-
1
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0001377754
-
Presidential popularity and presidential elections: An update and extension
-
See, inter alia, Richard Brody and Lee Sigelman, "Presidential Popularity and Presidential Elections: An Update and Extension," Public Opinion Quarterly 47 (1983): 325-8; Michael Lewis-Beck and Tom W. Rice, Forecasting Elections (Washington: CQ Press, 1992); Alan I. Abramowitz, "Bill and Al's Excellent Adventure: Forecasting the 1996 Presidential Election," American Politics Quarterly 24 (1996): 434-442.
-
(1983)
Public Opinion Quarterly
, vol.47
, pp. 325-328
-
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Brody, R.1
Sigelman, L.2
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2
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0001377754
-
-
Washington: CQ Press
-
See, inter alia, Richard Brody and Lee Sigelman, "Presidential Popularity and Presidential Elections: An Update and Extension," Public Opinion Quarterly 47 (1983): 325-8; Michael Lewis-Beck and Tom W. Rice, Forecasting Elections (Washington: CQ Press, 1992); Alan I. Abramowitz, "Bill and Al's Excellent Adventure: Forecasting the 1996 Presidential Election," American Politics Quarterly 24 (1996): 434-442.
-
(1992)
Forecasting Elections
-
-
Lewis-Beck, M.1
Rice, T.W.2
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3
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0001309156
-
Bill and Al's excellent adventure: Forecasting the 1996 presidential election
-
See, inter alia, Richard Brody and Lee Sigelman, "Presidential Popularity and Presidential Elections: An Update and Extension," Public Opinion Quarterly 47 (1983): 325-8; Michael Lewis-Beck and Tom W. Rice, Forecasting Elections (Washington: CQ Press, 1992); Alan I. Abramowitz, "Bill and Al's Excellent Adventure: Forecasting the 1996 Presidential Election," American Politics Quarterly 24 (1996): 434-442.
-
(1996)
American Politics Quarterly
, vol.24
, pp. 434-442
-
-
Abramowitz, A.I.1
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4
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84971725020
-
Determinants of the outcomes of midterm congressional elections
-
See, inter alia, Edward R. Tufte, "Determinants of the Outcomes of Midterm Congressional Elections," American Political Science Review 69 (1975): 812-826; James E. Campbell, "The Presidential Pulse and the 1994 Midterm Congressional Election," Journal of Politics 59 (1997): 830-857; John J. Coleman, "The Importance of Being Republican: Forecasting Party Fortunes in House Midterm Elections," Journal of Politics 59 (1997): 497-519.
-
(1975)
American Political Science Review
, vol.69
, pp. 812-826
-
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Tufte, E.R.1
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5
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0031526330
-
The presidential pulse and the 1994 midterm congressional election
-
See, inter alia, Edward R. Tufte, "Determinants of the Outcomes of Midterm Congressional Elections," American Political Science Review 69 (1975): 812-826; James E. Campbell, "The Presidential Pulse and the 1994 Midterm Congressional Election," Journal of Politics 59 (1997): 830-857; John J. Coleman, "The Importance of Being Republican: Forecasting Party Fortunes in House Midterm Elections," Journal of Politics 59 (1997): 497-519.
-
(1997)
Journal of Politics
, vol.59
, pp. 830-857
-
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Campbell, J.E.1
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6
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0031514260
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The importance of being republican: Forecasting party fortunes in house midterm elections
-
See, inter alia, Edward R. Tufte, "Determinants of the Outcomes of Midterm Congressional Elections," American Political Science Review 69 (1975): 812-826; James E. Campbell, "The Presidential Pulse and the 1994 Midterm Congressional Election," Journal of Politics 59 (1997): 830-857; John J. Coleman, "The Importance of Being Republican: Forecasting Party Fortunes in House Midterm Elections," Journal of Politics 59 (1997): 497-519.
-
(1997)
Journal of Politics
, vol.59
, pp. 497-519
-
-
Coleman, J.J.1
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8
-
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84934562288
-
Gender and support for reagan: A comprehensive model of presidential approval
-
Martin Gilens, "Gender and Support for Reagan: A Comprehensive Model of Presidential Approval," American Journal of Political Science 32 (1988): 19. See also Keith T. Poole and L. Harmon Zeigler, Women, Public Opinion, and Politics (New York: Longman, 1985); Paul R. Abramson, John H. Aldrich and David W. Rohde, Change and Continuity in the 1980 Elections, Revised Edition (Washington: CQ Press, 1983).
-
(1988)
American Journal of Political Science
, vol.32
, pp. 19
-
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Gilens, M.1
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9
-
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0003426120
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New York: Longman
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Martin Gilens, "Gender and Support for Reagan: A Comprehensive Model of Presidential Approval," American Journal of Political Science 32 (1988): 19. See also Keith T. Poole and L. Harmon Zeigler, Women, Public Opinion, and Politics (New York: Longman, 1985); Paul R. Abramson, John H. Aldrich and David W. Rohde, Change and Continuity in the 1980 Elections, Revised Edition (Washington: CQ Press, 1983).
-
(1985)
Women, Public Opinion, and Politics
-
-
Poole, K.T.1
Zeigler, L.H.2
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10
-
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0003722891
-
-
Washington: CQ Press
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Martin Gilens, "Gender and Support for Reagan: A Comprehensive Model of Presidential Approval," American Journal of Political Science 32 (1988): 19. See also Keith T. Poole and L. Harmon Zeigler, Women, Public Opinion, and Politics (New York: Longman, 1985); Paul R. Abramson, John H. Aldrich and David W. Rohde, Change and Continuity in the 1980 Elections, Revised Edition (Washington: CQ Press, 1983).
-
(1983)
Change and Continuity in the 1980 Elections, Revised Edition
-
-
Abramson, P.R.1
Aldrich, J.H.2
Rohde, D.W.3
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11
-
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0002194834
-
Presidential character revisited
-
ed. Richard Lau and Donald Searing Hillsdale: Lawrence Erlbaum
-
Donald R. Kinder, "Presidential Character Revisited," in Political Cognition, ed. Richard Lau and Donald Searing (Hillsdale: Lawrence Erlbaum, 1986), 233-255.
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(1986)
Political Cognition
, pp. 233-255
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Kinder, D.R.1
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12
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0004010873
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Boulder: Lynne Rienner
-
According to national exit polls conducted by Voter News Service (VNS) and the Los Angeles Times, Dole received a plurality of men's reported vote. While these sources are almost in perfect agreement with the National Election Study (NES) with regard to men's choice, the NES appears to overestimate women's support for Clinton; about 60% of female voters surveyed by the NES, but less than 55% of those interviewed by VNS, reelected the president. A useful compilation of differences in voting behavior based on exit polls and other surveys can be found in Richard A. Seltzer, Jody Newman, and Melissa Voorhees Leighton, Sex As a Political Variable. Women As Candidates & Voters in U.S. Elections (Boulder: Lynne Rienner, 1997).
