Subcontracting military power: The privatisation of security in contemporary Sub-Saharan Africa

Crime, Law and Social Change

Volumn 33, Issue 1-2, 2000, Pages 131-149

  Cleaver, Gerry ^a  

^a Faculty of Engineering and Computing   (United Kingdom)

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[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 0034347442     PISSN: 09254994     EISSN: 15730751     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1023/a:1008346303773     Document Type: Article

References (69)

1. Of the recent literature, the most useful general averviews are: Thomas K. Adams, "The New Mercenaries and the Privatization of Conflict", Parameters (US Army War College Quarterly) Summer 1999. Accessible at; http://carlisle-www.army.mil/usawc/parameters/99/sum mer/adams.htm; David Isenberg, "Soldiers of Fortune Ltd: A Profile of Today's Private Sector Corporate Mercenary Firms", paper for the Center for Defense Information, "Washington, DC, November 1997, accessible at: http://www.cdi.org; David Shearer, "Private Armies and Military Intervention", Adelphi Paper 316 (Oxford, Oxford University Press/International Institute for Strategic Studies, 1998).
2. Of the recent literature, the most useful general averviews are: Thomas K. Adams, "The New Mercenaries and the Privatization of Conflict", Parameters (US Army War College Quarterly) Summer 1999. Accessible at; http://carlisle-www.army.mil/usawc/parameters/99/sum mer/adams.htm; David Isenberg, "Soldiers of Fortune Ltd: A Profile of Today's Private Sector Corporate Mercenary Firms", paper for the Center for Defense Information, "Washington, DC, November 1997, accessible at: http://www.cdi.org; David Shearer, "Private Armies and Military Intervention", Adelphi Paper 316 (Oxford, Oxford University Press/International Institute for Strategic Studies, 1998).
3. Of the recent literature, the most useful general averviews are: Thomas K. Adams, "The New Mercenaries and the Privatization of Conflict", Parameters (US Army War College Quarterly) Summer 1999. Accessible at; http://carlisle-www.army.mil/usawc/parameters/99/sum mer/adams.htm; David Isenberg, "Soldiers of Fortune Ltd: A Profile of Today's Private Sector Corporate Mercenary Firms", paper for the Center for Defense Information, "Washington, DC, November 1997, accessible at: http://www.cdi.org; David Shearer, "Private Armies and Military Intervention", Adelphi Paper 316 (Oxford, Oxford University Press/International Institute for Strategic Studies, 1998).
4. Shearer, "Private Armies", p. 17.
5. Adams, "the New Mercenaries", p. 1.
6. Enrique Ballesteros, United Nations Special Rapporteur, "Report on the question of the use of mercenaries as a means of violating human rights and impeding the exercise of the right of peoples to self determination". United Nations Document E/CN.4/1998/31, 27.1.98, paras 67-92.
7. Ibid.
8. Britain still recruits for the Royal Gurkha Rifles in Nepal and many nationalities are to be found within the ranks of the French Foreign Legion.
9. The Foreign Legion has been heavily involved in many of France's military interventions in Africa, particularly in Chad and more recently in Rwanda in 1994.
10. Shearer, "Private Armies", p. 15. See also Peter Tickler, The Modern Mercenary: Dog of War or Soldier of Honour? (Wellingborough, Patrick Stephens Ltd, 1987), and Mike Hoare, Congo Mercenary (London, Robert Hale Ltd, 1991).
11. Shearer, "Private Armies", p. 15. See also Peter Tickler, The Modern Mercenary: Dog of War or Soldier of Honour? (Wellingborough, Patrick Stephens Ltd, 1987), and Mike Hoare, Congo Mercenary (London, Robert Hale Ltd, 1991).
