should Not be Introduced", International Journal of Risk, Security and Crime Prevention 1994 (1), 327-331. Ditton, J., Does Closed Circuit Television Prevent Crime? (Edinburgh: Scottish Centre for Criminology, 1996). Ditton, J., E. Short, S. Phillips, C. Morris and G. Armstrong, The Effect of Closed Circuit Television on Recorded Crime Rates and Public Concern About Crime in Glasgow (Edinburgh: Central Research Unit, The Scottish Office, 1999). Fyfe, N.R. and J. Bannister, "City watching: closed circuit television in public spaces", Area 1996 (28:1), 37-46. Fyfe, N.R. and J. Bannister, "'The Eyes Upon the Street' : Closed Circuit Television Surveillance and the City", in Fyfe N.R. (ed.), Images of the Street: Representation, Experience and Control in Public Space (London: Routledge, 1998). Graham, S., J. Brooks and D. Heery, "Towns on television: Closed circuit TV in British towns and cities," Local Government Studies 1996 (22:3), 1-27. Graham, S., "The Eyes Have It - CCTV as the 'Fifth Utility'," Town and Country Planning 1999 (68:10), 312-315. Graham, S., "The Eyes Have It: CCTV as the 'Fifth Utility'," Environment and Planning B: Planning and Design 1999 (26:5), 639-642. Groombridge, N. and K. Murji, Obscured by Cameras? CCTV and Policing (Criminal Justice Matters No. 17. Autumn. London: Institute of the Study and Treatment of Delinquency, 1994). Horne, C.J., "The Case For: CCTV Should be Introduced", International Journal of Risk, Security and Crime Prevention 1996 (1), 317-326. Norris, C. and G. Armstrong, The Unforgiving Eye: CCTV Surveillance in Public Spaces (University of Hull: Centre for Criminology, 1997). Norris, C. and G. Armstrong, The Maximum Surveyllance Society (Berg: Oxford, 1999). Norris, C., J. Morgan and G. Armstrong, eds., Surveillance, Closed Circuit Television and Social Control (Aldershot: Ashgate, 1998). Short, E. and J. Ditton, Does Closed Circuit Television Prevent Crime? An Evaluation of the Use of CCTV Surveillance Cameras in Airdrie Town Centre (Edinburgh: Scottish Office, Central Research Unit, 1996). Short, E. and J. Ditton, "Seen and Now Heard: Talking to the Targets of Open Street CCTV" British Journal of Criminology 1998 (38:3), 404-428.
17. Crang, M., "Watching the City: Video, Surveillance and Resistance", Environment and Planning A 1996 (28:12), 2099-2103. Davies, S.G., "The Case Against: CCTV Should Not be Introduced", International Journal of Risk, Security and Crime Prevention 1994 (1), 327-331. Ditton, J., Does Closed Circuit Television Prevent Crime? (Edinburgh: Scottish Centre for Criminology, 1996). Ditton, J., E. Short, S. Phillips, C. Morris and G. Armstrong, The Effect of Closed Circuit Television on Recorded Crime Rates and Public Concern About Crime in Glasgow (Edinburgh: Central Research Unit, The Scottish Office, 1999). Fyfe, N.R. and J. Bannister, "City watching: closed circuit television in public spaces", Area 1996 (28:1), 37-46. Fyfe, N.R. and J. Bannister, "'The Eyes Upon the Street' : Closed Circuit Television Surveillance and the City", in Fyfe N.R. (ed.), Images of the Street: Representation, Experience and Control in Public Space (London: Routledge, 1998). Graham, S., J. Brooks and D. Heery, "Towns on television: Closed circuit TV in British towns and cities," Local Government Studies 1996 (22:3), 1-27. Graham, S., "The Eyes Have It - CCTV as the 'Fifth Utility'," Town and Country Planning 1999 (68:10), 312-315. Graham, S., "The Eyes Have It: CCTV as the 'Fifth Utility'," Environment and Planning B: Planning and Design 1999 (26:5), 639-642. Groombridge, N. and K. Murji, Obscured by Cameras? CCTV and Policing (Criminal Justice Matters No. 17. Autumn. London: Institute of the Study and Treatment of Delinquency, 1994). Horne, C.J., "The Case For: CCTV Should be Introduced", International Journal of Risk, Security and Crime Prevention 1996 (1), 317-326. Norris, C. and G. Armstrong, The Unforgiving Eye: CCTV Surveillance in Public Spaces (University of Hull: Centre for Criminology, 1997). Norris, C. and G. Armstrong, The Maximum Surveyllance Society (Berg: Oxford, 1999). Norris, C., J. Morgan and G. Armstrong, eds., Surveillance, Closed Circuit Television and Social Control (Aldershot: Ashgate, 1998). Short, E. and J. Ditton, Does Closed Circuit Television Prevent Crime? An Evaluation of the Use of CCTV Surveillance Cameras in Airdrie Town Centre (Edinburgh: Scottish Office, Central Research Unit, 1996). Short, E. and J. Ditton, "Seen and Now Heard: Talking to the Targets of Open Street CCTV" British Journal of Criminology 1998 (38:3), 404-428.
