American neutral rights reappraised: Identity or interest in the foreign policy of the early republic?

Review of International Studies

Volumn 26, Issue 4, 2000, Pages 599-622

  Sofka, James ^a  

^a NONE

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EID: 0034356433     PISSN: 02602105     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/S0260210500005994     Document Type: Article

References (139)

1. The author wishes to thank Robert J. Beck for his kind suggestions as well as Michael J. Smith, J.C.A. Stagg, Jeffrey Legro, and the anonymous reviewers for their comments. Work on this article was aided by a research fellowship from the International Center for Jefferson Studies and the Thomas Jefferson Memorial Foundation. I gratefully acknowledge numerous comments and suggestions I received from Jefferson scholars at a presentation of this argument at Monticello in June 1998.
2. Mlada Bukovansky, 'American Identity and Neutral Rights from Independence to the War of 1812', International Organization, 51 (1997), p. 210.
3. Bukovansky, pp. 211, 217, 233.
4. Audie Klotz, 'Norms Reconstituting Interests: Global Racial Equality and US Sanctions Against South Africa', International Organization, 49 (1995), pp. 451-78.
5. Hans Reiss (ed.), Kant's Political Writings (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991), pp. 99-102.
6. T.C.W. Blanning, The Origins of the French Revolutionary Wars (London: Longman, 1986); Jeremy Black, British Foreign Policy in An Age of Revolutions, 1783-1793, (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994), p. 542.
7. T.C.W. Blanning, The Origins of the French Revolutionary Wars (London: Longman, 1986); Jeremy Black, British Foreign Policy in An Age of Revolutions, 1783-1793, (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994), p. 542.
8. James Joli, The Origins of the First World War, 2nd edn. (London: Longman, 1992), ch. 5. R.K. Ramazani has used the same focus on the causal link between ideology and interest to make a similar case regarding Khomenei's Iran, which he notes did not radically reconstitute interests in line with Islamic fundamentalism despite its claims to the contrary, and retained many of the same goals of the Shah's regime. R.K. Ramazani, Revolutionary Iran (Baltimore, MD: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1986).
9. James Joli, The Origins of the First World War, 2nd edn. (London: Longman, 1992), ch. 5. R.K. Ramazani has used the same focus on the causal link between ideology and interest to make a similar case regarding Khomenei's Iran, which he notes did not radically reconstitute interests in line with Islamic fundamentalism despite its claims to the contrary, and retained many of the same goals of the Shah's regime. R.K. Ramazani, Revolutionary Iran (Baltimore, MD: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1986).
10. Bukovansky, pp. 210-11.
11. See Robert W. Tucker and David C. Hendrickson, Empire of Liberty: The Statecraft of Thomas Jefferson (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1990); Peter S. Onuf and Nicholas G. Onuf, Federal Union, Modern World (New York: Madison House, 1993); Nicholas G. Onuf, The Republican Legacy in International Thought (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998); Drew McCoy, The Elusive Republic: Political Economy in Jeffersonian America (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1980); Felix Gilbert, To the Farewell Address: Ideas of Early American Foreign Policy (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1961); J.G.A. Pocock, The Machiavellian Moment (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1975); Gordon S. Wood, The Creation of the American Republic (New York: Norton, 1969) and The Radicalism of the American Revolution (New York: Knopf, 1993); Lance Banning, The Jeffersonian Persuasion (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1978).
12. See Robert W. Tucker and David C. Hendrickson, Empire of Liberty: The Statecraft of Thomas Jefferson (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1990); Peter S. Onuf and Nicholas G. Onuf, Federal Union, Modern World (New York: Madison House, 1993); Nicholas G. Onuf, The Republican Legacy in International Thought (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998); Drew McCoy, The Elusive Republic: Political Economy in Jeffersonian America (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1980); Felix Gilbert, To the Farewell Address: Ideas of Early American Foreign Policy (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1961); J.G.A. Pocock, The Machiavellian Moment (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1975); Gordon S. Wood, The Creation of the American Republic (New York: Norton, 1969) and The Radicalism of the American Revolution (New York: Knopf, 1993); Lance Banning, The Jeffersonian Persuasion (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1978).
13. See Robert W. Tucker and David C. Hendrickson, Empire of Liberty: The Statecraft of Thomas Jefferson (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1990); Peter S. Onuf and Nicholas G. Onuf, Federal Union, Modern World (New York: Madison House, 1993); Nicholas G. Onuf, The Republican Legacy in International Thought (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998); Drew McCoy, The Elusive Republic: Political Economy in Jeffersonian America (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1980); Felix Gilbert, To the Farewell Address: Ideas of Early American Foreign Policy (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1961); J.G.A. Pocock, The Machiavellian Moment (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1975); Gordon S. Wood, The Creation of the American Republic (New York: Norton, 1969) and The Radicalism of the American Revolution (New York: Knopf, 1993); Lance Banning, The Jeffersonian Persuasion (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1978).
14. See Robert W. Tucker and David C. Hendrickson, Empire of Liberty: The Statecraft of Thomas Jefferson (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1990); Peter S. Onuf and Nicholas G. Onuf, Federal Union, Modern World (New York: Madison House, 1993); Nicholas G. Onuf, The Republican Legacy in International Thought (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998); Drew McCoy, The Elusive Republic: Political Economy in Jeffersonian America (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1980); Felix Gilbert, To the Farewell Address: Ideas of Early American Foreign Policy (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1961); J.G.A. Pocock, The Machiavellian Moment (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1975); Gordon S. Wood, The Creation of the American Republic (New York: Norton, 1969) and The Radicalism of the American Revolution (New York: Knopf, 1993); Lance Banning, The Jeffersonian Persuasion (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1978).
