The check is in the mail: Improving the delivery and coordination of postconflict assistance

Global Governance

Volumn 6, Issue 1, 2000, Pages 61-94

  Patrick, Stewart ^a  

^a NONE

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EID: 0034344462     PISSN: 10752846     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1163/19426720-00601006     Document Type: Review

References (117)

1. Members of the donor community include bilateral aid agencies of national governments, particularly the members of the Development Assistance Committee (DAC) of the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD); the departments, programs, and specialized agencies of the UN; the international financial institutions (IFIs); and multiple nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) such as the International Committee of the Red Cross and Oxfam.
2. According to data compiled from the OECD's Geographical Distribution of Financial Flows to Aid Recipients 1999 (online) http://www. oecd.org/dac/, countries emerging from conflict received aid commitments of approximately $109 billion from multilateral institutions and DAC members during the period 1990-1997.
3. A pledge is a public expression of donor intent to mobilize funds for which an approximate sum is given. Most donors begin tracking aid flows at the stage of commitment, defined as a firm obligation, expressed in a contract or agreement, to furnish a recipient country with a specified amount of public assistance under agreed financial terms and for specific purposes. Finally, a disbursement represents "the actual international transfer of financial resources" (see ibid.). I use the term aid broadly to include grants, concessional loans, and harder loans also designed to advance recovery.
4. World Bank, Post-Conflict Reconstruction: The Role of the World Bank (Washington, D.C.: World Bank, 1998), p. 21; Michael Renner, "Budgeting for Disarmament; The Costs of War and Peace," Worldwatch Paper No. 122, Washington, D.C., November 1994, pp. 26-27; Stephen John Stedman, "Negotiation and Mediation in Internal Conflict," in Michael E. Brown, ed., The International Dimensions of Internal Conflict (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1996), p. 375.
5. World Bank, Post-Conflict Reconstruction: The Role of the World Bank (Washington, D.C.: World Bank, 1998), p. 21; Michael Renner, "Budgeting for Disarmament; The Costs of War and Peace," Worldwatch Paper No. 122, Washington, D.C., November 1994, pp. 26-27; Stephen John Stedman, "Negotiation and Mediation in Internal Conflict," in Michael E. Brown, ed., The International Dimensions of Internal Conflict (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1996), p. 375.
6. World Bank, Post-Conflict Reconstruction: The Role of the World Bank (Washington, D.C.: World Bank, 1998), p. 21; Michael Renner, "Budgeting for Disarmament; The Costs of War and Peace," Worldwatch Paper No. 122, Washington, D.C., November 1994, pp. 26-27; Stephen John Stedman, "Negotiation and Mediation in Internal Conflict," in Michael E. Brown, ed., The International Dimensions of Internal Conflict (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1996), p. 375.
7. Stephen D. Krasner, International Regimes (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1983).
8. For an exposition on the concept of peace maintenance, see the special issue of Global Governance 4, no. 1 (Jan.-Mar. 1998). Although one essay in this collection addresses emergency relief, it does not deal explicitly with donor support for reconstruction activities.
9. Antonio Donini, for example, focuses on emergency relief rather than on the rehabilitation and reconstruction activities that follow. See Antonio Donini, "Asserting Humanitarianism in Peace-Maintenance," Global Governance 4, no. 1 (Jan.-Mar. 1998): 81-96.
10. Anthony Lake, ed., After the Wars: Reconstruction in Afghanistan, Indochina, Central America, Southern Africa, and the Horn of Africa (New Brunswick, N.J.: Transaction, 1990), pp. 9-10; Department of Foreign Affairs and International Trade, "Canada's Peacebuilding Initiative" (online) http://www.dfaitmaeci.gc.ca/peacebuilding.
11. Anthony Lake, ed., After the Wars: Reconstruction in Afghanistan, Indochina, Central America, Southern Africa, and the Horn of Africa (New Brunswick, N.J.: Transaction, 1990), pp. 9-10; Department of Foreign Affairs and International Trade, "Canada's Peacebuilding Initiative" (online) http://www.dfaitmaeci.gc.ca/peacebuilding.
12. To cite the cost of three reconstruction efforts, initial plans anticipated that donors would provide $5.1 billion for recovery in Bosnia-Herzegovina, $3 billion in Cambodia, and $4 billion in the West Bank and Gaza.
