Argument and 17th-century science: A rhetorical analysis with sociological implications

Social Studies of Science

Volumn 30, Issue 3, 2000, Pages 371-396

  Gross, Alan G ^a   Harmon, Joseph E ^b   Reidy, Michael S ^c  

^a UNIVERSITY OF MINNESOTA   (United States)

^b ARGONNE NATIONAL LABORATORY   (United States)

^c UNIVERSITY OF OKLAHOMA   (United States)

Author keywords

Hedging; Quantification; Rhetoric of science; Scientific societies; Visuals

Indexed keywords

EID: 0034343865     PISSN: 03063127     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/030631200030003002     Document Type: Article

References (98)

1. Bruno Latour and Steve Woolgar, Laboratory Life: The Construction of Scientific Facts (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2nd edn, 1986), 49.
2. Two other early sociological studies involving analysis of scientific texts are G. Nigel Gilbert and Michael Mulkay, Opening Pandora's Box: A Sociological Analysis of Scientists' Discourse (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984), and Karin D. Knorr-Cetina, The Manufacture of Knowledge: An Essay on the Constructivist and Contextual Nature of Science (Oxford: Pergamon Press, 1981). Among other insights, these studies found that the modern scientific article represents a rational reconstruction of scientific work, one that distorts the true nature of that work and suppresses some of its underlying motivations.
3. Two other early sociological studies involving analysis of scientific texts are G. Nigel Gilbert and Michael Mulkay, Opening Pandora's Box: A Sociological Analysis of Scientists' Discourse (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984), and Karin D. Knorr-Cetina, The Manufacture of Knowledge: An Essay on the Constructivist and Contextual Nature of Science (Oxford: Pergamon Press, 1981). Among other insights, these studies found that the modern scientific article represents a rational reconstruction of scientific work, one that distorts the true nature of that work and suppresses some of its underlying motivations.
4. Our review of the last 15 years' worth of Social Studies of Science, for example, turned up the following studies with a strong rhetorical slant: Charles Bazerman, 'Modern Evolution of the Experimental Report in Physics: Spectroscopic Articles in Physical Review, 1893-1980', Social Studies of Science, Vol. 14, No. 2 (May 1984), 163-96; Greg Myers, 'Texts as Knowledge Claims: The Social Construction of Two Biology Articles', ibid., Vol. 15, No. 4 (November 1985), 593-630; Myers, 'Politeness and Certainty: The Language of Collaboration in an AI Project', ibid., Vol. 21, No. 1 (February 1991), 37-73; Myers, 'From Discovery to Invention: The Writing and Rewriting of Two Patents', ibid., Vol. 25, No. 1 (February 1995), 57-105; Bryce Allen, Jian Qin and F.W. Lancaster, 'Persuasive Communities: A Longitudinal Analysis of References in the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, 1665-1990', ibid., Vol. 24, No. 2 (May 1994), 279-310; Benoît Godin, 'The Rhetoric of a Health Technology: The Microprocessor Patient Card', ibid., Vol. 27, No. 6 (December 1997), 865-902; Harro van Lente and Arie Rip, 'The Rise of Membrane Technology: From Rhetorics to Social Reality', ibid., Vol. 28, No. 2 (April 1998), 221-54. In the first of these papers, Bazerman investigated the changing character of communication in 20th-century physics. In three separate papers, Myers analyzed the negotiation of the breadth of biological claims during peer review, the function of politeness strategies in scientific decision-making, and the status of knowledge claims in patents as distinct from scientific papers. Allen, Qin and Lancester examined citation patterns in the Philosophical Transactions as a window on to the persuasive practices of scientific communities over time. Moving in a different direction, van Lente and Rip integrated rhetorical analysis into their examination of the creation of a new social reality in 'membrane technology', and Godin proceeded similarly in tracing the social history of the Canadian microprocessor patient card. Although the evidence from the dates of these articles is no more than suggestive, and hardly constitutes a trend, it does suggest a growing interest in the rhetoric of science and technology: 1984, 1985, 1991, 1994, 1995, 1997, 1998.
5. Our review of the last 15 years' worth of Social Studies of Science, for example, turned up the following studies with a strong rhetorical slant: Charles Bazerman, 'Modern Evolution of the Experimental Report in Physics: Spectroscopic Articles in Physical Review, 1893-1980', Social Studies of Science, Vol. 14, No. 2 (May 1984), 163-96; Greg Myers, 'Texts as Knowledge Claims: The Social Construction of Two Biology Articles', ibid., Vol. 15, No. 4 (November 1985), 593-630; Myers, 'Politeness and Certainty: The Language of Collaboration in an AI Project', ibid., Vol. 21, No. 1 (February 1991), 37-73; Myers, 'From Discovery to Invention: The Writing and Rewriting of Two Patents', ibid., Vol. 25, No. 1 (February 1995), 57-105; Bryce Allen, Jian Qin and F.W. Lancaster, 'Persuasive Communities: A Longitudinal Analysis of References in the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, 1665-1990', ibid., Vol. 24, No. 2 (May 1994), 279-310; Benoît Godin, 'The Rhetoric of a Health Technology: The Microprocessor Patient Card', ibid., Vol. 27, No. 6 (December 1997), 865-902; Harro van Lente and Arie