15. See Robert W. Tucker and David C. Hendrickson, Empire of Liberty: The Statecraft of Thomas Jefferson (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1990); Peter S. Onuf and Nicholas G. Onuf, Federal Union, Modern World (New York: Madison House, 1993); Nicholas G. Onuf, The Republican Legacy in International Thought (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998); Drew McCoy, The Elusive Republic: Political Economy in Jeffersonian America (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1980); Felix Gilbert, To the Farewell Address: Ideas of Early American Foreign Policy (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1961); J.G.A. Pocock, The Machiavellian Moment (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1975); Gordon S. Wood, The Creation of the American Republic (New York: Norton, 1969) and The Radicalism of the American Revolution (New York: Knopf, 1993); Lance Banning, The Jeffersonian Persuasion (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1978).
16. See Robert W. Tucker and David C. Hendrickson, Empire of Liberty: The Statecraft of Thomas Jefferson (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1990); Peter S. Onuf and Nicholas G. Onuf, Federal Union, Modern World (New York: Madison House, 1993); Nicholas G. Onuf, The Republican Legacy in International Thought (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998); Drew McCoy, The Elusive Republic: Political Economy in Jeffersonian America (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1980); Felix Gilbert, To the Farewell Address: Ideas of Early American Foreign Policy (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1961); J.G.A. Pocock, The Machiavellian Moment (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1975); Gordon S. Wood, The Creation of the American Republic (New York: Norton, 1969) and The Radicalism of the American Revolution (New York: Knopf, 1993); Lance Banning, The Jeffersonian Persuasion (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1978).
17. See Robert W. Tucker and David C. Hendrickson, Empire of Liberty: The Statecraft of Thomas Jefferson (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1990); Peter S. Onuf and Nicholas G. Onuf, Federal Union, Modern World (New York: Madison House, 1993); Nicholas G. Onuf, The Republican Legacy in International Thought (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998); Drew McCoy, The Elusive Republic: Political Economy in Jeffersonian America (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1980); Felix Gilbert, To the Farewell Address: Ideas of Early American Foreign Policy (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1961); J.G.A. Pocock, The Machiavellian Moment (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1975); Gordon S. Wood, The Creation of the American Republic (New York: Norton, 1969) and The Radicalism of the American Revolution (New York: Knopf, 1993); Lance Banning, The Jeffersonian Persuasion (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1978).
18. See Robert W. Tucker and David C. Hendrickson, Empire of Liberty: The Statecraft of Thomas Jefferson (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1990); Peter S. Onuf and Nicholas G. Onuf, Federal Union, Modern World (New York: Madison House, 1993); Nicholas G. Onuf, The Republican Legacy in International Thought (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998); Drew McCoy, The Elusive Republic: Political Economy in Jeffersonian America (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1980); Felix Gilbert, To the Farewell Address: Ideas of Early American Foreign Policy (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1961); J.G.A. Pocock, The Machiavellian Moment (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1975); Gordon S. Wood, The Creation of the American Republic (New York: Norton, 1969) and The Radicalism of the American Revolution (New York: Knopf, 1993); Lance Banning, The Jeffersonian Persuasion (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1978).
19. See Robert W. Tucker and David C. Hendrickson, Empire of Liberty: The Statecraft of Thomas Jefferson (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1990); Peter S. Onuf and Nicholas G. Onuf, Federal Union, Modern World (New York: Madison House, 1993); Nicholas G. Onuf, The Republican Legacy in International Thought (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998); Drew McCoy, The Elusive Republic: Political Economy in Jeffersonian America (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1980); Felix Gilbert, To the Farewell Address: Ideas of Early American Foreign Policy (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1961); J.G.A. Pocock, The Machiavellian Moment (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1975); Gordon S. Wood, The Creation of the American Republic (New York: Norton, 1969) and The Radicalism of the American Revolution (New York: Knopf, 1993); Lance Banning, The Jeffersonian Persuasion (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1978).
20. Gerald Stourzh, Alexander Hamilton and the Idea of Republican Government (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1970), p. 135.
21. Daniel T. Rodgers, '"Republicanism": The Career of a Concept', Journal of American History, 79 (1992), pp. 11-39.
22. Paul L. Ford (ed.), The Works of Thomas Jefferson, vol. 9 (New York: Scribner, 1903), p. 364.
23. See Michael Kammen, Empire and Interest (New York, Lippincott, 1970); Klaus Knorr, British Colonial Theories (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1944); Nancy Koehn, The Power of Commerce (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1994); John Brewer, The Sinews of Power (New York: Knopf, 1989); Richard Pares, War and Trade in the West Indies, 1739-1763 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1936) and Colonial Blockade and Neutral Rights, 1739-1763 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1938); Philip Buck, The Politics of Mercantilism (New York: Henry Holt, 1942); George Beer, British Colonial Policy, 1754-1765 (New York: Macmillan, 1907); Eli Heckscher, Mercantilism, 2 vols. (London: George Allen & Unwin, 1935); Jacob Viner, 'Power versus Plenty as Objectives of Foreign Policy in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries', World Politics, 1 (1948), pp. 1-30.
24. See Michael Kammen, Empire and Interest (New York, Lippincott, 1970); Klaus Knorr, British Colonial Theories (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1944); Nancy Koehn, The Power of Commerce (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1994); John Brewer, The Sinews of Power (New York: Knopf, 1989); Richard Pares, War and Trade in the West Indies, 1739-1763 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1936) and Colonial Blockade and Neutral Rights, 1739-1763 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1938); Philip Buck, The Politics of Mercantilism (New York: Henry Holt, 1942); George Beer, British Colonial Policy, 1754-1765 (New York: Macmillan, 1907); Eli Heckscher, Mercantilism, 2 vols. (London: George Allen & Unwin, 1935); Jacob Viner, 'Power versus Plenty as Objectives of Foreign Policy in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries', World Politics, 1 (1948), pp. 1-30.
25. See Michael Kammen, Empire and Interest (New York, Lippincott, 1970); Klaus Knorr, British Colonial Theories (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1944); Nancy Koehn, The Power of Commerce (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1994); John Brewer, The Sinews of Power (New York: Knopf, 1989); Richard Pares, War and Trade in the West Indies, 1739-1763 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1936) and Colonial Blockade and Neutral Rights, 1739-1763 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1938); Philip Buck, The Politics of Mercantilism (New York: Henry Holt, 1942); George Beer, British Colonial Policy, 1754-1765 (New York: Macmillan, 1907); Eli Heckscher, Mercantilism, 2 vols. (London: George Allen & Unwin, 1935); Jacob Viner, 'Power versus Plenty as Objectives of Foreign Policy in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries', World Politics, 1 (1948), pp. 1-30.