13. An Agenda for Peace, cited in Adam Roberts and Benedict Kingsbury, eds., United Nations, Divided World (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1993), p. 475; United Nations, An Inventory of Post-Conflict Peace-Building Activities (New York: United Nations, 1996).
14. An Agenda for Peace, cited in Adam Roberts and Benedict Kingsbury, eds., United Nations, Divided World (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1993), p. 475; United Nations, An Inventory of Post-Conflict Peace-Building Activities (New York: United Nations, 1996).
15. Preamble and Chapter IX, Article 55, of the UN Charter; United Nations, "Supplement to An Agenda for Peace" (New York: United Nations, 3 January 1995), pars. 47-56; United Nations, "The Secretary-General's Statement [of 16 July 1997] to the Special Meeting of the General Assembly on Reform" (online) http://www.un.org/reform/track2/htm.
16. Preamble and Chapter IX, Article 55, of the UN Charter; United Nations, "Supplement to An Agenda for Peace" (New York: United Nations, 3 January 1995), pars. 47-56; United Nations, "The Secretary-General's Statement [of 16 July 1997] to the Special Meeting of the General Assembly on Reform" (online) http://www.un.org/reform/track2/htm.
17. Krishna Kumar, "The Nature and Focus of International Assistance for Rebuilding War-Torn Societies," in Krishna Kumar, ed., Rebuilding Societies After Civil War: Critical Roles for International Assistance (Boulder: Lynne Rienner, 1997), p. 3; Nicole Ball, "The Challenge of Rebuilding War-Torn Societies," in Chester A. Crocker, Fen Osler Hampson, and Pamela Aall, eds., Managing Global Chaos: Sources of and Responses to International Conflict (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Institute of Peace, 1996), pp. 611-612.
18. Krishna Kumar, "The Nature and Focus of International Assistance for Rebuilding War-Torn Societies," in Krishna Kumar, ed., Rebuilding Societies After Civil War: Critical Roles for International Assistance (Boulder: Lynne Rienner, 1997), p. 3; Nicole Ball, "The Challenge of Rebuilding War-Torn Societies," in Chester A. Crocker, Fen Osler Hampson, and Pamela Aall, eds., Managing Global Chaos: Sources of and Responses to International Conflict (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Institute of Peace, 1996), pp. 611-612.
19. Roland Paris, "Peacebuilding and the Limits of Liberal Internationalism," International Security 22, no. 2 (fall 1997): 54-89.
20. Jarat Chopra, "Introducing Peace-Maintenance," Global Governance 4, no. 1 (Jan.-Mar. 1998): 7.
21. Nicole Ball, Making Peace Work: The Role of the International Development Community (Washington, D.C.: Overseas Development Council, 1996), pp. 48-55; USAID, After the War Is Over What Comes Next? Promoting Democracy, Human Rights, and Reintegration in Post-Conflict Societies (Washington, D.C.: USAID, May 1997); USAID, From Bullets to Ballots: Electoral Assistance to Post-Conflict Societies (Washington, D.C.: USAID, 1997); Bernard Wood, "Lessons and Guidance for Donors: Key Points from the Development Assistance Committee's Guidelines on Conflict, Peace, and Development Cooperation" (New York: OECD, manuscript, fall 1997).
22. Nicole Ball, Making Peace Work: The Role of the International Development Community (Washington, D.C.: Overseas Development Council, 1996), pp. 48-55; USAID, After the War Is Over What Comes Next? Promoting Democracy, Human Rights, and Reintegration in Post-Conflict Societies (Washington, D.C.: USAID, May 1997); USAID, From Bullets to Ballots: Electoral Assistance to Post-Conflict Societies (Washington, D.C.: USAID, 1997); Bernard Wood, "Lessons and Guidance for Donors: Key Points from the Development Assistance Committee's Guidelines on Conflict, Peace, and Development Cooperation" (New York: OECD, manuscript, fall 1997).