-
(1997)
Sex as a Political Variable. Women as Candidates & Voters in U.S. Elections
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Seltzer, R.A.1
Newman, J.2
Leighton, M.V.3
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13
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84971922179
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Policy directions and presidential leadership: Alternative interpretations of the 1980 presidential election
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Warren E. Miller and J. Merrill Shanks, "Policy Directions and Presidential Leadership: Alternative Interpretations of the 1980 Presidential Election," British Journal of Political Science 12 (1982): 299-356; Warren E. Miller and J. Merrill Shanks, The New American Voter (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1996); J. Merrill Shanks and Warren E. Miller, "Policy Direction and Performance Evaluation: Complementary Explanations of the Reagan Elections," British Journal of Political Science 20 (1990): 143-235; J. Merrill Shanks and Warren E. Miller, "Partisanship, Policy and Performance: The Reagan Legacy in the 1988 Election," British Journal of Political Science, 21 (1991): 129-197.
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(1982)
British Journal of Political Science
, vol.12
, pp. 299-356
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Miller, W.E.1
Shanks, J.M.2
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14
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84971922179
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-
Cambridge: Harvard University Press
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Warren E. Miller and J. Merrill Shanks, "Policy Directions and Presidential Leadership: Alternative Interpretations of the 1980 Presidential Election," British Journal of Political Science 12 (1982): 299-356; Warren E. Miller and J. Merrill Shanks, The New American Voter (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1996); J. Merrill Shanks and Warren E. Miller, "Policy Direction and Performance Evaluation: Complementary Explanations of the Reagan Elections," British Journal of Political Science 20 (1990): 143-235; J. Merrill Shanks and Warren E. Miller, "Partisanship, Policy and Performance: The Reagan Legacy in the 1988 Election," British Journal of Political Science, 21 (1991): 129-197.
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(1996)
The New American Voter
-
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Miller, W.E.1
Shanks, J.M.2
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15
-
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84971915490
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Policy direction and performance evaluation: Complementary explanations of the Reagan elections
-
Warren E. Miller and J. Merrill Shanks, "Policy Directions and Presidential Leadership: Alternative Interpretations of the 1980 Presidential Election," British Journal of Political Science 12 (1982): 299-356; Warren E. Miller and J. Merrill Shanks, The New American Voter (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1996); J. Merrill Shanks and Warren E. Miller, "Policy Direction and Performance Evaluation: Complementary Explanations of the Reagan Elections," British Journal of Political Science 20 (1990): 143-235; J. Merrill Shanks and Warren E. Miller, "Partisanship, Policy and Performance: The Reagan Legacy in the 1988 Election," British Journal of Political Science, 21 (1991): 129-197.
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(1990)
British Journal of Political Science
, vol.20
, pp. 143-235
-
-
Shanks, J.M.1
Miller, W.E.2
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16
-
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84934349803
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Partisanship, policy and performance: The Reagan legacy in the 1988 election
-
Warren E. Miller and J. Merrill Shanks, "Policy Directions and Presidential Leadership: Alternative Interpretations of the 1980 Presidential Election," British Journal of Political Science 12 (1982): 299-356; Warren E. Miller and J. Merrill Shanks, The New American Voter (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1996); J. Merrill Shanks and Warren E. Miller, "Policy Direction and Performance Evaluation: Complementary Explanations of the Reagan Elections," British Journal of Political Science 20 (1990): 143-235; J. Merrill Shanks and Warren E. Miller, "Partisanship, Policy and Performance: The Reagan Legacy in the 1988 Election," British Journal of Political Science, 21 (1991): 129-197.
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(1991)
British Journal of Political Science
, vol.21
, pp. 129-197
-
-
Shanks, J.M.1
Miller, W.E.2
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18
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0002311387
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note
-
The data were made available by the Inter-University Consortium for Political and Social Research at the University of Michigan, which bears no responsibility for the analysis or interpretations presented here.
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-
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19
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0002060276
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note
-
The gender gap in the assessment of Clinton's job on health care was even larger. It is important to remember that all these figures are for the subsample of reported voters. In the overall samples, the gaps observed in 1980, 1982, and 1988 were wider than in 1996. The difference between the two samples is quite remarkable in 1994 when the size of the gap more than doubles among reported voters due to what appears to be a very selective turnout of men.
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-
-
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20
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0002056582
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note
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Results are based on respondents who declared that they voted in the presidential election and expressed an evaluation of the president. All subsequent analyses are limited to these respondents.
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21
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0002311389
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note
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The gender gap among the 1996 respondents reinterviewed for the 1997 Pilot Study was 12.3%; the gap was 13% among 1996 voters.
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22
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0002337149
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note
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Party identification is measured by the traditional 7-point scale ranging from Strong Republican (-1) to Strong Democrat (+1). Ideology scores for each respondent are based on the difference between the thermometer rating assigned to conservatives and liberals; the range of this variable is also from -1 to +1. This measure is preferred to the familiar, 7-point liberal-conservative scale. A very high percentage of respondents, particularly women, do not place themselves on such a scale. In order to minimize loss of cases, these respondents may be located at the midpoint of the scale. Following this procedure, however, more than 43% of female voters would still end up in the centrist position. Thermometer questions reduce the number of missing cases; the correlation between the thermometer difference and the 7-point ideology scale is .7. The coding for the dependent variable is as follows: strongly approve (+59), approve (+29), disapprove (-29), strongly disapprove (-59). These values are chosen because the difference between men's and women's mean performance evaluations is 12.8, virtually the same as the observed gap that 1 wish to explain.
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23
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84936628619
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Cambridge: Harvard University Press
-
On this distinction, see also Ethel Klein, Gender Politics (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1984); Gilens, "Gender and Support for Reagan: A Comprehensive Model of Presidential Approval"; Susan Welch and John Hibbing, "Financial Conditions, Gender and Voting in American National Elections," Journal of Politics 54 (1992): 197-213; Warren E. Miller and J. Miller Shanks, The New American Voter; Virginia Sapiro with Pamela Johnston Conover, "The Variable Gender Basis of Electoral Politics: Gender and Context in the 1992 US Election," British Journal of Political Science 27 (1997): 497-523; Karen M. Kaufmann and John R. Petrocik, "The Changing Politics of American Men: Understanding the Sources of the Gender Gap," American Journal of Political Science 43 (1999): 864-887.
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(1984)
Gender Politics
-
-
Klein, E.1
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24
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0004331286
-
-
On this distinction, see also Ethel Klein, Gender Politics (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1984); Gilens, "Gender and Support for Reagan: A Comprehensive Model of Presidential Approval"; Susan Welch and John Hibbing, "Financial Conditions, Gender and Voting in American National Elections," Journal of Politics 54 (1992): 197-213; Warren E. Miller and J. Miller Shanks, The New American Voter; Virginia Sapiro with Pamela Johnston Conover, "The Variable Gender Basis of Electoral Politics: Gender and Context in the 1992 US Election," British Journal of Political Science 27 (1997): 497-523; Karen M. Kaufmann and John R. Petrocik, "The Changing Politics of American Men: Understanding the Sources of the Gender Gap," American Journal of Political Science 43 (1999): 864-887.