26. See Michael Kammen, Empire and Interest (New York, Lippincott, 1970); Klaus Knorr, British Colonial Theories (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1944); Nancy Koehn, The Power of Commerce (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1994); John Brewer, The Sinews of Power (New York: Knopf, 1989); Richard Pares, War and Trade in the West Indies, 1739-1763 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1936) and Colonial Blockade and Neutral Rights, 1739-1763 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1938); Philip Buck, The Politics of Mercantilism (New York: Henry Holt, 1942); George Beer, British Colonial Policy, 1754-1765 (New York: Macmillan, 1907); Eli Heckscher, Mercantilism, 2 vols. (London: George Allen & Unwin, 1935); Jacob Viner, 'Power versus Plenty as Objectives of Foreign Policy in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries', World Politics, 1 (1948), pp. 1-30.
27. See Michael Kammen, Empire and Interest (New York, Lippincott, 1970); Klaus Knorr, British Colonial Theories (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1944); Nancy Koehn, The Power of Commerce (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1994); John Brewer, The Sinews of Power (New York: Knopf, 1989); Richard Pares, War and Trade in the West Indies, 1739-1763 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1936) and Colonial Blockade and Neutral Rights, 1739-1763 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1938); Philip Buck, The Politics of Mercantilism (New York: Henry Holt, 1942); George Beer, British Colonial Policy, 1754-1765 (New York: Macmillan, 1907); Eli Heckscher, Mercantilism, 2 vols. (London: George Allen & Unwin, 1935); Jacob Viner, 'Power versus Plenty as Objectives of Foreign Policy in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries', World Politics, 1 (1948), pp. 1-30.
28. See Michael Kammen, Empire and Interest (New York, Lippincott, 1970); Klaus Knorr, British Colonial Theories (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1944); Nancy Koehn, The Power of Commerce (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1994); John Brewer, The Sinews of Power (New York: Knopf, 1989); Richard Pares, War and Trade in the West Indies, 1739-1763 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1936) and Colonial Blockade and Neutral Rights, 1739-1763 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1938); Philip Buck, The Politics of Mercantilism (New York: Henry Holt, 1942); George Beer, British Colonial Policy, 1754-1765 (New York: Macmillan, 1907); Eli Heckscher, Mercantilism, 2 vols. (London: George Allen & Unwin, 1935); Jacob Viner, 'Power versus Plenty as Objectives of Foreign Policy in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries', World Politics, 1 (1948), pp. 1-30.
29. See Michael Kammen, Empire and Interest (New York, Lippincott, 1970); Klaus Knorr, British Colonial Theories (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1944); Nancy Koehn, The Power of Commerce (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1994); John Brewer, The Sinews of Power (New York: Knopf, 1989); Richard Pares, War and Trade in the West Indies, 1739-1763 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1936) and Colonial Blockade and Neutral Rights, 1739-1763 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1938); Philip Buck, The Politics of Mercantilism (New York: Henry Holt, 1942); George Beer, British Colonial Policy, 1754-1765 (New York: Macmillan, 1907); Eli Heckscher, Mercantilism, 2 vols. (London: George Allen & Unwin, 1935); Jacob Viner, 'Power versus Plenty as Objectives of Foreign Policy in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries', World Politics, 1 (1948), pp. 1-30.
30. See Michael Kammen, Empire and Interest (New York, Lippincott, 1970); Klaus Knorr, British Colonial Theories (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1944); Nancy Koehn, The Power of Commerce (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1994); John Brewer, The Sinews of Power (New York: Knopf, 1989); Richard Pares, War and Trade in the West Indies, 1739-1763 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1936) and Colonial Blockade and Neutral Rights, 1739-1763 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1938); Philip Buck, The Politics of Mercantilism (New York: Henry Holt, 1942); George Beer, British Colonial Policy, 1754-1765 (New York: Macmillan, 1907); Eli Heckscher, Mercantilism, 2 vols. (London: George Allen & Unwin, 1935); Jacob Viner, 'Power versus Plenty as Objectives of Foreign Policy in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries', World Politics, 1 (1948), pp. 1-30.
31. See Michael Kammen, Empire and Interest (New York, Lippincott, 1970); Klaus Knorr, British Colonial Theories (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1944); Nancy Koehn, The Power of Commerce (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1994); John Brewer, The Sinews of Power (New York: Knopf, 1989); Richard Pares, War and Trade in the West Indies, 1739-1763 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1936) and Colonial Blockade and Neutral Rights, 1739-1763 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1938); Philip Buck, The Politics of Mercantilism (New York: Henry Holt, 1942); George Beer, British Colonial Policy, 1754-1765 (New York: Macmillan, 1907); Eli Heckscher, Mercantilism, 2 vols. (London: George Allen & Unwin, 1935); Jacob Viner, 'Power versus Plenty as Objectives of Foreign Policy in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries', World Politics, 1 (1948), pp. 1-30.
32. See Michael Kammen, Empire and Interest (New York, Lippincott, 1970); Klaus Knorr, British Colonial Theories (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1944); Nancy Koehn, The Power of Commerce (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1994); John Brewer, The Sinews of Power (New York: Knopf, 1989); Richard Pares, War and Trade in the West Indies, 1739-1763 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1936) and Colonial Blockade and Neutral Rights, 1739-1763 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1938); Philip Buck, The Politics of Mercantilism (New York: Henry Holt, 1942); George Beer, British Colonial Policy, 1754-1765 (New York: Macmillan, 1907); Eli Heckscher, Mercantilism, 2 vols. (London: George Allen & Unwin, 1935); Jacob Viner, 'Power versus Plenty as Objectives of Foreign Policy in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries', World Politics, 1 (1948), pp. 1-30.
33. Cited in Knorr, p. 23. On this point, see also J.F. Rees, 'Mercantilism and the Colonies', in The Cambridge History of the British Empire, vol. 1 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1929).