23. Nicole Ball, Making Peace Work: The Role of the International Development Community (Washington, D.C.: Overseas Development Council, 1996), pp. 48-55; USAID, After the War Is Over What Comes Next? Promoting Democracy, Human Rights, and Reintegration in Post-Conflict Societies (Washington, D.C.: USAID, May 1997); USAID, From Bullets to Ballots: Electoral Assistance to Post-Conflict Societies (Washington, D.C.: USAID, 1997); Bernard Wood, "Lessons and Guidance for Donors: Key Points from the Development Assistance Committee's Guidelines on Conflict, Peace, and Development Cooperation" (New York: OECD, manuscript, fall 1997).
24. Nicole Ball, Making Peace Work: The Role of the International Development Community (Washington, D.C.: Overseas Development Council, 1996), pp. 48-55; USAID, After the War Is Over What Comes Next? Promoting Democracy, Human Rights, and Reintegration in Post-Conflict Societies (Washington, D.C.: USAID, May 1997); USAID, From Bullets to Ballots: Electoral Assistance to Post-Conflict Societies (Washington, D.C.: USAID, 1997); Bernard Wood, "Lessons and Guidance for Donors: Key Points from the Development Assistance Committee's Guidelines on Conflict, Peace, and Development Cooperation" (New York: OECD, manuscript, fall 1997).
25. Eva Bertram, "Reinventing Governments: The Promise and Perils of United Nations Peacebuilding," Journal of Conflict Resolution 39, no. 3 (September 1995): 389.
26. David Cortright and George A. Lopez, "Carrots, Sticks, and Cooperation: Economic Tools of Statecraft," in Barnett R. Rubin, ed., Cases and Strategies for Preventive Action (New York: Council on Foreign Relations and Twentieth Century Fund, 1998), p. 127. On the dangers of inflated expectations, see David J. Rothkopf, The Price of Peace: Emergency Economic Intervention and U.S. Foreign Policy (Washington, D.C.: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, 1998), pp. 63-71.
27. David Cortright and George A. Lopez, "Carrots, Sticks, and Cooperation: Economic Tools of Statecraft," in Barnett R. Rubin, ed., Cases and Strategies for Preventive Action (New York: Council on Foreign Relations and Twentieth Century Fund, 1998), p. 127. On the dangers of inflated expectations, see David J. Rothkopf, The Price of Peace: Emergency Economic Intervention and U.S. Foreign Policy (Washington, D.C.: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, 1998), pp. 63-71.
28. World Bank, Post-Conflict Reconstruction, p. 21.
29. Judy Dempsey, "Palestinian Aid Faces Obstacle Course," Financial Times, 6 June 1997.
30. Janet E. Heininger, "Cambodia: Relief, Repatriation, and Rehabilitation," in Eric A. Belgrad and Nitza Nachmias, eds., The Politics of International Humanitarian Aid Operations (London: Praeger, 1997), pp. 127-129. See Elisabeth Uphoff Kato, "Quick Impacts, Slow Rehabilitation in Cambodia," in Michael W. Doyle, Ian Johnstone, and Robert C. Orr, eds., Keeping the Peace: Multidimensional UN Operations in Cambodia and El Salvador (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997), pp. 190-194; Kenji Yamada, International Development Center of Japan, interviewed by the author, New York, May 1998.
31. Janet E. Heininger, "Cambodia: Relief, Repatriation, and Rehabilitation," in Eric A. Belgrad and Nitza Nachmias, eds., The Politics of International Humanitarian Aid Operations (London: Praeger, 1997), pp. 127-129. See Elisabeth Uphoff Kato, "Quick Impacts, Slow Rehabilitation in Cambodia," in Michael W. Doyle, Ian Johnstone, and Robert C. Orr, eds., Keeping the Peace: Multidimensional UN Operations in Cambodia and El Salvador (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997), pp. 190-194; Kenji Yamada, International Development Center of Japan, interviewed by the author, New York, May 1998.
32. Janet E. Heininger, "Cambodia: Relief, Repatriation, and Rehabilitation," in Eric A. Belgrad and Nitza Nachmias, eds., The Politics of International Humanitarian Aid Operations (London: Praeger, 1997), pp. 127-129. See Elisabeth Uphoff Kato, "Quick Impacts, Slow Rehabilitation in Cambodia," in Michael W. Doyle, Ian Johnstone, and Robert C. Orr, eds., Keeping the Peace: Multidimensional UN Operations in Cambodia and El Salvador (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997), pp. 190-194; Kenji Yamada, International Development Center of Japan, interviewed by the author, New York, May 1998.