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Gender and Support for Reagan: A Comprehensive Model of Presidential Approval
-
-
Gilens1
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25
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84972159236
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Financial conditions, gender and voting in American national elections
-
On this distinction, see also Ethel Klein, Gender Politics (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1984); Gilens, "Gender and Support for Reagan: A Comprehensive Model of Presidential Approval"; Susan Welch and John Hibbing, "Financial Conditions, Gender and Voting in American National Elections," Journal of Politics 54 (1992): 197-213; Warren E. Miller and J. Miller Shanks, The New American Voter; Virginia Sapiro with Pamela Johnston Conover, "The Variable Gender Basis of Electoral Politics: Gender and Context in the 1992 US Election," British Journal of Political Science 27 (1997): 497-523; Karen M. Kaufmann and John R. Petrocik, "The Changing Politics of American Men: Understanding the Sources of the Gender Gap," American Journal of Political Science 43 (1999): 864-887.
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(1992)
Journal of Politics
, vol.54
, pp. 197-213
-
-
Welch, S.1
Hibbing, J.2
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26
-
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0004099073
-
-
On this distinction, see also Ethel Klein, Gender Politics (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1984); Gilens, "Gender and Support for Reagan: A Comprehensive Model of Presidential Approval"; Susan Welch and John Hibbing, "Financial Conditions, Gender and Voting in American National Elections," Journal of Politics 54 (1992): 197-213; Warren E. Miller and J. Miller Shanks, The New American Voter; Virginia Sapiro with Pamela Johnston Conover, "The Variable Gender Basis of Electoral Politics: Gender and Context in the 1992 US Election," British Journal of Political Science 27 (1997): 497-523; Karen M. Kaufmann and John R. Petrocik, "The Changing Politics of American Men: Understanding the Sources of the Gender Gap," American Journal of Political Science 43 (1999): 864-887.
-
The New American Voter
-
-
Miller, W.E.1
Shanks, J.M.2
-
27
-
-
0031528269
-
The variable gender basis of electoral politics: Gender and context in the 1992 US election
-
On this distinction, see also Ethel Klein, Gender Politics (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1984); Gilens, "Gender and Support for Reagan: A Comprehensive Model of Presidential Approval"; Susan Welch and John Hibbing, "Financial Conditions, Gender and Voting in American National Elections," Journal of Politics 54 (1992): 197-213; Warren E. Miller and J. Miller Shanks, The New American Voter; Virginia Sapiro with Pamela Johnston Conover, "The Variable Gender Basis of Electoral Politics: Gender and Context in the 1992 US Election," British Journal of Political Science 27 (1997): 497-523; Karen M. Kaufmann and John R. Petrocik, "The Changing Politics of American Men: Understanding the Sources of the Gender Gap," American Journal of Political Science 43 (1999): 864-887.
-
(1997)
British Journal of Political Science
, vol.27
, pp. 497-523
-
-
Sapiro, V.1
Conover, P.J.2
-
28
-
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0033466621
-
The changing politics of American men: Understanding the sources of the gender gap
-
On this distinction, see also Ethel Klein, Gender Politics (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1984); Gilens, "Gender and Support for Reagan: A Comprehensive Model of Presidential Approval"; Susan Welch and John Hibbing, "Financial Conditions, Gender and Voting in American National Elections," Journal of Politics 54 (1992): 197-213; Warren E. Miller and J. Miller Shanks, The New American Voter; Virginia Sapiro with Pamela Johnston Conover, "The Variable Gender Basis of Electoral Politics: Gender and Context in the 1992 US Election," British Journal of Political Science 27 (1997): 497-523; Karen M. Kaufmann and John R. Petrocik, "The Changing Politics of American Men: Understanding the Sources of the Gender Gap," American Journal of Political Science 43 (1999): 864-887.
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(1999)
American Journal of Political Science
, vol.43
, pp. 864-887
-
-
Kaufmann, K.M.1
Petrocik, J.R.2
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29
-
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0002061323
-
-
note
-
These estimates are obtained by using the overall sample means.
-
-
-
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30
-
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0002072323
-
-
note
-
Nevertheless, my analysis shows this same simple model to be much less successful in bridging the widest gaps of the 1980s; only in 1994 and 1996 do the two independent variables account for the aggregate difference between men and women. As in 1996, the lion's share of the 1994 gap (about 85%) is due to compositional effects.
-
-
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31
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0002340897
-
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note
-
See the Appendix for a detailed description and discussion of the variables used in the analysis.
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-
-
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32
-
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0041022512
-
Explaining the gender gap in U.S. presidential elections, 1980-1992
-
Of course, there is a voluminous literature on the "primacy" of party identification, and an accurate summary of the state of the debate is well beyond the scope of this article. Suffice it to say that several studies on the gender gap acknowledge the dependence of PID on issues. For instance, Carole Chaney, R. Michael Alvarez, and Jonathan Nagler, "Explaining the Gender Gap in U.S. Presidential Elections, 1980-1992," Political Research Quarterly 51 (1998): 333, point out that "it is well known that party identification can be explained to a large extent by issue preferences." In the most recent analysis of the gap by Karen M. Kaufmann and John R. Petrocik, "The Changing Politics of American Men: Understanding the Sources of the Gender Gap," party identification is the dependent variable in an equation including several issues. Finally, in his analysis of the 1982 gap in approval, Martin Gilens, "Gender and Support for Reagan: A Comprehensive Model of Presidential Approval," 31, chooses a model sequence similar to the one presented here. In particular, I find his rationale for doing so appealing: "Since partisan inheritance is essentially the same for men and women, and since little of the gender gap in partisanship can be accounted for by demographic differences, the gender inequality in party identification strongly suggests the influence of political attitudes on partisanship."
-
(1998)
Political Research Quarterly
, vol.51
, pp. 333
-
-
Carole Chaney, R.1
Alvarez, M.2
Nagler, J.3
-
33
-
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0004345944
-
-
Of course, there is a voluminous literature on the "primacy" of party identification, and an accurate summary of the state of the debate is well beyond the scope of this article. Suffice it to say that several studies on the gender gap acknowledge the dependence of PID on issues. For instance, Carole Chaney, R. Michael Alvarez, and Jonathan Nagler, "Explaining the Gender Gap in U.S. Presidential Elections, 1980-1992," Political Research Quarterly 51 (1998): 333, point out that "it is well known that party identification can be explained to a large extent by issue preferences." In the most recent analysis of the gap by Karen M. Kaufmann and John R. Petrocik, "The Changing Politics of American Men: Understanding the Sources of the Gender Gap," party identification is the dependent variable in an equation including several issues. Finally, in his analysis of the 1982 gap in approval, Martin Gilens, "Gender and Support for Reagan: A Comprehensive Model of Presidential Approval," 31, chooses a model sequence similar to the one presented here. In particular, I find his rationale for doing so appealing: "Since partisan inheritance is essentially the same for men and women, and since little of the gender gap in partisanship can be accounted for by demographic differences, the gender inequality in party identification strongly suggests the influence of political attitudes on partisanship."