18. Crang, M., "Watching the City: Video, Surveillance and Resistance", Environment and Planning A 1996 (28:12), 2099-2103. Davies, S.G., "The Case Against: CCTV Should Not be Introduced", International Journal of Risk, Security and Crime Prevention 1994 (1), 327-331. Ditton, J., Does Closed Circuit Television Prevent Crime? (Edinburgh: Scottish Centre for Criminology, 1996). Ditton, J., E. Short, S. Phillips, C. Morris and G. Armstrong, The Effect of Closed Circuit Television on Recorded Crime Rates and Public Concern About Crime in Glasgow (Edinburgh: Central Research Unit, The Scottish Office, 1999). Fyfe, N.R. and J. Bannister, "City watching: closed circuit television in public spaces", Area 1996 (28:1), 37-46. Fyfe, N.R. and J. Bannister, "'The Eyes Upon the Street' : Closed Circuit Television Surveillance and the City", in Fyfe N.R. (ed.), Images of the Street: Representation, Experience and Control in Public Space (London: Routledge, 1998). Graham, S., J. Brooks and D. Heery, "Towns on television: Closed circuit TV in British towns and cities," Local Government Studies 1996 (22:3), 1-27. Graham, S., "The Eyes Have It - CCTV as the 'Fifth Utility'," Town and Country Planning 1999 (68:10), 312-315. Graham, S., "The Eyes Have It: CCTV as the 'Fifth Utility'," Environment and Planning B: Planning and Design 1999 (26:5), 639-642. Groombridge, N. and K. Murji, Obscured by Cameras? CCTV and Policing (Criminal Justice Matters No. 17. Autumn. London: Institute of the Study and Treatment of Delinquency, 1994). Horne, C.J., "The Case For: CCTV Should be Introduced", International Journal of Risk, Security and Crime Prevention 1996 (1), 317-326. Norris, C. and G. Armstrong, The Unforgiving Eye: CCTV Surveillance in Public Spaces (University of Hull: Centre for Criminology, 1997). Norris, C. and G. Armstrong, The Maximum Surveyllance Society (Berg: Oxford, 1999). Norris, C., J. Morgan and G. Armstrong, eds., Surveillance, Closed Circuit Television and Social Control (Aldershot: Ashgate, 1998). Short, E. and J. Ditton, Does Closed Circuit Television Prevent Crime? An Evaluation of the Use of CCTV Surveillance Cameras in Airdrie Town Centre (Edinburgh: Scottish Office, Central Research Unit, 1996). Short, E. and J. Ditton, "Seen and Now Heard: Talking to the Targets of Open Street CCTV" British Journal of Criminology 1998 (38:3), 404-428.