33. "The International Response to Conflict and Genocide: Lessons from the Rwanda Experience. Study 4: Rebuilding Post-War Rwanda" (Copenhagen: Steering Committee of the Joint Evaluation of Emergency Assistance to Rwanda, March 1996), pp. 12-15, 29-33. See Nicola Reindorp, "Towards an Assistance Strategy for Rwanda," consultant's report for UNDP, July 1998, p. 3.
34. "The International Response to Conflict and Genocide: Lessons from the Rwanda Experience. Study 4: Rebuilding Post-War Rwanda" (Copenhagen: Steering Committee of the Joint Evaluation of Emergency Assistance to Rwanda, March 1996), pp. 12-15, 29-33. See Nicola Reindorp, "Towards an Assistance Strategy for Rwanda," consultant's report for UNDP, July 1998, p. 3.
35. "Linking Relief to Development," UNDP Rwanda Mission, Kigali, June 1998.
36. The vast bulk of the $3.2 billion pledged to Lebanon in December 1996 by international donors had "yet to materialize" by August 1997. Daniel Pearl, "Continental Divide," Wall Street Journal, 22 August 1997. On Mozambique, see Economist Intelligence Unit, EIU Country Report: Mozambique (London: Economist Intelligence Unit, second quarter, 1993), p. 13. On Tajikistan, see Special Representative of the Secretary-General for Tajikistan, "End-of-Assignment Report," UN Observer Mission in Tajikistan, April 1998.
37. The vast bulk of the $3.2 billion pledged to Lebanon in December 1996 by international donors had "yet to materialize" by August 1997. Daniel Pearl, "Continental Divide," Wall Street Journal, 22 August 1997. On Mozambique, see Economist Intelligence Unit, EIU Country Report: Mozambique (London: Economist Intelligence Unit, second quarter, 1993), p. 13. On Tajikistan, see Special Representative of the Secretary-General for Tajikistan, "End-of-Assignment Report," UN Observer Mission in Tajikistan, April 1998.
38. The vast bulk of the $3.2 billion pledged to Lebanon in December 1996 by international donors had "yet to materialize" by August 1997. Daniel Pearl, "Continental Divide," Wall Street Journal, 22 August 1997. On Mozambique, see Economist Intelligence Unit, EIU Country Report: Mozambique (London: Economist Intelligence Unit, second quarter, 1993), p. 13. On Tajikistan, see Special Representative of the Secretary-General for Tajikistan, "End-of-Assignment Report," UN Observer Mission in Tajikistan, April 1998.
39. "The International Response to Conflict and Genocide," pp. 101-106;
40. Swedish Ministry of Foreign Affairs, "Mobilization and Allocation of Resources for Post-Conflict Assistance and Identification of Appropriate Modalities for Implementation," note for OECD-DAC discussion, 9-10 January 1997, p. 4 (original is in italics).
41. Postconflict Haiti, where donors pledged more than $2 billion for the period 1995-1999, may represent the starkest example. Larry Rother, "As Leaders Bicker, Haiti Stagnates and Its People Fret," New York Times, 17 July 1998.
42. OECD-DAC, Conflict, Peace, and Development Cooperation on the Threshold of the 21st Century (Paris: OECD, 1997), pp. 33, 48; Hugh Cholmondeley, "The Role of the UN System in Response to Crisis and Recovery: A Strategic Approach," report for the Consultative Committee on Program and Operational Questions, 3-7 March 1997.
43. OECD-DAC, Conflict, Peace, and Development Cooperation on the Threshold of the 21st Century (Paris: OECD, 1997), pp. 33, 48; Hugh Cholmondeley, "The Role of the UN System in Response to Crisis and Recovery: A Strategic Approach," report for the Consultative Committee on Program and Operational Questions, 3-7 March 1997.
44. United Nations, Deputy Secretary-General, "Draft Generic Guidelines for a Strategic Framework Approach for Response to and Recovery from Crisis," United Nations, New York, 27 October 1998.
45. World Bank, "Partnership for Development: Proposed Actions for the World Bank," unpublished document, World Bank, Washington, D.C., 20 May 1998, pp. 11-20.