-
The Changing Politics of American Men: Understanding the Sources of the Gender Gap
-
-
Kaufmann, K.M.1
Petrocik, J.R.2
-
34
-
-
0004331286
-
-
Of course, there is a voluminous literature on the "primacy" of party identification, and an accurate summary of the state of the debate is well beyond the scope of this article. Suffice it to say that several studies on the gender gap acknowledge the dependence of PID on issues. For instance, Carole Chaney, R. Michael Alvarez, and Jonathan Nagler, "Explaining the Gender Gap in U.S. Presidential Elections, 1980-1992," Political Research Quarterly 51 (1998): 333, point out that "it is well known that party identification can be explained to a large extent by issue preferences." In the most recent analysis of the gap by Karen M. Kaufmann and John R. Petrocik, "The Changing Politics of American Men: Understanding the Sources of the Gender Gap," party identification is the dependent variable in an equation including several issues. Finally, in his analysis of the 1982 gap in approval, Martin Gilens, "Gender and Support for Reagan: A Comprehensive Model of Presidential Approval," 31, chooses a model sequence similar to the one presented here. In particular, I find his rationale for doing so appealing: "Since partisan inheritance is essentially the same for men and women, and since little of the gender gap in partisanship can be accounted for by demographic differences, the gender inequality in party identification strongly suggests the influence of political attitudes on partisanship."
-
Gender and Support for Reagan: A Comprehensive Model of Presidential Approval
, pp. 31
-
-
Gilens, M.1
-
35
-
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0001486703
-
Democratic discussion
-
ed. George E. Marcus and Russell L. Hanson University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press
-
Donald R. Kinder and Don Herzog, "Democratic Discussion," in Reconsidering the Democratic Public, ed. George E. Marcus and Russell L. Hanson (University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1993: 359).
-
(1993)
Reconsidering the Democratic Public
, pp. 359
-
-
Kinder, D.R.1
Herzog, D.2
-
36
-
-
84925906160
-
Women as political animals? A test of some explanations for male-female political participation differences
-
See, inter alia, Susan Welch, "Women as Political Animals? A Test of Some Explanations for Male-Female Political Participation Differences," American Journal of Political Science 71 (1977): 711-730; Frances F. Piven, "Women and the State: Ideology, Power and the Welfare State," in Gender and the Life Course, ed. Alice S. Rossi (New York: Aldine, 1985); Steven P. Erie and Martin Rein, "Women and the Welfare State," in The Politics of the Gender Gap, ed. Carol M. Mueller (Newbury Park: Sage, 1988); Janet Clark and Cal Clark, "The Gender Gap: A Manifestation of Women's Dissatisfaction with the American Polity?" in Broken Contract? ed. Stephen C. Craig (Boulder: Westview Press, 1996); Sidney Verba, Nancy Burns, and Kay Lehman Schlozman, "Knowing and Caring about Politics: Gender and Political Engagement," Journal of Politics 59 (1997): 1051-1072.
-
(1977)
American Journal of Political Science
, vol.71
, pp. 711-730
-
-
Welch, S.1
-
37
-
-
0003249381
-
Women and the state: Ideology, power and the welfare state
-
ed. Alice S. Rossi New York: Aldine
-
See, inter alia, Susan Welch, "Women as Political Animals? A Test of Some Explanations for Male-Female Political Participation Differences," American Journal of Political Science 71 (1977): 711-730; Frances F. Piven, "Women and the State: Ideology, Power and the Welfare State," in Gender and the Life Course, ed. Alice S. Rossi (New York: Aldine, 1985); Steven P. Erie and Martin Rein, "Women and the Welfare State," in The Politics of the Gender Gap, ed. Carol M. Mueller (Newbury Park: Sage, 1988); Janet Clark and Cal Clark, "The Gender Gap: A Manifestation of Women's Dissatisfaction with the American Polity?" in Broken Contract? ed. Stephen C. Craig (Boulder: Westview Press, 1996); Sidney Verba, Nancy Burns, and Kay Lehman Schlozman, "Knowing and Caring about Politics: Gender and Political Engagement," Journal of Politics 59 (1997): 1051-1072.
-
(1985)
Gender and the Life Course
-
-
Piven, F.F.1
-
38
-
-
0003362810
-
Women and the welfare state
-
ed. Carol M. Mueller Newbury Park: Sage
-
See, inter alia, Susan Welch, "Women as Political Animals? A Test of Some Explanations for Male-Female Political Participation Differences," American Journal of Political Science 71 (1977): 711-730; Frances F. Piven, "Women and the State: Ideology, Power and the Welfare State," in Gender and the Life Course, ed. Alice S. Rossi (New York: Aldine, 1985); Steven P. Erie and Martin Rein, "Women and the Welfare State," in The Politics of the Gender Gap, ed. Carol M. Mueller (Newbury Park: Sage, 1988); Janet Clark and Cal Clark, "The Gender Gap: A Manifestation of Women's Dissatisfaction with the American Polity?" in Broken Contract? ed. Stephen C. Craig (Boulder: Westview Press, 1996); Sidney Verba, Nancy Burns, and Kay Lehman Schlozman, "Knowing and Caring about Politics: Gender and Political Engagement," Journal of Politics 59 (1997): 1051-1072.
-
(1988)
The Politics of the Gender Gap
-
-
Erie, S.P.1
Rein, M.2
-
39
-
-
0002073691
-
The gender gap: A manifestation of women's dissatisfaction with the American polity?
-
ed. Stephen C. Craig Boulder: Westview Press
-
See, inter alia, Susan Welch, "Women as Political Animals? A Test of Some Explanations for Male-Female Political Participation Differences," American Journal of Political Science 71 (1977): 711-730; Frances F. Piven, "Women and the State: Ideology, Power and the Welfare State," in Gender and the Life Course, ed. Alice S. Rossi (New York: Aldine, 1985); Steven P. Erie and Martin Rein, "Women and the Welfare State," in The Politics of the Gender Gap, ed. Carol M. Mueller (Newbury Park: Sage, 1988); Janet Clark and Cal Clark, "The Gender Gap: A Manifestation of Women's Dissatisfaction with the American Polity?" in Broken Contract? ed. Stephen C. Craig (Boulder: Westview Press, 1996); Sidney Verba, Nancy Burns, and Kay Lehman Schlozman, "Knowing and Caring about Politics: Gender and Political Engagement," Journal of Politics 59 (1997): 1051-1072.
-
(1996)
Broken Contract?
-
-
Clark, J.1
Clark, C.2
-
40
-
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0031260724
-
Knowing and caring about politics: Gender and political engagement
-
See, inter alia, Susan Welch, "Women as Political Animals? A Test of Some Explanations for Male-Female Political Participation Differences," American Journal of Political Science 71 (1977): 711-730; Frances F. Piven, "Women and the State: Ideology, Power and the Welfare State," in Gender and the Life Course, ed. Alice S. Rossi (New York: Aldine, 1985); Steven P. Erie and Martin Rein, "Women and the Welfare State," in The Politics of the Gender Gap, ed. Carol M. Mueller (Newbury Park: Sage, 1988); Janet Clark and Cal Clark, "The Gender Gap: A Manifestation of Women's Dissatisfaction with the American Polity?" in Broken Contract? ed. Stephen C. Craig (Boulder: Westview Press, 1996); Sidney Verba, Nancy Burns, and Kay Lehman Schlozman, "Knowing and Caring about Politics: Gender and Political Engagement," Journal of Politics 59 (1997): 1051-1072.