19. Crang, M., "Watching the City: Video, Surveillance and Resistance", Environment and Planning A 1996 (28:12), 2099-2103. Davies, S.G., "The Case Against: CCTV Should Not be Introduced", International Journal of Risk, Security and Crime Prevention 1994 (1), 327-331. Ditton, J., Does Closed Circuit Television Prevent Crime? (Edinburgh: Scottish Centre for Criminology, 1996). Ditton, J., E. Short, S. Phillips, C. Morris and G. Armstrong, The Effect of Closed Circuit Television on Recorded Crime Rates and Public Concern About Crime in Glasgow (Edinburgh: Central Research Unit, The Scottish Office, 1999). Fyfe, N.R. and J. Bannister, "City watching: closed circuit television in public spaces", Area 1996 (28:1), 37-46. Fyfe, N.R. and J. Bannister, "'The Eyes Upon the Street' : Closed Circuit Television Surveillance and the City", in Fyfe N.R. (ed.), Images of the Street: Representation, Experience and Control in Public Space (London: Routledge, 1998). Graham, S., J. Brooks and D. Heery, "Towns on television: Closed circuit TV in British towns and cities," Local Government Studies 1996 (22:3), 1-27. Graham, S., "The Eyes Have It - CCTV as the 'Fifth Utility'," Town and Country Planning 1999 (68:10), 312-315. Graham, S., "The Eyes Have It: CCTV as the 'Fifth Utility'," Environment and Planning B: Planning and Design 1999 (26:5), 639-642. Groombridge, N. and K. Murji, Obscured by Cameras? CCTV and Policing (Criminal Justice Matters No. 17. Autumn. London: Institute of the Study and Treatment of Delinquency, 1994). Horne, C.J., "The Case For: CCTV Should be Introduced", International Journal of Risk, Security and Crime Prevention 1996 (1), 317-326. Norris, C. and G. Armstrong, The Unforgiving Eye: CCTV Surveillance in Public Spaces (University of Hull: Centre for Criminology, 1997). Norris, C. and G. Armstrong, The Maximum Surveyllance Society (Berg: Oxford, 1999). Norris, C., J. Morgan and G. Armstrong, eds., Surveillance, Closed Circuit Television and Social Control (Aldershot: Ashgate, 1998). Short, E. and J. Ditton, Does Closed Circuit Television Prevent Crime? An Evaluation of the Use of CCTV Surveillance Cameras in Airdrie Town Centre (Edinburgh: Scottish Office, Central Research Unit, 1996). Short, E. and J. Ditton, "Seen and Now Heard: Talking to the Targets of Open Street CCTV" British Journal of Criminology 1998 (38:3), 404-428.
20. Crang, M., "Watching the City: Video, Surveillance and Resistance", Environment and Planning A 1996 (28:12), 2099-2103. Davies, S.G., "The Case Against: CCTV Should Not be Introduced", International Journal of Risk, Security and Crime Prevention 1994 (1), 327-331. Ditton, J., Does Closed Circuit Television Prevent Crime? (Edinburgh: Scottish Centre for Criminology, 1996). Ditton, J., E. Short, S. Phillips, C. Morris and G. Armstrong, The Effect of Closed Circuit Television on Recorded Crime Rates and Public Concern About Crime in Glasgow (Edinburgh: Central Research Unit, The Scottish Office, 1999). Fyfe, N.R. and J. Bannister, "City watching: closed circuit television in public spaces", Area 1996 (28:1), 37-46. Fyfe, N.R. and J. Bannister, "'The Eyes Upon the Street' : Closed Circuit Television Surveillance and the City", in Fyfe N.R. (ed.), Images of the Street: Representation, Experience and Control in Public Space (London: Routledge, 1998). Graham, S., J. Brooks and D. Heery, "Towns on television: Closed circuit TV in British towns and cities," Local Government Studies 1996 (22:3), 1-27. Graham, S., "The Eyes Have It - CCTV as the 'Fifth Utility'," Town and Country Planning 1999 (68:10), 312-315. Graham, S., "The Eyes Have It: CCTV as the 'Fifth Utility'," Environment and Planning B: Planning and Design 1999 (26:5), 639-642. Groombridge, N. and K. Murji, Obscured by Cameras? CCTV and Policing (Criminal Justice Matters No. 17. Autumn. London: Institute of the Study and Treatment of Delinquency, 1994). Horne, C.J., "The Case For: CCTV Should be Introduced", International Journal of Risk, Security and Crime Prevention 1996 (1), 317-326. Norris, C. and G. Armstrong, The Unforgiving Eye: CCTV Surveillance in Public Spaces (University of Hull: Centre for Criminology, 1997). Norris, C. and G. Armstrong, The Maximum Surveyllance Society (Berg: Oxford, 1999). Norris, C., J. Morgan and G. Armstrong, eds., Surveillance, Closed Circuit Television and Social Control (Aldershot: Ashgate, 1998). Short, E. and J. Ditton, Does Closed Circuit Television Prevent Crime? An Evaluation of the Use of CCTV Surveillance Cameras in Airdrie Town Centre (Edinburgh: Scottish Office, Central Research Unit, 1996). Short, E. and J. Ditton, "Seen and Now Heard: Talking to the Targets of Open Street CCTV" British Journal of Criminology 1998 (38:3), 404-428.