46. Mark Duffield, "Complex Emergencies and the Crisis of Developmentalism," IDS Bulletin 25, no. 4 (October 1994): 40; European Commission, "Linking Relief, Rehabilitation, and Development (LRRD)," communication from the Commission to the Council and the European Parliament, Brussels, 28 March 1996.
47. Mark Duffield, "Complex Emergencies and the Crisis of Developmentalism," IDS Bulletin 25, no. 4 (October 1994): 40; European Commission, "Linking Relief, Rehabilitation, and Development (LRRD)," communication from the Commission to the Council and the European Parliament, Brussels, 28 March 1996.
48. Donini, "Asserting Humanitarianism in Peace-Maintenance," pp. 85-86.
49. United Nations, Department of Humanitarian Affairs, Humanitarian Report 1997 (New York: United Nations, 1997), p. 105.
50. OECD-DAC, Conflict, Peace, and Development Cooperation, p. 34; "The International Response to Conflict and Genocide," pp. 32-35, 101-106.
51. OECD-DAC, Conflict, Peace, and Development Cooperation, p. 34; "The International Response to Conflict and Genocide," pp. 32-35, 101-106.
52. UNDP Emergency Response Division, "One-Page Rationale for Expanded Consolidated Inter-Agency Appeals," unpublished document, UNDP, New York, undated.
53. UNDP and DHA failed to clarify their responsibilities and the ECAP's relationship to pledging conferences.
54. United Nations, DHA-UNDP, "Building Bridges Between Relief and Development," final report of DHA-UNDP Workshop, United Nations Staff College, Turin, Italy, June 1997; United Nations, "Report of the Secretary-General," New York, 16 July 1997; United Nations, ECOSOC, "Strengthening of the Coordination of Emergency Humanitarian Assistance of the United Nations: Report of the Secretary-General," New York, 12 June 1998.
55. United Nations, DHA-UNDP, "Building Bridges Between Relief and Development," final report of DHA-UNDP Workshop, United Nations Staff College, Turin, Italy, June 1997; United Nations, "Report of the Secretary-General," New York, 16 July 1997; United Nations, ECOSOC, "Strengthening of the Coordination of Emergency Humanitarian Assistance of the United Nations: Report of the Secretary-General," New York, 12 June 1998.
56. United Nations, DHA-UNDP, "Building Bridges Between Relief and Development," final report of DHA-UNDP Workshop, United Nations Staff College, Turin, Italy, June 1997; United Nations, "Report of the Secretary-General," New York, 16 July 1997; United Nations, ECOSOC, "Strengthening of the Coordination of Emergency Humanitarian Assistance of the United Nations: Report of the Secretary-General," New York, 12 June 1998.
57. James K. Boyce, "External Assistance to the Peace Process in El Salvador," World Development 23, no. 12 (1995): 2106.
58. Rex Brynen, Hisham Awartani, and Clare Woodcraft document such a dynamic in "The Palestinian Territories," in Shepard Forman and Stewart Patrick, eds., Good Intentions: Pledges of Aid for Postconflict Recovery (Boulder: Lynne Rienner, forthcoming 2000), pp. 205-258.
59. Lake, After the Wars, p. 23; Marika Fahlen, "Post-Conflict Reconstruction: The Need for a New Global Financial Mechanism," UNHCR note for discussion, Geneva, 8 February 1996; World Bank, Post-Conflict Reconstruction, p. 48.
60. Lake, After the Wars, p. 23; Marika Fahlen, "Post-Conflict Reconstruction: The Need for a New Global Financial Mechanism," UNHCR note for discussion, Geneva, 8 February 1996; World Bank, Post-Conflict Reconstruction, p. 48.
61. Lake, After the Wars, p. 23; Marika Fahlen, "Post-Conflict Reconstruction: The Need for a New Global Financial Mechanism," UNHCR note for discussion, Geneva, 8 February 1996; World Bank, Post-Conflict Reconstruction, p. 48.
62. UNHCR and World Bank, "Roundtable on the Gap Between Humanitarian Assistance and Long-Term Development," summary of multidonor Brookings Institution meeting, Washington, D.C., 15 January 1999.