-
(1997)
Journal of Politics
, vol.59
, pp. 1051-1072
-
-
Verba, S.1
Burns, N.2
Schlozman, K.L.3
-
41
-
-
84925887814
-
Sex, socialization and politics
-
Anthony M. Orum, Roberta S. Cohen, Sherri Grasmuck, and Amy W. Drum, "Sex, Socialization and Politics," American Sociological Review 39 (1974): 197-209; Kent L. Tedin, David W. Brady, and Arnold Vedlitz, "Sex Differences in Political Attitudes and Behaviors: The Case for Situational Factors," Journal of Politics 39 (1977): 448-456; Elizabeth Gidengil, "The Gender Gap in Opinion Expression," paper presented for the Annual Meeting of the American Political Science Association, Chicago, IL, 1995.
-
(1974)
American Sociological Review
, vol.39
, pp. 197-209
-
-
Orum, A.M.1
Cohen, R.S.2
Grasmuck, S.3
Drum, A.W.4
-
42
-
-
84976128933
-
Sex differences in political attitudes and behaviors: The case for situational factors
-
Anthony M. Orum, Roberta S. Cohen, Sherri Grasmuck, and Amy W. Drum, "Sex, Socialization and Politics," American Sociological Review 39 (1974): 197-209; Kent L. Tedin, David W. Brady, and Arnold Vedlitz, "Sex Differences in Political Attitudes and Behaviors: The Case for Situational Factors," Journal of Politics 39 (1977): 448-456; Elizabeth Gidengil, "The Gender Gap in Opinion Expression," paper presented for the Annual Meeting of the American Political Science Association, Chicago, IL, 1995.
-
(1977)
Journal of Politics
, vol.39
, pp. 448-456
-
-
Tedin, K.L.1
Brady, D.W.2
Vedlitz, A.3
-
43
-
-
0002061326
-
The gender gap in opinion expression
-
Chicago, IL
-
Anthony M. Orum, Roberta S. Cohen, Sherri Grasmuck, and Amy W. Drum, "Sex, Socialization and Politics," American Sociological Review 39 (1974): 197-209; Kent L. Tedin, David W. Brady, and Arnold Vedlitz, "Sex Differences in Political Attitudes and Behaviors: The Case for Situational Factors," Journal of Politics 39 (1977): 448-456; Elizabeth Gidengil, "The Gender Gap in Opinion Expression," paper presented for the Annual Meeting of the American Political Science Association, Chicago, IL, 1995.
-
(1995)
Annual Meeting of the American Political Science Association
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-
Gidengil, E.1
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44
-
-
0033244437
-
-
Cambridge: Harvard University Press
-
Sidney Verba, Kay Lehman Schlozman, and Henry E. Brady, Voice and Equality: Civic Voluntarism in American Politics (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1995); Welch, "Women as Political Animals? A Test of Some Explanations for Male-Female Political Participation Differences"; Kay Lehman Schlozman, Nancy Burns, and Sidney Verba, "'What Happened at Work Today?': A Multistage Model of Gender, Employment, and Political Participation," Journal of Politics 61 (1999): 29-53.
-
(1995)
Voice and Equality: Civic Voluntarism in American Politics
-
-
Verba, S.1
Schlozman, K.L.2
Brady, H.E.3
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45
-
-
0033244437
-
-
Sidney Verba, Kay Lehman Schlozman, and Henry E. Brady, Voice and Equality: Civic Voluntarism in American Politics (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1995); Welch, "Women as Political Animals? A Test of Some Explanations for Male-Female Political Participation Differences"; Kay Lehman Schlozman, Nancy Burns, and Sidney Verba, "'What Happened at Work Today?': A Multistage Model of Gender, Employment, and Political Participation," Journal of Politics 61 (1999): 29-53.
-
Women As Political Animals? A Test of Some Explanations for Male-female Political Participation Differences
-
-
Welch1
-
46
-
-
0033244437
-
'What happened at work today?': A multistage model of gender, employment, and political participation
-
Sidney Verba, Kay Lehman Schlozman, and Henry E. Brady, Voice and Equality: Civic Voluntarism in American Politics (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1995); Welch, "Women as Political Animals? A Test of Some Explanations for Male-Female Political Participation Differences"; Kay Lehman Schlozman, Nancy Burns, and Sidney Verba, "'What Happened at Work Today?': A Multistage Model of Gender, Employment, and Political Participation," Journal of Politics 61 (1999): 29-53.
-
(1999)
Journal of Politics
, vol.61
, pp. 29-53
-
-
Schlozman, K.L.1
Burns, N.2
Verba, S.3
-
48
-
-
0003509730
-
-
Cambridge: Harvard University Press
-
See, inter alia, Carol Gilligan, In a Different Voice: Psychological Theory and Women's Development (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1982); Elizabeth Gidengil, "Economic Man-Social Woman? The Case of the Gender Gap in Support for the Canada-United States Free Trade Agreement," Comparative Political Studies 28 (1995): 384-108.
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(1982)
In a Different Voice: Psychological Theory and Women's Development
-
-
Gilligan, C.1
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49
-
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84970501194
-
Economic man-social woman? The case of the gender gap in support for the Canada-United States free trade agreement
-
See, inter alia, Carol Gilligan, In a Different Voice: Psychological Theory and Women's Development (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1982); Elizabeth Gidengil, "Economic Man-Social Woman? The Case of the Gender Gap in Support for the Canada-United States Free Trade Agreement," Comparative Political Studies 28 (1995): 384-108.
-
(1995)
Comparative Political Studies
, vol.28
, pp. 384-1108
-
-
Gidengil, E.1
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50
-
-
85055310134
-
Gender, Feminist Consciousness, and War
-
Pamela Johnston Conover and Virginia Sapiro, "Gender, Feminist Consciousness, and War," Americon Journal of Political Science 37 (1993): 1079-1099.
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(1993)
Americon Journal of Political Science
, vol.37
, pp. 1079-1099
-
-
Conover, P.J.1
Sapiro, V.2
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52
-
-
0004099073
-
-
Shanks and Miller, "Partisanship, Policy and Performance: The Reagan Legacy in the 1988 Election"; Miller and Shanks, The New American Voter; Laura W. Arnold and Herbert F. Weisberg, "Parenthood, Family Values, and the 1992 Presidential Election," American Politics Quarterly 24 (1996): 194-220.