34. Franklin reported that British Ministers frequently gloated about their ability to encourage client states to raid neutral shipping. One reputedly commented that 'if there were no Algiers, it would be worth England's while to build one'. Julian Boyd, et al. (eds.), The Papers of Thomas Jefferson, vol. 18 (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1950), p. 375.
35. See J.G.A. Pocock, Virtue, Commerce, and History (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985); Joyce Appleby, Capitalism and a New Social Order (New York: New York University Press, 1984); Banning, Jeffersonian Persuasion; Knorr, Colonial Theories; Rees, 'Mercantilism'; Pares, War and Trade, ch. 1.
36. See J.G.A. Pocock, Virtue, Commerce, and History (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985); Joyce Appleby, Capitalism and a New Social Order (New York: New York University Press, 1984); Banning, Jeffersonian Persuasion; Knorr, Colonial Theories; Rees, 'Mercantilism'; Pares, War and Trade, ch. 1.
37. See J.G.A. Pocock, Virtue, Commerce, and History (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985); Joyce Appleby, Capitalism and a New Social Order (New York: New York University Press, 1984); Banning, Jeffersonian Persuasion; Knorr, Colonial Theories; Rees, 'Mercantilism'; Pares, War and Trade, ch. 1.
38. See J.G.A. Pocock, Virtue, Commerce, and History (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985); Joyce Appleby, Capitalism and a New Social Order (New York: New York University Press, 1984); Banning, Jeffersonian Persuasion; Knorr, Colonial Theories; Rees, 'Mercantilism'; Pares, War and Trade, ch. 1.
39. See J.G.A. Pocock, Virtue, Commerce, and History (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985); Joyce Appleby, Capitalism and a New Social Order (New York: New York University Press, 1984); Banning, Jeffersonian Persuasion; Knorr, Colonial Theories; Rees, 'Mercantilism'; Pares, War and Trade, ch. 1.
40. See J.G.A. Pocock, Virtue, Commerce, and History (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985); Joyce Appleby, Capitalism and a New Social Order (New York: New York University Press, 1984); Banning, Jeffersonian Persuasion; Knorr, Colonial Theories; Rees, 'Mercantilism'; Pares, War and Trade, ch. 1.
41. Walter Dorn, Competition for Empire, 1740-1763 (New York: Harper and Row, 1940), ch. 6.
42. Cited in Knorr, p. 23; 22.
43. Harry Ammon, The Genet Mission (New York: Norton, 1973), chs. 5-6.
44. Bukovansky, pp. 220-2.
45. Carl Kulsrud, Maritime Neutrality to 1780 (Boston: Little, Brown, 1936); Pares, Colonial Blockade and Neutral Rights; Isabel de Madariaga, Britain, Russia, and the Armed Neutrality of 1780 (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1962).
46. Carl Kulsrud, Maritime Neutrality to 1780 (Boston: Little, Brown, 1936); Pares, Colonial Blockade and Neutral Rights; Isabel de Madariaga, Britain, Russia, and the Armed Neutrality of 1780 (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1962).
47. Carl Kulsrud, Maritime Neutrality to 1780 (Boston: Little, Brown, 1936); Pares, Colonial Blockade and Neutral Rights; Isabel de Madariaga, Britain, Russia, and the Armed Neutrality of 1780 (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1962).
48. Kulsrud, Maritime Neutrality to 1780; Madariaga, Britain, Russia, and the Armed Neutrality. Catherine's 'armed neutrality' of 1780 attempted to solve the problem by allying Russia, Sweden, the United Provinces, and Denmark in a collective defence pact to deter French and British attacks on shipping. In reality this was directly as an anti-British measure during the American War, as Catherine resented British 'meddling' in Poland and argued after the Treaty of Teschen in May 1779 that England treated Russia like 'an eastern Portugal'. Hence the League was in reality a tool of Russian diplomacy aimed at asserting its Great Power status to Britain. Madariaga, p. 6.
49. Kulsrud, Maritime Neutrality to 1780; Madariaga, Britain, Russia, and the Armed Neutrality. Catherine's 'armed neutrality' of 1780 attempted to solve the problem by allying Russia, Sweden, the United Provinces, and Denmark in a collective defence pact to deter French and British attacks on shipping. In reality this was directly as an anti-British measure during the American War, as Catherine resented British 'meddling' in Poland and argued after the Treaty of Teschen in May 1779 that England treated Russia like 'an eastern Portugal'. Hence the League was in reality a tool of Russian diplomacy aimed at asserting its Great Power status to Britain. Madariaga, p. 6.
50. See James R. Sofka, 'The Jeffersonian Idea of National Security: Commerce, the Atlantic Balance of Power, and the Barbary War, 1785-1805', Diplomatic History, 21 (1997), pp. 519-44; Joseph Dorfman, 'The Economic Philosophy of Thomas Jefferson', Political Science Quarterly, 55 (1940), pp. 98-121; Merrill Peterson, 'Thomas Jefferson and Commercial Policy', William and Mary Quarterly, 22 (1965), pp. 584-610; Stourzh, Alexander Hamilton, ch. 4; Edward Meade Earle, 'Adam Smith, Alexander Hamilton, and Friedrich List: The Economic Foundations of Military Power', in Peter Paret (ed.), Makers of Modern Strategy (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1986), ch. 8.
51. See James R. Sofka, 'The Jeffersonian Idea of National Security: Commerce, the Atlantic Balance of Power, and the Barbary War, 1785-1805', Diplomatic History, 21 (1997), pp. 519-44; Joseph Dorfman, 'The Economic Philosophy of Thomas Jefferson', Political Science Quarterly, 55 (1940), pp. 98-121; Merrill Peterson, 'Thomas Jefferson and Commercial Policy', William and Mary Quarterly, 22 (1965), pp. 584-610; Stourzh, Alexander Hamilton, ch. 4; Edward Meade Earle, 'Adam Smith, Alexander Hamilton, and Friedrich List: The Economic Foundations of Military Power', in Peter Paret (ed.), Makers of Modern Strategy (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1986), ch. 8.