63. Bilateral participants have included the foreign aid organizations of most OECD member states. Many multilateral organizations have also been involved in the initiative. They include the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), World Food Program (WFP), and International Organization for Migration (IOM). The IMF, World Bank, and European Community Humanitarian Organization (ECHO) have taken part. Other such participants include the UN Children's Fund (UNICEF), UN Research Institute for Social Development (UNRISD), and World Health Organization (WHO). Finally, UNDP, UNHCR, the UN High Commissioner for Human Rights (UNHCHR), UN Office for Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs, and UN Office for Project Services (UNOPS) have had a part in the initiative. World Bank, "Conflict Prevention and Post-Conflict Reconstruction: Perspectives and Prospects" (Washington, D.C.: World Bank, August 1998), p. 26.
64. Some important agencies like UNICEF and the FAO possess no core funding for postconflict activities as such.
65. United Nations, "Comments of the Secretary-General and the ACC on the Report of the Joint Inspection Unit," unpublished document, United Nations, New York, 30 July 1998.
66. TRAC stands for Target for Resource Assignments from the Core. UNDP Emergency Response Division, "Working for Solutions to Crisis: The Development Response," unpublished document, UNDP, New York, December 1998.
67. World Bank, Post-Conflict Reconstruction, pp. 6-10.
68. United Nations, "Comments of the Secretary-General," p. 3.
69. United Nations, "Draft Strategic Framework for International Assistance in Afghanistan," report of the Inter-Agency Mission to Islamabad and Afghanistan, Islamabad, 19 September-15 October 1997.
70. United Nations, An Inventory of Post-Conflict Peace-Building Activities, p. 1.
71. See Katherine Marshall, "Emerging from Conflict: What Roles for the International Development Finance Institutions?" Development Discussion Paper No. 587 (Cambridge: Harvard Institute for International Development, June 1997).
72. Paul Blustein, "A Loan Amid the Ruins: World Bank Shifts Aid to Rebuilding War-Torn Countries," Washington Post, 13 February 1996; World Bank, Post-Conflict Reconstruction, pp. v, 6-10.
73. Paul Blustein, "A Loan Amid the Ruins: World Bank Shifts Aid to Rebuilding War-Torn Countries," Washington Post, 13 February 1996; World Bank, Post-Conflict Reconstruction, pp. v, 6-10.
74. World Bank, The World Bank's Experience with Post-Conflict Reconstruction (in 5 volumes), Vol. 1: Synthesis Report (Washington, D.C.: World Bank, 4 May 1998), pp. 14-15.
75. See World Bank, Post-Conflict Reconstruction, pp. 40-48.
76. World Bank, The World Bank's Experience with Post-Conflict Reconstruction, pp. 7-8.
77. IMF, Annual Report (Washington, D.C.: IMF, 1996), pp. 124-126.
78. Other postconflict states have used standard facilities (online) http://www. imf.org/external/np/exr/facts/confl.htm.
79. OECD-DAC, Conflict, Peace, and Development Cooperation, pp. 5-9, 17.
80. Ibid., pp. 29-35. Contrast this with the UN's conclusion that "coordination by consensus" is inferior to "coordination by management." United Nations, Department of Humanitarian Affairs, "Afghanistan: Coordination in a Fragmented State" (New York: United Nations, December 1996).
81. Ibid., pp. 29-35. Contrast this with the UN's conclusion that "coordination by consensus" is inferior to "coordination by management." United Nations, Department of Humanitarian Affairs, "Afghanistan: Coordination in a Fragmented State" (New York: United Nations, December 1996).
82. USAID Office of Transition Initiatives, "Operational Challenges in Post-Conflict Societies," USAID Workshop, Washington, D.C., 28-29 October 1997, pp. 8, 14.
83. OTI's regular budget for 1999 was $40 million. Some bilateral donors, such as Sweden, do not possess dedicated postconflict units or budget lines but instead streamline reconstruction assistance through development agencies.
84. Alvaro de Soto and Graciana del Castillo, "Obstacles to Peacebuilding," Foreign Policy 94 (spring 1994): 70-72; Joseph Hanlon, Peace Without Profit: How the IMF Blocks Rebuilding in Mozambique (Oxford: Heineman, 1996). James K. Boyce, "Adjustment Towards Peace: An Introduction," World Development 23, no. 12 (1995): 2067-2077; James K. Boyce and Manuel Pastor, Jr., "Aid for Peace: Can International Financial Institutions Help Prevent Conflict?" World Policy Journal 15, no. 2 (summer 1998): 42-49.