-
The New American Voter
-
-
Shanks, M.1
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53
-
-
0000905978
-
Parenthood, family values, and the 1992 presidential election
-
Shanks and Miller, "Partisanship, Policy and Performance: The Reagan Legacy in the 1988 Election"; Miller and Shanks, The New American Voter; Laura W. Arnold and Herbert F. Weisberg, "Parenthood, Family Values, and the 1992 Presidential Election," American Politics Quarterly 24 (1996): 194-220.
-
(1996)
American Politics Quarterly
, vol.24
, pp. 194-220
-
-
Arnold, L.W.1
Weisberg, H.F.2
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54
-
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0002337151
-
-
note
-
Only two such differences - regarding the role of the government and black rights - reach a conventional level of statistical significance (p < .05, two-tailed test).
-
-
-
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55
-
-
0002190023
-
-
note
-
The p value for a two-tailed test of the difference between the coefficients is .05. Of course, the assumptions of the model play a crucial role. Disregarding the influence of the stage-two predictors on the mean value of partisanship and ideology, the latter two factors would be given "explanatory" credit worth 10.1, rather than 2.8, points of the overall gap. On the other hand, when the variables in stages 2 and 3 are considered simultaneously rather than sequentially, the contribution of beliefs about the role of government and gay rights to the explanation of the gap would shrink to 2 points (down from 5.9) and 2.7 points (down from 3.8), respectively.
-
-
-
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56
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0003390693
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Women and Men: Is a realignment underway?
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Everett C. Ladd and Karlyn Keene Bowman, "Women and Men: Is a Realignment Underway?" Public Opinion (1982): 21-40.
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(1982)
Public Opinion
, pp. 21-40
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-
Ladd, E.C.1
Bowman, K.K.2
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57
-
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0002073065
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What do women want?
-
Gloria Borger, "What Do Women Want?" U.S. News and World Report August 14 (1995): 23-27; Jodi Enda, "Women Hold Key to White House," The Buffalo News July 7 (1996): F7, F10.
-
(1995)
U.s. News and World Report August
, vol.14
, pp. 23-27
-
-
Borger, G.1
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58
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0002242079
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Women hold key to white house
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Gloria Borger, "What Do Women Want?" U.S. News and World Report August 14 (1995): 23-27; Jodi Enda, "Women Hold Key to White House," The Buffalo News July 7 (1996): F7, F10.
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(1996)
The Buffalo News July
, vol.7
-
-
Enda, J.1
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59
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0038710955
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-
New York: Viking
-
See, inter alia, Elizabeth Drew, Whatever It Takes (New York: Viking, 1997);
-
(1997)
Whatever It Takes
-
-
Drew, E.1
-
60
-
-
0003266865
-
Media framing of the gender gap
-
ed. Pippa Norris Oxford: Oxford University Press
-
Everett C. Ladd, "Media Framing of the Gender Gap," in Women, Media, and Politics, ed. Pippa Norris (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997);
-
(1997)
Women, Media, and Politics
-
-
Ladd, E.C.1
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61
-
-
84921049651
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The dynamics of the news framing process: From Reagan's gender gap to Clinton's soccer moms
-
Norfolk, VA
-
Pippa Norris and Susan J. Carroll, "The Dynamics of the News Framing Process: From Reagan's Gender Gap to Clinton's Soccer Moms," paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the Southern Political Science Association. Norfolk, VA, 1997.
-
(1997)
Annual Meeting of the Southern Political Science Association
-
-
Norris, P.1
Carroll, S.J.2
-
63
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-
84975997334
-
Sex and Politics - New alignments, old issues
-
Kathleen A. Frankovic, "Sex and Politics - New Alignments, Old Issues," PS 15 (1982): 439-48; Robert Y. Shapiro and Harprett Mahajan, "Gender Differences in Policy Preferences: A Summary of Trends from the 1960s to the 1980s," Public Opinion Quarterly 50 (1986): 42-61; Arthur Miller, "Gender and the Vote: 1984," in The Politics of the Gender Gap: The Social Construction of Political Influence, ed. Carol Mueller (Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications, 1988); Benjamin I. Page and Robert Y. Shapiro, The Rational Public (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1992).
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(1982)
PS
, vol.15
, pp. 439-448
-
-
Frankovic, K.A.1
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64
-
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84963040882
-
Gender differences in policy preferences: A summary of trends from the 1960s to the 1980s
-
Kathleen A. Frankovic, "Sex and Politics - New Alignments, Old Issues," PS 15 (1982): 439-48; Robert Y. Shapiro and Harprett Mahajan, "Gender Differences in Policy Preferences: A Summary of Trends from the 1960s to the 1980s," Public Opinion Quarterly 50 (1986): 42-61; Arthur Miller, "Gender and the Vote: 1984," in The Politics of the Gender Gap: The Social Construction of Political Influence, ed. Carol Mueller (Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications, 1988); Benjamin I. Page and Robert Y. Shapiro, The Rational Public (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1992).
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(1986)
Public Opinion Quarterly
, vol.50
, pp. 42-61
-
-
Shapiro, R.Y.1
Mahajan, H.2
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65
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-
84975997334
-
Gender and the vote: 1984
-
ed. Carol Mueller Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications
-
Kathleen A. Frankovic, "Sex and Politics - New Alignments, Old Issues," PS 15 (1982): 439-48; Robert Y. Shapiro and Harprett Mahajan, "Gender Differences in Policy Preferences: A Summary of Trends from the 1960s to the 1980s," Public Opinion Quarterly 50 (1986): 42-61; Arthur Miller, "Gender and the Vote: 1984," in The Politics of the Gender Gap: The Social Construction of Political Influence, ed. Carol Mueller (Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications, 1988); Benjamin I. Page and Robert Y. Shapiro, The Rational Public (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1992).
-
(1988)
The Politics of the Gender Gap: The Social Construction of Political Influence
-
-
Miller, A.1
-
66
-
-
84975997334
-
-
Chicago: The University of Chicago Press
-
Kathleen A. Frankovic, "Sex and Politics - New Alignments, Old Issues," PS 15 (1982): 439-48; Robert Y. Shapiro and Harprett Mahajan, "Gender Differences in Policy Preferences: A Summary of Trends from the 1960s to the 1980s," Public Opinion Quarterly 50 (1986): 42-61; Arthur Miller, "Gender and the Vote: 1984," in The Politics of the Gender Gap: The Social Construction of Political Influence, ed. Carol Mueller (Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications, 1988); Benjamin I. Page and Robert Y. Shapiro, The Rational Public (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1992).
-
(1992)
The Rational Public
-
-
Page, B.I.1
Shapiro, R.Y.2
-
68
-
-
84972159236
-
-
Some research shows that evaluations of personal finances influences men's choice for president while considerations about the state of the national economy has a more forceful impact on women's preference; see Miller "Gender and the Vote: 1984"; Susan Welch and John Hibbing, "Financial Conditions, Gender and Voting in American National Elections," Journal of Politics 54 (1992): 197-213; Chaney, Alvarez and Nagler, "Explaining the Gender Gap in U.S. Presidential Elections, 1980-1992."