52. See James R. Sofka, 'The Jeffersonian Idea of National Security: Commerce, the Atlantic Balance of Power, and the Barbary War, 1785-1805', Diplomatic History, 21 (1997), pp. 519-44; Joseph Dorfman, 'The Economic Philosophy of Thomas Jefferson', Political Science Quarterly, 55 (1940), pp. 98-121; Merrill Peterson, 'Thomas Jefferson and Commercial Policy', William and Mary Quarterly, 22 (1965), pp. 584-610; Stourzh, Alexander Hamilton, ch. 4; Edward Meade Earle, 'Adam Smith, Alexander Hamilton, and Friedrich List: The Economic Foundations of Military Power', in Peter Paret (ed.), Makers of Modern Strategy (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1986), ch. 8.
53. See James R. Sofka, 'The Jeffersonian Idea of National Security: Commerce, the Atlantic Balance of Power, and the Barbary War, 1785-1805', Diplomatic History, 21 (1997), pp. 519-44; Joseph Dorfman, 'The Economic Philosophy of Thomas Jefferson', Political Science Quarterly, 55 (1940), pp. 98-121; Merrill Peterson, 'Thomas Jefferson and Commercial Policy', William and Mary Quarterly, 22 (1965), pp. 584-610; Stourzh, Alexander Hamilton, ch. 4; Edward Meade Earle, 'Adam Smith, Alexander Hamilton, and Friedrich List: The Economic Foundations of Military Power', in Peter Paret (ed.), Makers of Modern Strategy (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1986), ch. 8.
54. See James R. Sofka, 'The Jeffersonian Idea of National Security: Commerce, the Atlantic Balance of Power, and the Barbary War, 1785-1805', Diplomatic History, 21 (1997), pp. 519-44; Joseph Dorfman, 'The Economic Philosophy of Thomas Jefferson', Political Science Quarterly, 55 (1940), pp. 98-121; Merrill Peterson, 'Thomas Jefferson and Commercial Policy', William and Mary Quarterly, 22 (1965), pp. 584-610; Stourzh, Alexander Hamilton, ch. 4; Edward Meade Earle, 'Adam Smith, Alexander Hamilton, and Friedrich List: The Economic Foundations of Military Power', in Peter Paret (ed.), Makers of Modern Strategy (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1986), ch. 8.
55. John Crowley, The Privileges of Commerce: Neomercantilism and the American Revolution (Baltimore, MD: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1993). See also Richard Mannix, 'Gallatin, Jefferson, and the Embargo of 1808', Diplomatic History, 3 (1979), pp. 151-72; James Hutson, 'Intellectual Foundations of Early American Diplomacy', Diplomatic History, 1 (1977), pp. 1-19.
56. John Crowley, The Privileges of Commerce: Neomercantilism and the American Revolution (Baltimore, MD: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1993). See also Richard Mannix, 'Gallatin, Jefferson, and the Embargo of 1808', Diplomatic History, 3 (1979), pp. 151-72; James Hutson, 'Intellectual Foundations of Early American Diplomacy', Diplomatic History, 1 (1977), pp. 1-19.
57. John Crowley, The Privileges of Commerce: Neomercantilism and the American Revolution (Baltimore, MD: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1993). See also Richard Mannix, 'Gallatin, Jefferson, and the Embargo of 1808', Diplomatic History, 3 (1979), pp. 151-72; James Hutson, 'Intellectual Foundations of Early American Diplomacy', Diplomatic History, 1 (1977), pp. 1-19.
58. Stanley Elkins and Eric McKitrick, The Age of Federalism (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1993), pp. 65-74; Peterson, 'Jefferson and Commercial Policy'; McCoy, Elusive Republic, ch. 3.
59. Stanley Elkins and Eric McKitrick, The Age of Federalism (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1993), pp. 65-74; Peterson, 'Jefferson and Commercial Policy'; McCoy, Elusive Republic, ch. 3.
60. Stanley Elkins and Eric McKitrick, The Age of Federalism (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1993), pp. 65-74; Peterson, 'Jefferson and Commercial Policy'; McCoy, Elusive Republic, ch. 3.
61. See especially Albert Bowman, 'Jefferson, Hamilton, and American Foreign Policy', Political Science Quarterly, 71 (1956), pp. 18-41; Lawrence Kaplan, 'Entangling Alliances With None': American Foreign Policy in the Age of Jefferson (Kent, OH: Kent State University Press, 1987), ch. 5; Appleby, Capitalism and a New Social Order; McCoy, Elusive Republic; Banning, Jeffersonian Persuasion; Elkins and McKitrick, ch. 2.
62. See especially Albert Bowman, 'Jefferson, Hamilton, and American Foreign Policy', Political Science Quarterly, 71 (1956), pp. 18-41; Lawrence Kaplan, 'Entangling Alliances With None': American Foreign Policy in the Age of Jefferson (Kent, OH: Kent State University Press, 1987), ch. 5; Appleby, Capitalism and a New Social Order; McCoy, Elusive Republic; Banning, Jeffersonian Persuasion; Elkins and McKitrick, ch. 2.
63. See especially Albert Bowman, 'Jefferson, Hamilton, and American Foreign Policy', Political Science Quarterly, 71 (1956), pp. 18-41; Lawrence Kaplan, 'Entangling Alliances With None': American Foreign Policy in the Age of Jefferson (Kent, OH: Kent State University Press, 1987), ch. 5; Appleby, Capitalism and a New Social Order; McCoy, Elusive Republic; Banning, Jeffersonian Persuasion; Elkins and McKitrick, ch. 2.
64. See especially Albert Bowman, 'Jefferson, Hamilton, and American Foreign Policy', Political Science Quarterly, 71 (1956), pp. 18-41; Lawrence Kaplan, 'Entangling Alliances With None': American Foreign Policy in the Age of Jefferson (Kent, OH: Kent State University Press, 1987), ch. 5; Appleby, Capitalism and a New Social Order; McCoy, Elusive Republic; Banning, Jeffersonian Persuasion; Elkins and McKitrick, ch. 2.