85. Alvaro de Soto and Graciana del Castillo, "Obstacles to Peacebuilding," Foreign Policy 94 (spring 1994): 70-72; Joseph Hanlon, Peace Without Profit: How the IMF Blocks Rebuilding in Mozambique (Oxford: Heineman, 1996). James K. Boyce, "Adjustment Towards Peace: An Introduction," World Development 23, no. 12 (1995): 2067-2077; James K. Boyce and Manuel Pastor, Jr., "Aid for Peace: Can International Financial Institutions Help Prevent Conflict?" World Policy Journal 15, no. 2 (summer 1998): 42-49.
86. Alvaro de Soto and Graciana del Castillo, "Obstacles to Peacebuilding," Foreign Policy 94 (spring 1994): 70-72; Joseph Hanlon, Peace Without Profit: How the IMF Blocks Rebuilding in Mozambique (Oxford: Heineman, 1996). James K. Boyce, "Adjustment Towards Peace: An Introduction," World Development 23, no. 12 (1995): 2067-2077; James K. Boyce and Manuel Pastor, Jr., "Aid for Peace: Can International Financial Institutions Help Prevent Conflict?" World Policy Journal 15, no. 2 (summer 1998): 42-49.
87. Alvaro de Soto and Graciana del Castillo, "Obstacles to Peacebuilding," Foreign Policy 94 (spring 1994): 70-72; Joseph Hanlon, Peace Without Profit: How the IMF Blocks Rebuilding in Mozambique (Oxford: Heineman, 1996). James K. Boyce, "Adjustment Towards Peace: An Introduction," World Development 23, no. 12 (1995): 2067-2077; James K. Boyce and Manuel Pastor, Jr., "Aid for Peace: Can International Financial Institutions Help Prevent Conflict?" World Policy Journal 15, no. 2 (summer 1998): 42-49.
88. Carnegie Commission, Preventing Deadly Conflict (New York: Carnegie Commission, 1997), p. 146; United Nations, "Africa: Secretary-General's Report to the United Nations Security Council," United Nations, New York, 16 April 1998, p. 2.
89. Carnegie Commission, Preventing Deadly Conflict (New York: Carnegie Commission, 1997), p. 146; United Nations, "Africa: Secretary-General's Report to the United Nations Security Council," United Nations, New York, 16 April 1998, p. 2.
90. World Bank Articles of Agreement, Article IV, sec. 10; Article II, sec. 1, part (b).
91. Boyce, "External Assistance," pp. 2111-2113.
92. Carol Graham, Safety Nets, Politics, and the Poor (Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution Press, 1994).
93. World Bank, World Development Report 1997 (Washington, D.C.: World Bank, 1997), p. 161.
94. The operations evaluation department reviewed the Bank's role in Bosnia-Herzegovina, El Salvador, Uganda, Cambodia, Eritrea, Haiti, Lebanon, Sri Lanka, and Rwanda. The department recommends that Bank staff develop "good practices" that are "sensitive to predatory and exclusionary behavior." World Bank, The World Bank's Experience with Post-Conflict Reconstruction, pp. x, 24-26; World Bank, "Conflict Prevention and Post-Conflict Reconstruction," p. 5.
95. The operations evaluation department reviewed the Bank's role in Bosnia-Herzegovina, El Salvador, Uganda, Cambodia, Eritrea, Haiti, Lebanon, Sri Lanka, and Rwanda. The department recommends that Bank staff develop "good practices" that are "sensitive to predatory and exclusionary behavior." World Bank, The World Bank's Experience with Post-Conflict Reconstruction, pp. x, 24-26; World Bank, "Conflict Prevention and Post-Conflict Reconstruction," p. 5.
96. Peter Uvin and Isabelle Biagotti, "Global Governance and the 'New' Political Conditionality," Global Governance 2, no. 3 (Sept.-Dec. 1996): 377-400; Olav Stokke, ed., Aid and Political Conditionality (London: Frank Cass, 1995), pp. 21-24, 80.