21. Crang, M., "Watching the City: Video, Surveillance and Resistance", Environment and Planning A 1996 (28:12), 2099-2103. Davies, S.G., "The Case Against: CCTV Should Not be Introduced", International Journal of Risk, Security and Crime Prevention 1994 (1), 327-331. Ditton, J., Does Closed Circuit Television Prevent Crime? (Edinburgh: Scottish Centre for Criminology, 1996). Ditton, J., E. Short, S. Phillips, C. Morris and G. Armstrong, The Effect of Closed Circuit Television on Recorded Crime Rates and Public Concern About Crime in Glasgow (Edinburgh: Central Research Unit, The Scottish Office, 1999). Fyfe, N.R. and J. Bannister, "City watching: closed circuit television in public spaces", Area 1996 (28:1), 37-46. Fyfe, N.R. and J. Bannister, "'The Eyes Upon the Street' : Closed Circuit Television Surveillance and the City", in Fyfe N.R. (ed.), Images of the Street: Representation, Experience and Control in Public Space (London: Routledge, 1998). Graham, S., J. Brooks and D. Heery, "Towns on television: Closed circuit TV in British towns and cities," Local Government Studies 1996 (22:3), 1-27. Graham, S., "The Eyes Have It - CCTV as the 'Fifth Utility'," Town and Country Planning 1999 (68:10), 312-315. Graham, S., "The Eyes Have It: CCTV as the 'Fifth Utility'," Environment and Planning B: Planning and Design 1999 (26:5), 639-642. Groombridge, N. and K. Murji, Obscured by Cameras? CCTV and Policing (Criminal Justice Matters No. 17. Autumn. London: Institute of the Study and Treatment of Delinquency, 1994). Horne, C.J., "The Case For: CCTV Should be Introduced", International Journal of Risk, Security and Crime Prevention 1996 (1), 317-326. Norris, C. and G. Armstrong, The Unforgiving Eye: CCTV Surveillance in Public Spaces (University of Hull: Centre for Criminology, 1997). Norris, C. and G. Armstrong, The Maximum Surveyllance Society (Berg: Oxford, 1999). Norris, C., J. Morgan and G. Armstrong, eds., Surveillance, Closed Circuit Television and Social Control (Aldershot: Ashgate, 1998). Short, E. and J. Ditton, Does Closed Circuit Television Prevent Crime? An Evaluation of the Use of CCTV Surveillance Cameras in Airdrie Town Centre (Edinburgh: Scottish Office, Central Research Unit, 1996). Short, E. and J. Ditton, "Seen and Now Heard: Talking to the Targets of Open Street CCTV" British Journal of Criminology 1998 (38:3), 404-428.