12. Shearer, "Private Armies", p. 15. See also Peter Tickler, The Modern Mercenary: Dog of War or Soldier of Honour? (Wellingborough, Patrick Stephens Ltd, 1987), and Mike Hoare, Congo Mercenary (London, Robert Hale Ltd, 1991).
13. 32 Battalion was largely made up of Angolans led by South African officers and NCOs.
14. See Roy May and Arnold Hughes, "Armies on loan: Toward an explanation of transnational military intervention among Black African states", in S. Baynham (ed.), Military Power & Politics in Black Africa (London, Croom Helm, 1986).
15. "Des ex-gendarmes de l'Elysee participeraient au recrutement de mercenaires pour le Zaire", Le Monde, 8.1.97; "Mercenaries bark but don't bite", New African, April 1997.
16. "Des ex-gendarmes de l'Elysee participeraient au recrutement de mercenaires pour le Zaire", Le Monde, 8.1.97; "Mercenaries bark but don't bite", New African, April 1997.
17. Adams, "The New Mercenaries", p. 3.
18. See MPRI's website at http://www.mpri.com
19. Rhys Dogan and Michael Pugh, "From Military to Market Imperatives: Peacekeeping and the New Public Policy, paper presented at the British International Studies Association Conference, University of Durham, 17-18.12.96.
20. See S.Decalo, "The Process, Prospects and Constraints of Democratisation in Africa", African Affairs 1992, p. 91.
21. "Eastern Europe's Arsenal on the Loose: Managing Light Weapons Flows to Conflict Zones", BASIC occasional paper, 26.5.98. Accessible at: http://www.bacisint.org. See also, Al Venter, "Arms into Africa", New African, January 1999.
22. "Eastern Europe's Arsenal on the Loose: Managing Light Weapons Flows to Conflict Zones", BASIC occasional paper, 26.5.98. Accessible at: http://www.bacisint.org. See also, Al Venter, "Arms into Africa", New African, January 1999.
23. See Roy May and Gerry Cleaver. "African peacekeeping: Still dependent?", International Peacekeeping Summer 1997, 4(2): 1-21.
24. Ibid.
25. Ibid.
26. See, Gerry Cleaver and Roy May, "Peacekeeping: The African Dimension", Review of African Political Economy, Dec. 1995, 22(66): 485-497; Gerry Cleaver and Roy May, "African Perspectives: Regional Peacekeeping", in Roy May and Oliver Furley (eds.), Peacekeeping in Africa (Aldershot, Ashgate, 1999), pp. 29-48.
27. See, Gerry Cleaver and Roy May, "Peacekeeping: The African Dimension", Review of African Political Economy, Dec. 1995, 22(66): 485-497; Gerry Cleaver and Roy May, "African Perspectives: Regional Peacekeeping", in Roy May and Oliver Furley (eds.), Peacekeeping in Africa (Aldershot, Ashgate, 1999), pp. 29-48.
28. See Roy May and Gerry Cleaver, "African peacekeeping: Still dependent?'; Gerry Cleaver, "The African Crisis Response Initiative", paper presented at the biennial conference of the African Studies Association of the UK, University of London 14-16.9.98.
29. See Roy May and Gerry Cleaver, "African peacekeeping: Still dependent?'; Gerry Cleaver, "The African Crisis Response Initiative", paper presented at the biennial conference of the African Studies Association of the UK, University of London 14-16.9.98.
30. West Africa, 28.7-3.8.97, p. 1196 and p. 1199; "Gabon, France discuss military bases", Pan African News Agency 30.7.97.
31. Shearer, "Private Armies", p. 41. See also, Isenberg, "Soldiers of Fortune Ltd."; "Africa's new enforcers", The Independent, 16.9.96; " Corporate dogs of war who grow fat amid the anarchy of Africa", The Observer, 19.1.97.
32. Shearer, "Private Armies", p. 41. See also, Isenberg, "Soldiers of Fortune Ltd."; "Africa's new enforcers", The Independent, 16.9.96; " Corporate dogs of war who grow fat amid the anarchy of Africa", The Observer, 19.1.97.
33. Shearer, "Private Armies", p. 41. See also, Isenberg, "Soldiers of Fortune Ltd."; "Africa's new enforcers", The Independent, 16.9.96; " Corporate dogs of war who grow fat amid the anarchy of Africa", The Observer, 19.1.97.