97. Peter Uvin and Isabelle Biagotti, "Global Governance and the 'New' Political Conditionality," Global Governance 2, no. 3 (Sept.-Dec. 1996): 377-400; Olav Stokke, ed., Aid and Political Conditionality (London: Frank Cass, 1995), pp. 21-24, 80.
98. Susan Woodward, Zlatko Hurtić, and Amela Sapćanin, "Bosnia-Herzegovina," and Sorpong Peou and Kenji Yamada, "Cambodia," both in Shepard Forman and Stewart Patrick, eds., Good Intentions: Pledges of Aid for Postconflict Recovery (Boulder: Lynne Rienner, forthcoming 2000).
99. Jon Hovi, Games, Threats, and Treaties: Understanding Commitments in International Relations (Washington, D.C.: Pinter, 1998), pp. 4-5.
100. UN-led peacekeeping or observer missions were in place when reconstruction began in Cambodia (UNTAC), El Salvador (ONUSAL), Guatemala (MINUGUA), Mozambique (UNOMOZ), and Tajikistan (UNMOT).
101. Peace Implementation Network, Command from the Saddle: Managing United Nations Peace-Building Missions, Fafo Report No. 266 (Oslo: Fafo Institute for Applied Social Science, 1999).
102. United Nations, Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs, "Relations Between Representatives of the Emergency Relief Coordinator and Special Representatives of the Secretary-General," note for guidance, United Nations, New York, 19 January 1999.
103. World Bank, The World Bank's Experience with Post-Conflict Reconstruction, p. 27.
104. Brynen, Awartani, and Woodcraft, "The Palestinian Territories."
105. Nicole Ball and Sam Barnes, "Mozambique," in Shepard Forman and Stewart Patrick, eds., Good Intentions: Pledges of Aid for Postconflict Recovery (Boulder: Lynne Rienner, forthcoming 2000).
106. Robert Chote, "Finally, Relief in Sight: The IMF and the World Bank Plan to Ease the Debt Burdens of Poor Countries Emerging from Conflict," Financial Times, 9 September 1998; Robert Muscat, "Conflict and Reconstruction: Roles for the World Bank" (Washington, D.C.: World Bank, 1995), p. 39.
107. Robert Chote, "Finally, Relief in Sight: The IMF and the World Bank Plan to Ease the Debt Burdens of Poor Countries Emerging from Conflict," Financial Times, 9 September 1998; Robert Muscat, "Conflict and Reconstruction: Roles for the World Bank" (Washington, D.C.: World Bank, 1995), p. 39.
108. Oxfam, "Oxfam International Submission to the Heavily Indebted Poor Country (HIPC) Debt Review," Washington, D.C., April 1999 (online) http://www.oxfaminternational.org/advocacy/papers/HIPCreview.htm.
109. Thomas Carothers and Juan Alberto Fuentes, "La Cooperación en Guatemala," report prepared for the Institute for Democracy and Electoral Assistance, Guatemala City (manuscript, June 1998). Contrary to expectations, Guatemala garnered significant pledges of aid from the donor community. The government, however, has thus far failed to live up to its fiscal commitments.
110. Paris, "Peacebuilding and the Limits of Liberal Internationalism," p. 58.
111. Woodward, Hurtić, and Sapćanin, "Bosnia."
112. OECD-DAC, Conflict, Peace, and Development Cooperation, p. 36; UNDP Emergency Response Division, "Building Bridges Between Relief and Development: A Compendium of the UNDP Record in Crisis Countries" (online) http://www.undp.org/∼erdweb/bridges.htm.
113. OECD-DAC, Conflict, Peace, and Development Cooperation, p. 36; UNDP Emergency Response Division, "Building Bridges Between Relief and Development: A Compendium of the UNDP Record in Crisis Countries" (online) http://www.undp.org/∼erdweb/bridges.htm.
114. The data base is available online at http://www.reliefweb.int/fts/index.html.
115. Danida Niels Dabelstein, personal communication with the author, February 1999; "The International Response to Conflict and Genocide."
116. Alternatively, an OECD-DAC task force could be assembled for this purpose.
117. Jeffrey E. Garten, The Big Ten: The Big Emerging Markets and How They Will Change Our Lives (New York: Basic Books, 1998).