22. Crang, M., "Watching the City: Video, Surveillance and Resistance", Environment and Planning A 1996 (28:12), 2099-2103. Davies, S.G., "The Case Against: CCTV Should Not be Introduced", International Journal of Risk, Security and Crime Prevention 1994 (1), 327-331. Ditton, J., Does Closed Circuit Television Prevent Crime? (Edinburgh: Scottish Centre for Criminology, 1996). Ditton, J., E. Short, S. Phillips, C. Morris and G. Armstrong, The Effect of Closed Circuit Television on Recorded Crime Rates and Public Concern About Crime in Glasgow (Edinburgh: Central Research Unit, The Scottish Office, 1999). Fyfe, N.R. and J. Bannister, "City watching: closed circuit television in public spaces", Area 1996 (28:1), 37-46. Fyfe, N.R. and J. Bannister, "'The Eyes Upon the Street' : Closed Circuit Television Surveillance and the City", in Fyfe N.R. (ed.), Images of the Street: Representation, Experience and Control in Public Space (London: Routledge, 1998). Graham, S., J. Brooks and D. Heery, "Towns on television: Closed circuit TV in British towns and cities," Local Government Studies 1996 (22:3), 1-27. Graham, S., "The Eyes Have It - CCTV as the 'Fifth Utility'," Town and Country Planning 1999 (68:10), 312-315. Graham, S., "The Eyes Have It: CCTV as the 'Fifth Utility'," Environment and Planning B: Planning and Design 1999 (26:5), 639-642. Groombridge, N. and K. Murji, Obscured by Cameras? CCTV and Policing (Criminal Justice Matters No. 17. Autumn. London: Institute of the Study and Treatment of Delinquency, 1994). Horne, C.J., "The Case For: CCTV Should be Introduced", International Journal of Risk, Security and Crime Prevention 1996 (1), 317-326. Norris, C. and G. Armstrong, The Unforgiving Eye: CCTV Surveillance in Public Spaces (University of Hull: Centre for Criminology, 1997). Norris, C. and G. Armstrong, The Maximum Surveyllance Society (Berg: Oxford, 1999). Norris, C., J. Morgan and G. Armstrong, eds., Surveillance, Closed Circuit Television and Social Control (Aldershot: Ashgate, 1998). Short, E. and J. Ditton, Does Closed Circuit Television Prevent Crime? An Evaluation of the Use of CCTV Surveillance Cameras in Airdrie Town Centre (Edinburgh: Scottish Office, Central Research Unit, 1996). Short, E. and J. Ditton, "Seen and Now Heard: Talking to the Targets of Open Street CCTV" British Journal of Criminology 1998 (38:3), 404-428.
23. Koch, B., The Politics of Crime Prevention (Aldershot: Ashgate, 1998).
24. Brown, B. 1995, supra. Durham, P. 1994, supra. Horne, C.J. 1996, supra. Poyner, B., "Video Cameras and Bus Vandalism", Security Administration 1988 (11), 45-51. Reproduced in R.V. Clarke (ed.), Situational Crime Prevention: Successful Case Studies (New York: Harrow and Heston). Short, E. and J. Ditton, 1996, supra. Tilley, N. 1993, supra.
25. Brown, B. 1995, supra. Durham, P. 1994, supra. Horne, C.J. 1996, supra. Poyner, B., "Video Cameras and Bus Vandalism", Security Administration 1988 (11), 45-51. Reproduced in R.V. Clarke (ed.), Situational Crime Prevention: Successful Case Studies (New York: Harrow and Heston). Short, E. and J. Ditton, 1996, supra. Tilley, N. 1993, supra.
26. Brown, B. 1995, supra. Durham, P. 1994, supra. Horne, C.J. 1996, supra. Poyner, B., "Video Cameras and Bus Vandalism", Security Administration 1988 (11), 45-51. Reproduced in R.V. Clarke (ed.), Situational Crime Prevention: Successful Case Studies (New York: Harrow and Heston). Short, E. and J. Ditton, 1996, supra. Tilley, N. 1993, supra.
27. Brown, B. 1995, supra. Durham, P. 1994, supra. Horne, C.J. 1996, supra. Poyner, B., "Video Cameras and Bus Vandalism", Security Administration 1988 (11), 45-51. Reproduced in R.V. Clarke (ed.), Situational Crime Prevention: Successful Case Studies (New York: Harrow and Heston). Short, E. and J. Ditton, 1996, supra. Tilley, N. 1993, supra.
28. Brown, B. 1995, supra. Durham, P. 1994, supra. Horne, C.J. 1996, supra. Poyner, B., "Video Cameras and Bus Vandalism", Security Administration 1988 (11), 45-51. Reproduced in R.V. Clarke (ed.), Situational Crime Prevention: Successful Case Studies (New York: Harrow and Heston). Short, E. and J. Ditton, 1996, supra. Tilley, N. 1993, supra.
29. Brown, B. 1995, supra. Durham, P. 1994, supra. Horne, C.J. 1996, supra. Poyner, B., "Video Cameras and Bus Vandalism", Security Administration 1988 (11), 45-51. Reproduced in R.V. Clarke (ed.), Situational Crime Prevention: Successful Case Studies (New York: Harrow and Heston). Short, E. and J. Ditton, 1996, supra. Tilley, N. 1993, supra.