-
Gender and the Vote: 1984
-
-
Miller1
-
69
-
-
84972159236
-
Financial conditions, gender and voting in American National elections
-
Some research shows that evaluations of personal finances influences men's choice for president while considerations about the state of the national economy has a more forceful impact on women's preference; see Miller "Gender and the Vote: 1984"; Susan Welch and John Hibbing, "Financial Conditions, Gender and Voting in American National Elections," Journal of Politics 54 (1992): 197-213; Chaney, Alvarez and Nagler, "Explaining the Gender Gap in U.S. Presidential Elections, 1980-1992."
-
(1992)
Journal of Politics
, vol.54
, pp. 197-213
-
-
Welch, S.1
Hibbing, J.2
-
70
-
-
84972159236
-
-
Some research shows that evaluations of personal finances influences men's choice for president while considerations about the state of the national economy has a more forceful impact on women's preference; see Miller "Gender and the Vote: 1984"; Susan Welch and John Hibbing, "Financial Conditions, Gender and Voting in American National Elections," Journal of Politics 54 (1992): 197-213; Chaney, Alvarez and Nagler, "Explaining the Gender Gap in U.S. Presidential Elections, 1980-1992."
-
Explaining the Gender Gap in U.S. Presidential Elections, 1980-1992
-
-
Chaney, A.1
Nagler2
-
71
-
-
0011311145
-
Myth and reality: The ERA and the gender gap in the 1980 election
-
Jane J. Mansbridge, "Myth and Reality: The ERA and the Gender Gap in the 1980 Election," Public Opinion Quarterly 49 (1985): 164-178; Poole and Zeigler, Women, Public Opinion, and Politics; Gilens, "Gender and Support for Reagan: A Comprehensive Model of Presidential Approval"; Elizabeth Adell Cook, Ted G. Jelen and Clyde Wilcox, Between Two Absolutes: Public Opinion and the Politics of Abortion (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1992).
-
(1985)
Public Opinion Quarterly
, vol.49
, pp. 164-178
-
-
Mansbridge, J.J.1
-
72
-
-
0011311145
-
-
Jane J. Mansbridge, "Myth and Reality: The ERA and the Gender Gap in the 1980 Election," Public Opinion Quarterly 49 (1985): 164-178; Poole and Zeigler, Women, Public Opinion, and Politics; Gilens, "Gender and Support for Reagan: A Comprehensive Model of Presidential Approval"; Elizabeth Adell Cook, Ted G. Jelen and Clyde Wilcox, Between Two Absolutes: Public Opinion and the Politics of Abortion (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1992).
-
Women, Public Opinion, and Politics
-
-
Poole1
Zeigler2
-
73
-
-
0011311145
-
-
Jane J. Mansbridge, "Myth and Reality: The ERA and the Gender Gap in the 1980 Election," Public Opinion Quarterly 49 (1985): 164-178; Poole and Zeigler, Women, Public Opinion, and Politics; Gilens, "Gender and Support for Reagan: A Comprehensive Model of Presidential Approval"; Elizabeth Adell Cook, Ted G. Jelen and Clyde Wilcox, Between Two Absolutes: Public Opinion and the Politics of Abortion (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1992).
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Gender and Support for Reagan: A Comprehensive Model of Presidential Approval
-
-
Gilens1
-
74
-
-
0011311145
-
-
Boulder, CO: Westview Press
-
Jane J. Mansbridge, "Myth and Reality: The ERA and the Gender Gap in the 1980 Election," Public Opinion Quarterly 49 (1985): 164-178; Poole and Zeigler, Women, Public Opinion, and Politics; Gilens, "Gender and Support for Reagan: A Comprehensive Model of Presidential Approval"; Elizabeth Adell Cook, Ted G. Jelen and Clyde Wilcox, Between Two Absolutes: Public Opinion and the Politics of Abortion (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1992).
-
(1992)
Between Two Absolutes: Public Opinion and the Politics of Abortion
-
-
Cook, E.A.1
Jelen, T.G.2
Wilcox, C.3
-
75
-
-
0003452186
-
-
Cambridge: Harvard University Press
-
A plurality of both sexes supports a woman's right to choose an abortion, with men only somewhat less favorable. The main difference in 1996, as expected, is one of salience; this issue is important to 61% of men but 74% of women. On this issue see, in particular, Sidney Verba, Kay Lehman Schlozman, and Henry E. Brady, Voice and Equality: Civic Voluntarism in American Politics (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1995).
-
(1995)
Voice and Equality: Civic Voluntarism in American Politics
-
-
Verba, S.1
Schlozman, K.L.2
Brady, H.E.3
-
77
-
-
0004099073
-
-
The baseline group includes older respondents, belonging to the New Deal generation and the pre-1932 era
-
This subdivision identifies the two groups making up the post-New Deal generation: people who grew up during the "years of turmoil" and the "Reagan Era", respectively (see Miller and Shanks, The New American Voter). The baseline group includes older respondents, belonging to the New Deal generation and the pre-1932 era.
-
The New American Voter
-
-
Miller1
Shanks2
-
78
-
-
0001991618
-
Knowing god's many people: Denominational preference and political behavior
-
ed. David C. Leege and Lyman A. Kellstedt Armonk: M.E. Sharp
-
Identification of this category is based on the distinction between mainline and evangelical Protestants presented in Lyman A. Kellstedt and John C. Green, "Knowing God's Many People: Denominational Preference and Political Behavior," in Rediscovering the Religious Factor in American Politics, ed. David C. Leege and Lyman A. Kellstedt (Armonk: M.E. Sharp, 1993): 53-70; John C. Green, James L. Guth, Corwin E. Smidt, and Lyman A. Kellstedl, Religion and the Culture Wars (Lanham: Rowman and Littlefield, 1996). For the purposes of the present analysis, I also included religious conservatives (such as Jehovah's Witnesses). The baseline is represented by mainline Protestants.
-
(1993)
Rediscovering the Religious Factor in American Politics
, pp. 53-70
-
-
Kellstedt, L.A.1
Green, J.C.2
-
79
-
-
0003487786
-
-
Lanham: Rowman and Littlefield
-
Identification of this category is based on the distinction between mainline and evangelical Protestants presented in Lyman A. Kellstedt and John C. Green, "Knowing God's Many People: Denominational Preference and Political Behavior," in Rediscovering the Religious Factor in American Politics, ed. David C. Leege and Lyman A. Kellstedt (Armonk: M.E. Sharp, 1993): 53-70; John C. Green, James L. Guth, Corwin E. Smidt, and Lyman A. Kellstedl, Religion and the Culture Wars (Lanham: Rowman and Littlefield, 1996). For the purposes of the present analysis, I also included religious conservatives (such as Jehovah's Witnesses). The baseline is represented by mainline Protestants.