34. Shearer, "Private Armies", p. 41. See also, Isenberg, "Soldiers of Fortune Ltd."; "Africa's new enforcers", The Independent, 16.9.96; " Corporate dogs of war who grow fat amid the anarchy of Africa", The Observer, 19.1.97.
35. Unlike the other units mentioned, Koevoet was a highly effective counter-insurgency unit of the South West Africa Police. See Helmoed-Roemer Heithman and Paul Hannon, Modem African Wars 3: South West Africa (Osprey Men at Arms, No. 242, London, Osprey Publishing, 1991).
36. See Shearer, "Private Armies", and Isenberg, "Soldiers of Fortune Ltd."
37. See Shearer, "Private Armies", and Isenberg, "Soldiers of Fortune Ltd."
38. Shearer, "Private Armies", p. 46.
39. See Isenberg, "Soldiers of Fortune Ltd."
40. Alfred B. Zack-Williams, "Dimensions on West African Conflicts", paper presented at the ASAUK Symposium "Vulnerabilities", Coventry University, 16.9.99.
41. David J. Francis, "Mercenary Intervention in Sierra Leone: Providing National Security or International Exploitation?", Third World Quarterly 1999, 20(2): 319-338, 326.
42. Peta Thorneycroft, "Mobutu couldn't afford South African mercenaries", Weekly Mail & Guardian 18.7.99 at: http://www.sn.ape.organisation/wmail
43. See Adams, "The New Mercenaries". Also, Sophie Pons, "Executive Outcomes to close on its own terms," Daily Mail & Guardian, 11.12.99, at: http://www.mg.co.za
44. See Adams, "The New Mercenaries". Also, Sophie Pons, "Executive Outcomes to close on its own terms," Daily Mail & Guardian, 11.12.99, at: http://www.mg.co.za
45. nd Report Session 1998-99, HC-116, at: http://www.parliament.the-stationery office.co.uk/pa/cm199899/cmselect/
46. See Isenberg, "Soldiers of Fortune Ltd"; Enrique Ballesteros, "Report on the question of the use of mercenaries as a means of violating human rights and impeding the exercise of the right of peoples to self determination", United Nations Document E/CN.4/1999/11, 13.1.99.
47. See Isenberg, "Soldiers of Fortune Ltd"; Enrique Ballesteros, "Report on the question of the use of mercenaries as a means of violating human rights and impeding the exercise of the right of peoples to self determination", United Nations Document E/CN.4/1999/11, 13.1.99.
48. Francis, "Mercenary Intervention in Sierra Leone", p. 327.
49. Ballesteros, E/CN.4/1999/11, para. 27.
50. Francis, "Mercenary Intervention", p. 328.
51. Enrique Ballesteros Report on the question of the use of mercenaries as a means of violating human rights and impeding the exercise of the right of peoples to self determination. United Nations Document A/54/326 7/9/99. Paragraph 52.
52. Ibid, para. 73.
53. Ibid, para. 66.
54. Ibid, para. 62.
55. Regulation of Foreign Military assistance Bill, South African Ministry of Defence (B54-97), para 6.
56. "Cook to lift ban on mercenaries", The Sunday Times, 3.10.99.
57. Ibid.
58. Ibid. See also, "Double edged Sword: The case for a pragmatic assessment of mercenary forces", The Times, 5.5.98.
59. Ibid. See also, "Double edged Sword: The case for a pragmatic assessment of mercenary forces", The Times, 5.5.98.
60. "Rough Diamonds", The Guardian (Education Supplement), 7.9.99.
61. Ibid.
62. Ibid.
63. "Diamonds traded for guns lose their sparkle", The Sunday Telegraph, 3.10.99.
64. "De Beers ban on gem sales hits UNITA", Daily Telegraph, 8.10.99.
65. See Isenberg, "Soldiers of Fortune Ltd".
66. See Gerry Cleaver and Roy May, "African perspectives: regional peacekeeping".
67. "Nigerian troops announce Sierra Leone pullout", BBC World Service, 21.10.99. via http://news.bbc.co.uk
68. A.J. Venter, "Security in the Badlands", Combat and Survival Dec. 1999, 11(9).
69. "Zimbabwe losses add up in Congo", BBC World Service, 25.11.99. via http://news.bbc.co.uk