30. Brown, B. 1995, supra. Durham, P. 1994, supra. Horne, C.J. 1996, supra. Poyner, B., "Video Cameras and Bus Vandalism", Security Administration 1988 (11), 45-51. Reproduced in R.V. Clarke (ed.), Situational Crime Prevention: Successful Case Studies (New York: Harrow and Heston). Short, E. and J. Ditton, 1996, supra. Tilley, N. 1993, supra.
31. Ditton et al., 1999, supra.
32. Davies, S.G., Big Brother: Britain's Web of Surveillance and the new Technological Order (London: Pan Books, 1996) at 176.
33. Home Office 1994, supra, at 12.
34. Home Office, Crime Reduction Programme: CCT/Initiative (London: Home Office and Welsh Office, 1999) at 3.
35. McMullan, J., "Social Surveillance and the Rise of the 'Police Machine' ", Theoretical Criminology 1998 (2:1), 93-117.
36. Jacobs, J., The Death and Life of Great American Cities (London: Jonathan Cape, 1961).
37. Ibid. at 45.
38. Orwell, G., Nineteen Eighty-Four (London, Secker and Warburg, 1949). Foucault, M., Discipline and Punish: The Birth of the Prison (London, Allen Lane, 1977) at 200.
39. Orwell, G., Nineteen Eighty-Four (London, Secker and Warburg, 1949). Foucault, M., Discipline and Punish: The Birth of the Prison (London, Allen Lane, 1977) at 200.
40. Foucault, 1977, supra, at 201.
41. Davis, M., City of Quartz: Excavating the Future in Los Angeles (London: Verso, 1990). Davis, M., "Fortress Los Angeles: The Militarization of Urban Space", in M. Sorkin (ed.), Variations on a Theme Park (New York: Noonday Press, 1992).
42. Davis, M., City of Quartz: Excavating the Future in Los Angeles (London: Verso, 1990). Davis, M., "Fortress Los Angeles: The Militarization of Urban Space", in M. Sorkin (ed.), Variations on a Theme Park (New York: Noonday Press, 1992).
43. Davis, M., 1992, supra, at 169.
44. Goss, J., "The Magic of the Mall", Annuals of the Association of American Geographers 1993 (83:1), 18-47 at 27.
45. Fyfe and Bannister, 1998, Supra. at 256 and 265.
46. Crang, M., "Watching the City: Video, Surveillance and Resistance", Environment and Planning A 1996 (28:12), 2099-2103 at 2102.
47. Christopherson, S., "The Fortress City: Privatized Spaces, Consumer Citizenship", in A. Amin (ed.), Post-Fordism: A Reader (Oxford, Blackwell, 1994) at 421.
48. Norris and Armstrong, 1997 and 1999, supra.
49. Norris and Armstrong 1997, supra.
50. See also Fiske, J., "Surveilling the city", Theory, Culture and Society 1998 (15:2), 67-88.
51. Bannister, J., N. Fyfe and A. Kearns, "Closed Circuit Television and the City", in C. Norris, J. Morgan and G. Armstrong (eds.), Surveillance, Closed Circuit Television and Social Control (Aldershot: Ashgate, 1998). Jackson, P., "Domesticating the Street: The Contested Spaces of the High Street and the Mall", in N. Fyfe (ed.), Images of the Street: Planning, Identity and Control in Public Space (London: Routledge, 1998). Judd, D., "The Rise of the New Walled Cities", in H. Liggett and D. Perry (eds.), Spatial Practices (London: Sage, 1995). Norris, C. and G. Armstrong, 1997, supra. Norris, C. and G. Armstrong, 1999, supra.
52. Bannister, J., N. Fyfe and A. Kearns, "Closed Circuit Television and the City", in C. Norris, J. Morgan and G. Armstrong (eds.), Surveillance, Closed Circuit Television and Social Control (Aldershot: Ashgate, 1998). Jackson, P., "Domesticating the Street: The Contested Spaces of the High Street and the Mall", in N. Fyfe (ed.), Images of the Street: Planning, Identity and Control in Public Space (London: Routledge, 1998). Judd, D., "The Rise of the New Walled Cities", in H. Liggett and D. Perry (eds.), Spatial Practices (London: Sage, 1995). Norris, C. and G. Armstrong, 1997, supra. Norris, C. and G. Armstrong, 1999, supra.