-
(1996)
Religion and the Culture Wars
-
-
Green, J.C.1
Guth, J.L.2
Smidt, C.E.3
Kellstedl, L.A.4
-
80
-
-
0002059779
-
Compassion and American public opinion: An analysis of the NES humanitarianism scale
-
The 1996 NES also includes four questions which have been used in the past to gauge people's compassion or sense of humanitarianism (see Marco R. Steenbergen, "Compassion and American Public Opinion: An Analysis of the NES Humanitarianism Scale," Report to the Board of Overseers of the National Election Studies, 1995. After creating an index of each respondent's answers to these questions, I found that women are marginally more compassionate than men. Despite theoretical interest in this area, however, the index was virtually unrelated to Clinton's evaluation and thus dropped from the analysis.
-
(1995)
Report to the Board of Overseers of the National Election Studies
-
-
Steenbergen, M.R.1
-
81
-
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0002186758
-
-
note
-
I created an alternative measure of racial prejudice based on the comparative assessment of blacks and whites as being "hardworking", "intelligent", and "trustworthy." The scale reliability was .83 among men, and .87 among women. There was virtually no difference in the replies provided by males and females; furthermore, the results and implications for the gender gap of the multivariate analysis are essentially the same with either index of race-related orientations.
-
-
-
-
82
-
-
0000695614
-
-
The 1996 data set does not contain a large number of questions pertaining to the propensity to use force, defense issues or foreign affairs; after the fall of the Berlin Wall and the demise of the Soviet Union, the salience of military concerns and deterrence subsided. I rely on preferences for different levels of defense spending. Responses about spending show a wide gap in terms of both salience and position. Defense spending is a more important issue for men than women, and unlike women, men support an increase in defense expenditures. The item, perhaps, is not ideal as a measure of basic predispositions toward the use of force, but it is the only one I can use to tap a general orientation about investing resources designed to support the deployment of military power. Furthermore, this same item emerged as the single most important variable affecting the gap in approval of President Reagan in 1982 (see Gilens, "Gender and Support for Reagan: A Comprehensive Model of Presidential Approval"). The 1996 survey includes one question about unconditional isolationism, a position soundly and equally rejected by men and women. A second question concerns one's willingness to use force to solve future international controversies. Past evidence has consistently pointed to women's less enthusiastic endorsement of war relative to men (see, e.g., Clyde Wilcox, Joseph Ferrara, and Dee Allsop, "Group Differences in Early Support for Military Action in the Gulf: The Effects of Gender, Generation and Ethnicity," American Politics Quarterly 21 (1993):343-359). As anticipated, women are less inclined than men to endorse the use of military force, but the difference is only marginal. In any event, this variable is not related to evaluations of Clinton's job as president. One other variable about the use of extreme but legitimate force was considered for inclusion in this stage of the model: reactions to the death penalty for persons convicted of murder. Although the distribution of the answers fits expectations, with women less likely to endorse the death penalty by about 12%, this item does not exert an independent influence on evaluations of Clinton and is excluded from the data analysis.
-
Gender and Support for Reagan: A Comprehensive Model of Presidential Approval
-
-
Gilens1
-
83
-
-
0000695614
-
Group differences in early support for military action in the gulf: The effects of gender, generation and ethnicity
-
The 1996 data set does not contain a large number of questions pertaining to the propensity to use force, defense issues or foreign affairs; after the fall of the Berlin Wall and the demise of the Soviet Union, the salience of military concerns and deterrence subsided. I rely on preferences for different levels of defense spending. Responses about spending show a wide gap in terms of both salience and position. Defense spending is a more important issue for men than women, and unlike women, men support an increase in defense expenditures. The item, perhaps, is not ideal as a measure of basic predispositions toward the use of force, but it is the only one I can use to tap a general orientation about investing resources designed to support the deployment of military power. Furthermore, this same item emerged as the single most important variable affecting the gap in approval of President Reagan in 1982 (see Gilens, "Gender and Support for Reagan: A Comprehensive Model of Presidential Approval"). The 1996 survey includes one question about unconditional isolationism, a position soundly and equally rejected by men and women. A second question concerns one's willingness to use force to solve future international controversies. Past evidence has consistently pointed to women's less enthusiastic endorsement of war relative to men (see, e.g., Clyde Wilcox, Joseph Ferrara, and Dee Allsop, "Group Differences in Early Support for Military Action in the Gulf: The Effects of Gender, Generation and Ethnicity," American Politics Quarterly 21 (1993):343-359). As anticipated, women are less inclined than men to endorse the use of military force, but the difference is only marginal. In any event, this variable is not related to evaluations of Clinton's job as president. One other variable about the use of extreme but legitimate force was considered for inclusion in this stage of the model: reactions to the death penalty for persons convicted of murder. Although the distribution of the answers fits expectations, with women less likely to endorse the death penalty by about 12%, this item does not exert an independent influence on evaluations of Clinton and is excluded from the data analysis.
-
(1993)
American Politics Quarterly
, vol.21
, pp. 343-359
-
-
Wilcox, C.1
Ferrara, J.2
Allsop, D.3
-
84
-
-
0002191422
-
-
note
-
See note 13 for the coding of PID and ideological leanings. Among the groups included in the 1996 NES, four appear of particular relevance for my purposes: labor unions, big business, the women's movement, and the Christian Coalition. The multivariate analysis includes only the latter two; neither reactions toward unions nor business have a significant impact on presidential evaluations once other variables in this and prior stages are controlled.
-
-
-
-
85
-
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0004287621
-
-
the variable does not have an effect on support levels for Clinton
-
In addition to the items listed below, I considered the possible impact of two other policies, but the variables were stricken from the full model. In light of the welfare reform passed by Congress and signed by the president after a long debate, I analyzed opinions about two issues: reduction of welfare payments to mothers having another child, and limiting recipients of welfare benefits to a two-year maximum. There is no positional difference between men and women; both support the limitations in about the same proportions. Further, such attitudes have no independent effect on evaluations of the president. I also considered opinions on gun control. A crime bill was an important legislative item during Clinton's first term, and partisan disagreement over the issue, especially the assault weapon ban, reemerged during the presidential election campaign. Men and women are squarely on opposite sides of this controversy; 56.1% of women are in favor of a ban on all handguns while 66.5% of men oppose it. While this distinction is of intrinsic interest, and a long-lasting one (see, inter alia. Page and Shapiro, The Rational Public), the variable does not have an effect on support levels for Clinton.
-
The Rational Public
-
-
Page1
Shapiro2
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86
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0002191424
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note
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The index collapses respondents with, respectively, a total negative, null, or positive score across the ten items into three categories. Other coding schemes or a different selection of items did not perform empirically as well. The items show loadings of at least .50 on a first component, with only one exception: spending on social security among women (the loading is .46).
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87
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0002186760
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note
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It is worth noting that this is the only spending item (of 13) on which women want to spend fewer federal funds relative to men. There is little gender difference on two related items: V1325 ("Do you think the number of immigrants from foreign countries who are permitted to come to the United States to live should be increased a lot, increased a little, left the same as it is now, decreased a little, or decreased a lot?"), and V1326 ("Do you think that immigrants who come to the U.S. should be eligible as soon as they come here for government services such as Medicaid, Food Stamps, Welfare, or should they have to be here a year or more?"). Neither variable had a significant effect on Clinton's rating, and both were excluded from further investigation.
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