65. See especially Albert Bowman, 'Jefferson, Hamilton, and American Foreign Policy', Political Science Quarterly, 71 (1956), pp. 18-41; Lawrence Kaplan, 'Entangling Alliances With None': American Foreign Policy in the Age of Jefferson (Kent, OH: Kent State University Press, 1987), ch. 5; Appleby, Capitalism and a New Social Order; McCoy, Elusive Republic; Banning, Jeffersonian Persuasion; Elkins and McKitrick, ch. 2.
66. See especially Gilbert, Farewell Address; Tucker and Hendrickson, pt. 5. Indeed, Jefferson frequently expressed rhetorical yearnings for a 'meridian of partition' across the Atlantic and argued that 'were I to indulge my own theory I should wish us to practice neither commerce nor navigation but to stand with respect to Europe on precisely the same footing as China. We should thus avoid wars'. But he quickly rejected this as 'theory only, and a theory which the servants of America are not at liberty to follow'. Boyd, vol. 8, p. 633.
67. See especially Gilbert, Farewell Address; Tucker and Hendrickson, pt. 5. Indeed, Jefferson frequently expressed rhetorical yearnings for a 'meridian of partition' across the Atlantic and argued that 'were I to indulge my own theory I should wish us to practice neither commerce nor navigation but to stand with respect to Europe on precisely the same footing as China. We should thus avoid wars'. But he quickly rejected this as 'theory only, and a theory which the servants of America are not at liberty to follow'. Boyd, vol. 8, p. 633.
68. See Bradford Perkins, Prologue to War (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1961), ch. 2.
69. Kulsrud, Maritime Neutrality; Pares, Colonial Blockade.
70. Kulsrud, Maritime Neutrality; Pares, Colonial Blockade.
71. On this point see Sofka, 'Jeffersonian Idea of National Security'; Max Savelle, 'The American Balance of Power and European Diplomacy, 1713-1778', in Richard Morris (ed.), The Era of the American Revolution (New York: Columbia University Press, 1939); Hutson, 'Intellectual Foundations'; Jonathan R. Dull, A Diplomatic History of The American Revolution (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1985); Kaplan, ch. 8.
72. On this point see Sofka, 'Jeffersonian Idea of National Security'; Max Savelle, 'The American Balance of Power and European Diplomacy, 1713-1778', in Richard Morris (ed.), The Era of the American Revolution (New York: Columbia University Press, 1939); Hutson, 'Intellectual Foundations'; Jonathan R. Dull, A Diplomatic History of The American Revolution (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1985); Kaplan, ch. 8.
73. On this point see Sofka, 'Jeffersonian Idea of National Security'; Max Savelle, 'The American Balance of Power and European Diplomacy, 1713-1778', in Richard Morris (ed.), The Era of the American Revolution (New York: Columbia University Press, 1939); Hutson, 'Intellectual Foundations'; Jonathan R. Dull, A Diplomatic History of The American Revolution (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1985); Kaplan, ch. 8.
74. On this point see Sofka, 'Jeffersonian Idea of National Security'; Max Savelle, 'The American Balance of Power and European Diplomacy, 1713-1778', in Richard Morris (ed.), The Era of the American Revolution (New York: Columbia University Press, 1939); Hutson, 'Intellectual Foundations'; Jonathan R. Dull, A Diplomatic History of The American Revolution (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1985); Kaplan, ch. 8.
75. See Alexander DeConde, Entangling Alliance: Politics and Diplomacy under George Washington (New York: Knopf, 1958), Conclusion, on this point.
76. Stourzh, Hamilton, ch. 4; Elkins and McKitrick, ch. 9; Bowman, 'Jefferson and Hamilton'.
77. Charles Ritcheson, Aftermath of Revolution (New York: Norton, 1969), ch. 2; Black, British Foreign Policy, ch. 1.
78. Charles Ritcheson, Aftermath of Revolution (New York: Norton, 1969), ch. 2; Black, British Foreign Policy, ch. 1.
79. On this point see Samuel F. Bemis, Jay's Treaty: A Study in Commerce and Diplomacy (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1923), chs. 5 and 13; Earle, 'Adam Smith and Alexander Hamilton'.
80. On this point see Sofka, 'Jeffersonian Idea of National Security', pp. 520-4.
81. Boyd, vol. 16, p. 601.
82. Jefferson Papers, Library of Congress. Hereafter 'JPLC'. Reel 56: 11 January, 1806.
83. Ford, vol. 7, p. 421.
84. Ibid., vol. 8, pp. 112-3.
85. See especially Crowley, pp. 156-63 on this point.
86. McCoy, Elusive Republic, pp. 137-46; Crowley, ch. 5; J.C.A. Stagg, Mr. Madison's War: Politics, Diplomacy, and Warfare in the early American Republic, 1783-1830 (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1983), ch. 1.
87. McCoy, Elusive Republic, pp. 137-46; Crowley, ch. 5; J.C.A. Stagg, Mr. Madison's War: Politics, Diplomacy, and Warfare in the early American Republic, 1783-1830 (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1983), ch. 1.
88. See Boyd, vol. 13, pp. 52-91; vol. 18, pp. 516-77.
89. Ibid., vol. 15, pp. 364-5; Robert Palmer, 'The Dubious Democrat: Thomas Jefferson in Bourbon France', Political Science Quarterly, 72 (1957), pp. 388-404.
90. Ibid., vol. 15, pp. 364-5; Robert Palmer, 'The Dubious Democrat: Thomas Jefferson in Bourbon France', Political Science Quarterly, 72 (1957), pp. 388-404.
91. Ford, vol. 8, p. 112.
92. For the classical idealist reading see Louis Sears, Jefferson and the Embargo (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1927); McCoy, Elusive Republic; Pocock, Virtue, Commerce, and History. For the neomercantilist reading see Crowley, ch. 7; Mannix, 'Gallatin, Jefferson, and the Embargo'; Hutson, 'Intellectual Foundations'; Dull, Diplomatic History of the American Revolution.