53. Bannister, J., N. Fyfe and A. Kearns, "Closed Circuit Television and the City", in C. Norris, J. Morgan and G. Armstrong (eds.), Surveillance, Closed Circuit Television and Social Control (Aldershot: Ashgate, 1998). Jackson, P., "Domesticating the Street: The Contested Spaces of the High Street and the Mall", in N. Fyfe (ed.), Images of the Street: Planning, Identity and Control in Public Space (London: Routledge, 1998). Judd, D., "The Rise of the New Walled Cities", in H. Liggett and D. Perry (eds.), Spatial Practices (London: Sage, 1995). Norris, C. and G. Armstrong, 1997, supra. Norris, C. and G. Armstrong, 1999, supra.
54. Bannister, J., N. Fyfe and A. Kearns, "Closed Circuit Television and the City", in C. Norris, J. Morgan and G. Armstrong (eds.), Surveillance, Closed Circuit Television and Social Control (Aldershot: Ashgate, 1998). Jackson, P., "Domesticating the Street: The Contested Spaces of the High Street and the Mall", in N. Fyfe (ed.), Images of the Street: Planning, Identity and Control in Public Space (London: Routledge, 1998). Judd, D., "The Rise of the New Walled Cities", in H. Liggett and D. Perry (eds.), Spatial Practices (London: Sage, 1995). Norris, C. and G. Armstrong, 1997, supra. Norris, C. and G. Armstrong, 1999, supra.
55. Bannister, J., N. Fyfe and A. Kearns, "Closed Circuit Television and the City", in C. Norris, J. Morgan and G. Armstrong (eds.), Surveillance, Closed Circuit Television and Social Control (Aldershot: Ashgate, 1998). Jackson, P., "Domesticating the Street: The Contested Spaces of the High Street and the Mall", in N. Fyfe (ed.), Images of the Street: Planning, Identity and Control in Public Space (London: Routledge, 1998). Judd, D., "The Rise of the New Walled Cities", in H. Liggett and D. Perry (eds.), Spatial Practices (London: Sage, 1995). Norris, C. and G. Armstrong, 1997, supra. Norris, C. and G. Armstrong, 1999, supra.
56. Home Office 1994, supra at 12, and Home Office, 1999, supra at 3.
57. Home Office 1994, supra at 12, and Home Office, 1999, supra at 3.
58. Fyfe and Bannister 1996, supra at 10-11.
59. Cambrian News 7 October 1999.
60. Williams, K.S., M. Goodwin and C. Johnstone, "Closed Circuit Television (CCTV) Surveillance in Urban Britain: Beyond the Rhetoric of Crime Prevention", in J.R. Gold and G. Revile (eds.), Landscapes of Defence. Forthcoming. (London: Longman, 2000). See also Graham, S., J. Brooks and D. Heery, "Towns on Television: Closed Circuit TV in British Towns and Cities," Local Government Studies 1996 (22:3), 1-27. Norris, C. and G. Armstrong, 1997, supra. Norris, C. and G. Armstrong, "Introduction: Power and Vision", in C. Norris, J. Morgan and G. Armstrong (eds.), Surveillance, Closed Circuit Television and Social Control (Aldershot: Ashgate, 1998). Bannister, J., N. Fyfe and A. Kearns, "Closed Circuit Television and the City", in C. Norris, J. Morgan and G. Armstrong (eds.), Surveillance, Closed Circuit Television and Social Control (Aldershot: Ashgate, 1998).
61. Williams, K.S., M. Goodwin and C. Johnstone, "Closed Circuit Television (CCTV) Surveillance in Urban Britain: Beyond the Rhetoric of Crime Prevention", in J.R. Gold and G. Revile (eds.), Landscapes of Defence. Forthcoming. (London: Longman, 2000). See also Graham, S., J. Brooks and D. Heery, "Towns on Television: Closed Circuit TV in British Towns and Cities," Local Government Studies 1996 (22:3), 1-27. Norris, C. and G. Armstrong, 1997, supra. Norris, C. and G. Armstrong, "Introduction: Power and Vision", in C. Norris, J. Morgan and G. Armstrong (eds.), Surveillance, Closed Circuit Television and Social Control (Aldershot: Ashgate, 1998). Bannister, J., N. Fyfe and A. Kearns, "Closed Circuit Television and the City", in C. Norris, J. Morgan and G. Armstrong (eds.), Surveillance, Closed Circuit Television and Social Control (Aldershot: Ashgate, 1998).