93. For the classical idealist reading see Louis Sears, Jefferson and the Embargo (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1927); McCoy, Elusive Republic; Pocock, Virtue, Commerce, and History. For the neomercantilist reading see Crowley, ch. 7; Mannix, 'Gallatin, Jefferson, and the Embargo'; Hutson, 'Intellectual Foundations'; Dull, Diplomatic History of the American Revolution.
94. For the classical idealist reading see Louis Sears, Jefferson and the Embargo (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1927); McCoy, Elusive Republic; Pocock, Virtue, Commerce, and History. For the neomercantilist reading see Crowley, ch. 7; Mannix, 'Gallatin, Jefferson, and the Embargo'; Hutson, 'Intellectual Foundations'; Dull, Diplomatic History of the American Revolution.
95. For the classical idealist reading see Louis Sears, Jefferson and the Embargo (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1927); McCoy, Elusive Republic; Pocock, Virtue, Commerce, and History. For the neomercantilist reading see Crowley, ch. 7; Mannix, 'Gallatin, Jefferson, and the Embargo'; Hutson, 'Intellectual Foundations'; Dull, Diplomatic History of the American Revolution.
96. For the classical idealist reading see Louis Sears, Jefferson and the Embargo (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1927); McCoy, Elusive Republic; Pocock, Virtue, Commerce, and History. For the neomercantilist reading see Crowley, ch. 7; Mannix, 'Gallatin, Jefferson, and the Embargo'; Hutson, 'Intellectual Foundations'; Dull, Diplomatic History of the American Revolution.
97. For the classical idealist reading see Louis Sears, Jefferson and the Embargo (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1927); McCoy, Elusive Republic; Pocock, Virtue, Commerce, and History. For the neomercantilist reading see Crowley, ch. 7; Mannix, 'Gallatin, Jefferson, and the Embargo'; Hutson, 'Intellectual Foundations'; Dull, Diplomatic History of the American Revolution.
98. Ford, vol. 8, p. 117; p. 293.
99. Ibid., vol. 9, pp. 365-6; DeConde, This Affair of Louisiana (New York: Knopf, 1976), pp. 173-5.
100. Ibid., vol. 9, pp. 365-6; DeConde, This Affair of Louisiana (New York: Knopf, 1976), pp. 173-5.
101. Ibid., vol. 8, p. 117.
102. Boyd, vol. 8, pp. 425-7.
103. On this important point see Craig Symond, Navalists and anti-Navalists: The Naval Policy Debate in the United States, 1785-1827, (Newark, DL: University of Delaware Press, 1980).
104. See Spencer Tucker, The Jeffersonian Gunboat Navy (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1993), on this point.
105. Boyd, vol. 17, p. 113; vol. 23, pp. 299-303; Dumas Malone (ed.), The Correspondence of Thomas Jefferson and Pierre Samuel DuPont deNemours (Boston: Little, Brown, 1930), p. 74.
106. This thesis is developed well in Mary P. Adams, 'Jefferson's Reaction to the Treaty of San Ildefonso', Journal of Southern History, 21 (1955), pp. 173-88; Arthur P. Whitaker, The Mississippi Question, 1795-1803 (New York: Columbia University Press, 1934); Clifford Egan, 'The United States, France, and West Florida, 1803-1807', Florida Historical Quarterly, 47 (1969), pp. 227-52 and Neither Peace Nor War Franco-American Relations 1803-1812 (Baton Rouge, LA: Louisiana State University Press, 1983); Isaac Cox, 'The Pan-American Policy of Jefferson and Wilkinson', Mississippi Valley Historical Review, 1 (1914), pp. 212-39 and The West Florida Controversy (Baltimore, MD: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1918). The Lewis and Clark expedition, for example, was initially designed as a military reconnaisance of Louisiana in the event of war and was redefined as a 'corps of discovery' only after the Purchase placed the territory safely under American control.
107. This thesis is developed well in Mary P. Adams, 'Jefferson's Reaction to the Treaty of San Ildefonso', Journal of Southern History, 21 (1955), pp. 173-88; Arthur P. Whitaker, The Mississippi Question, 1795-1803 (New York: Columbia University Press, 1934); Clifford Egan, 'The United States, France, and West Florida, 1803-1807', Florida Historical Quarterly, 47 (1969), pp. 227-52 and Neither Peace Nor War Franco-American Relations 1803-1812 (Baton Rouge, LA: Louisiana State University Press, 1983); Isaac Cox, 'The Pan-American Policy of Jefferson and Wilkinson', Mississippi Valley Historical Review, 1 (1914), pp. 212-39 and The West Florida Controversy (Baltimore, MD: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1918). The Lewis and Clark expedition, for example, was initially designed as a military reconnaisance of Louisiana in the event of war and was redefined as a 'corps of discovery' only after the Purchase placed the territory safely under American control.
108. This thesis is developed well in Mary P. Adams, 'Jefferson's Reaction to the Treaty of San Ildefonso', Journal of Southern History, 21 (1955), pp. 173-88; Arthur P. Whitaker, The Mississippi Question, 1795-1803 (New York: Columbia University Press, 1934); Clifford Egan, 'The United States, France, and West Florida, 1803-1807', Florida Historical Quarterly, 47 (1969), pp. 227-52 and Neither Peace Nor War Franco-American Relations 1803-1812 (Baton Rouge, LA: Louisiana State University Press, 1983); Isaac Cox, 'The Pan-American Policy of Jefferson and Wilkinson', Mississippi Valley Historical Review, 1 (1914), pp. 212-39 and The West Florida Controversy (Baltimore, MD: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1918). The Lewis and Clark expedition, for example, was initially designed as a military reconnaisance of Louisiana in the event of war and was redefined as a 'corps of discovery' only after the Purchase placed the territory safely under American control.
109. This thesis is developed well in Mary P. Adams, 'Jefferson's Reaction to the Treaty of San Ildefonso', Journal of Southern History, 21 (1955), pp. 173-88; Arthur P. Whitaker, The Mississippi Question, 1795-1803 (New York: Columbia University Press, 1934); Clifford Egan, 'The United States, France, and West Florida, 1803-1807', Florida Historical Quarterly, 47 (1969), pp. 227-52 and Neither Peace Nor War Franco-American Relations 1803-1812 (Baton Rouge, LA: Louisiana State University Press, 1983); Isaac Cox, 'The Pan-American Policy of Jefferson and Wilkinson', Mississippi Valley Historical Review, 1 (1914), pp. 212-39 and The West Florida Controversy (Baltimore, MD: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1918). The Lewis and Clark expedition, for example, was initially designed as a military reconnaisance of Louisiana in the event of war and was redefined as a 'corps of discovery' only after the Purchase placed the territory safely under American control.
110. This thesis is developed well in Mary P. Adams, 'Jefferson's Reaction to the Treaty of San Ildefonso', Journal of Southern History, 21 (1955), pp. 173-88; Arthur P. Whitaker, The Mississippi Question, 1795-1803 (New York: Columbia University Press, 1934); Clifford Egan, 'The United States, France, and West Florida, 1803-1807', Florida Historical Quarterly, 47 (1969), pp. 227-52 and Neither Peace Nor War Franco-American Relations 1803-1812 (Baton Rouge, LA: Louisiana State University Press, 1983); Isaac Cox, 'The Pan-American Policy of Jefferson and Wilkinson', Mississippi Valley Historical Review, 1 (1914), pp. 212-39 and The West Florida Controversy (Baltimore, MD: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1918). The Lewis and Clark expedition, for example, was initially designed as a military reconnaisance of Louisiana in the event of war and was redefined as a 'corps of discovery' only after the Purchase placed the territory safely under American control.
111. This thesis is developed well in Mary P. Adams, 'Jefferson's Reaction to the Treaty of San Ildefonso', Journal of Southern History, 21 (1955), pp. 173-88; Arthur P. Whitaker, The Mississippi Question, 1795-1803 (New York: Columbia University Press, 1934); Clifford Egan, 'The United States, France, and West Florida, 1803-1807', Florida Historical Quarterly, 47 (1969), pp. 227-52 and Neither Peace Nor War Franco-American Relations 1803-1812 (Baton Rouge, LA: Louisiana State University Press, 1983); Isaac Cox, 'The Pan-American Policy of Jefferson and Wilkinson', Mississippi Valley Historical Review, 1 (1914), pp. 212-39 and The West Florida Controversy (Baltimore, MD: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1918). The Lewis and Clark expedition, for example, was initially designed as a military reconnaisance of Louisiana in the event of war and was redefined as a 'corps of discovery' only after the Purchase placed the territory safely under American control.
112. Boyd, vol. 7, p. 403.
113. DeConde, Louisiana, p. 227. Jefferson had urged Congress to appropriate two million dollars as a bribe to Napoleon so that he would influence his Spanish ally to surrender West Florida.
114. Gaillard Hunt (ed.), The Writings of James Madison, 9 vols. (New York: Scribner, 1910), vol. 7, p. 74.
115. DeConde and Egan contend that the Administration was fully aware that the Treaty of 1783 surrendered the province to Spain as a separate entity from the rest of Louisiana. In his eagerness to gain West Florida for strategic and commercial reasons Jefferson, as DeConde notes, ignored legal niceties and sought to 'stretch boundaries as though they were made of rubber'. Louisiana, p. 213.
116. DeConde, Louisiana, p. 215.
117. Boyd, vol. 10, pp. 560-6; vol. 18, pp. 349-416.
118. Boyd, vol. 7, pp. 511-12. See Sofka, 'Jeffersonian Idea of National Security' for a development of this conflict in the context of Jefferson's broader view of American commercial policy.
119. Boyd, vol. 7, pp. 511-12. See Sofka, 'Jeffersonian Idea of National Security' for a development of this conflict in the context of Jefferson's broader view of American commercial policy.
120. On this point see Reginald Stuart, The Half-Way Pacifist: Thomas Jefferson's View of War (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1978).
121. See Donald Hickey, The Monroe-Pinkney Treaty of 1806: A Reappraisal', William and Mary Quarterly, 44 (1987), pp. 65-88;
122. Perkins, Prologue to War, ch. 4.
123. Perkins, Prologue to War, ch. 3.
124. JPLC, Reel 61; Ford, vol. 10, p. 389.
125. Malone, Correspondence, p. 94.
126. Perkins, Prologue to War, pp. 148-9. The Orders were adopted in November, and were in effect by the time Jefferson received advance copies of them in early December. This was a decisive factor contributing to Jefferson's embargo strategy.
127. Mannix, 'Gallatin and Jefferson'; Burton Spivak, Jefferson's English Crisis (Charlottesville, VA: The University Press of Virginia, 1979). At the onset of the Seven Years' War Britain delayed its official declaration of war in order to seize French shipping by surprise through backdating the notice of hostilities.
128. Mannix, 'Gallatin and Jefferson'; Burton Spivak, Jefferson's English Crisis (Charlottesville, VA: The University Press of Virginia, 1979). At the onset of the Seven Years' War Britain delayed its official declaration of war in order to seize French shipping by surprise through backdating the notice of hostilities.
129. JPLC, Reel 62. He noted to Page on July 17 that he desired 'reparation for the past & security for the future, that is to say, the end of impressments. If motives of either justice or interest should produce this from Great Britain, it will save a war; but if they are refused, we shall have gained time for getting in our ships & property & at least 20,000 seamen now afloat on the ocean, and who may man 250 privateers ... The meantime may also be importantly employed in preparations to enable us to give quick and deep blows'. Ford, vol. 10, pp. 47-50.
130. JPLC, Reel 66; 65.
131. Perkins, Prologue to War, pp. 148-9.
132. See Spivak, p. x for this argument.
133. Spivak, p. 125.
134. JPLC, Reel 65; Spivak, p. 200.
135. Spivak, pp. 116-8; 83.
136. Sears, Jefferson and the Embargo, p. 32.
137. Otto Pflanze, Bismarck and the Development of Germany, 3 vols. (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1990), vol. 3, p. 97.
138. Dorn, p. 139.
139. Bukovansky, p. 238; Crane Brinton, The Anatomy of Revolution (New York: Prentice-Hall, 1952), ch. 9.