62. Williams, K.S., M. Goodwin and C. Johnstone, "Closed Circuit Television (CCTV) Surveillance in Urban Britain: Beyond the Rhetoric of Crime Prevention", in J.R. Gold and G. Revile (eds.), Landscapes of Defence. Forthcoming. (London: Longman, 2000). See also Graham, S., J. Brooks and D. Heery, "Towns on Television: Closed Circuit TV in British Towns and Cities," Local Government Studies 1996 (22:3), 1-27. Norris, C. and G. Armstrong, 1997, supra. Norris, C. and G. Armstrong, "Introduction: Power and Vision", in C. Norris, J. Morgan and G. Armstrong (eds.), Surveillance, Closed Circuit Television and Social Control (Aldershot: Ashgate, 1998). Bannister, J., N. Fyfe and A. Kearns, "Closed Circuit Television and the City", in C. Norris, J. Morgan and G. Armstrong (eds.), Surveillance, Closed Circuit Television and Social Control (Aldershot: Ashgate, 1998).
63. Williams, K.S., M. Goodwin and C. Johnstone, "Closed Circuit Television (CCTV) Surveillance in Urban Britain: Beyond the Rhetoric of Crime Prevention", in J.R. Gold and G. Revile (eds.), Landscapes of Defence. Forthcoming. (London: Longman, 2000). See also Graham, S., J. Brooks and D. Heery, "Towns on Television: Closed Circuit TV in British Towns and Cities," Local Government Studies 1996 (22:3), 1-27. Norris, C. and G. Armstrong, 1997, supra. Norris, C. and G. Armstrong, "Introduction: Power and Vision", in C. Norris, J. Morgan and G. Armstrong (eds.), Surveillance, Closed Circuit Television and Social Control (Aldershot: Ashgate, 1998). Bannister, J., N. Fyfe and A. Kearns, "Closed Circuit Television and the City", in C. Norris, J. Morgan and G. Armstrong (eds.), Surveillance, Closed Circuit Television and Social Control (Aldershot: Ashgate, 1998).
64. Williams, K.S., M. Goodwin and C. Johnstone, "Closed Circuit Television (CCTV) Surveillance in Urban Britain: Beyond the Rhetoric of Crime Prevention", in J.R. Gold and G. Revile (eds.), Landscapes of Defence. Forthcoming. (London: Longman, 2000). See also Graham, S., J. Brooks and D. Heery, "Towns on Television: Closed Circuit TV in British Towns and Cities," Local Government Studies 1996 (22:3), 1-27. Norris, C. and G. Armstrong, 1997, supra. Norris, C. and G. Armstrong, "Introduction: Power and Vision", in C. Norris, J. Morgan and G. Armstrong (eds.), Surveillance, Closed Circuit Television and Social Control (Aldershot: Ashgate, 1998). Bannister, J., N. Fyfe and A. Kearns, "Closed Circuit Television and the City", in C. Norris, J. Morgan and G. Armstrong (eds.), Surveillance, Closed Circuit Television and Social Control (Aldershot: Ashgate, 1998).
65. Maguire, M., "Restraining Big Brother? The Regulation of Surveillance in England and Wales", in C. Norris, J. Morgan and G. Armstrong (eds.), Surveillance, Closed Circuit Television and Social Control (Aldershot: Ashgate, 1998).
66. Home Office 1994, supra.
67. Dawson, T., "Framing the Villains", New Statesman 1994, 28 January 1994.
68. See especially Simey, M., Democracy Rediscovered: A Study in Police Accountability (London: Pluto Press, 1988).
69. Povey, D. and J. Prime, Recorded Crime Statistics: England and Wales, April 1998 to March 1999 Home Office Statistical Bulletin, 18/99. (London: Home Office, 1999).
70. Dyfed Powys Police Website, http://www.dyfed-powys.police.uk/Crime_menu.html
71. Povey and Prime, 1999, supra.
72. Dyfed Powys Police Website, http://www.dyfed-powys.police.uk/Crime_menu.html
73. Dyfed Powys Police Website, http://www.dyfed-powys.police.uk/Crime_menu.html