Rip, 'The Rise of Membrane Technology: From Rhetorics to Social Reality', ibid., Vol. 28, No. 2 (April 1998), 221-54. In the first of these papers, Bazerman investigated the changing character of communication in 20th-century physics. In three separate papers, Myers analyzed the negotiation of the breadth of biological claims during peer review, the function of politeness strategies in scientific decision-making, and the status of knowledge claims in patents as distinct from scientific papers. Allen, Qin and Lancester examined citation patterns in the Philosophical Transactions as a window on to the persuasive practices of scientific communities over time. Moving in a different direction, van Lente and Rip integrated rhetorical analysis into their examination of the creation of a new social reality in 'membrane technology', and Godin proceeded similarly in tracing the social history of the Canadian microprocessor patient card. Although the evidence from the dates of these articles is no more than suggestive, and hardly constitutes a trend, it does suggest a growing interest in the rhetoric of science and technology: 1984, 1985, 1991, 1994, 1995, 1997, 1998.
6. Our review of the last 15 years' worth of Social Studies of Science, for example, turned up the following studies with a strong rhetorical slant: Charles Bazerman, 'Modern Evolution of the Experimental Report in Physics: Spectroscopic Articles in Physical Review, 1893-1980', Social Studies of Science, Vol. 14, No. 2 (May 1984), 163-96; Greg Myers, 'Texts as Knowledge Claims: The Social Construction of Two Biology Articles', ibid., Vol. 15, No. 4 (November 1985), 593-630; Myers, 'Politeness and Certainty: The Language of Collaboration in an AI Project', ibid., Vol. 21, No. 1 (February 1991), 37-73; Myers, 'From Discovery to Invention: The Writing and Rewriting of Two Patents', ibid., Vol. 25, No. 1 (February 1995), 57-105; Bryce Allen, Jian Qin and F.W. Lancaster, 'Persuasive Communities: A Longitudinal Analysis of References in the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, 1665-1990', ibid., Vol. 24, No. 2 (May 1994), 279-310; Benoît Godin, 'The Rhetoric of a Health Technology: The Microprocessor Patient Card', ibid., Vol. 27, No. 6 (December 1997), 865-902; Harro van Lente and Arie Rip, 'The Rise of Membrane Technology: From Rhetorics to Social Reality', ibid., Vol. 28, No. 2 (April 1998), 221-54. In the first of these papers, Bazerman investigated the changing character of communication in 20th-century physics. In three separate papers, Myers analyzed the negotiation of the breadth of biological claims during peer review, the function of politeness strategies in scientific decision-making, and the status of knowledge claims in patents as distinct from scientific papers. Allen, Qin and Lancester examined citation patterns in the Philosophical Transactions as a window on to the persuasive practices of scientific communities over time. Moving in a different direction, van Lente and Rip integrated rhetorical analysis into their examination of the creation of a new social reality in 'membrane technology', and Godin proceeded similarly in tracing the social history of the Canadian microprocessor patient card. Although the evidence from the dates of these articles is no more than suggestive, and hardly constitutes a trend, it does suggest a growing interest in the rhetoric of science and technology: 1984, 1985, 1991, 1994, 1995, 1997, 1998.
7. Our review of the last 15 years' worth of Social Studies of Science, for example, turned up the following studies with a strong rhetorical slant: Charles Bazerman, 'Modern Evolution of the Experimental Report in Physics: Spectroscopic Articles in Physical Review, 1893-1980', Social Studies of Science, Vol. 14, No. 2 (May 1984), 163-96; Greg Myers, 'Texts as Knowledge Claims: The Social Construction of Two Biology Articles', ibid., Vol. 15, No. 4 (November 1985), 593-630; Myers, 'Politeness and Certainty: The Language of Collaboration in an AI Project', ibid., Vol. 21, No. 1 (February 1991), 37-73; Myers, 'From Discovery to Invention: The Writing and Rewriting of Two Patents', ibid., Vol. 25, No. 1 (February 1995), 57-105; Bryce Allen, Jian Qin and F.W. Lancaster, 'Persuasive Communities: A Longitudinal Analysis of References in the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, 1665-1990', ibid., Vol. 24, No. 2 (May 1994), 279-310; Benoît Godin, 'The Rhetoric of a Health Technology: The Microprocessor Patient Card', ibid., Vol. 27, No. 6 (December 1997), 865-902; Harro van Lente and Arie Rip, 'The Rise of Membrane Technology: From Rhetorics to Social Reality', ibid., Vol. 28, No. 2 (April 1998), 221-54. In the first of these papers, Bazerman investigated the changing character of communication in 20th-century physics. In three separate papers, Myers analyzed the negotiation of the breadth of biological claims during peer review, the function of politeness strategies in scientific decision-making, and the status of knowledge claims in patents as distinct from scientific papers. Allen, Qin and Lancester examined citation patterns in the Philosophical Transactions as a window on to the persuasive practices of scientific communities over time. Moving in a different direction, van Lente and Rip integrated rhetorical analysis into their examination of the creation of a new social reality in 'membrane technology', and Godin proceeded similarly in tracing the social history of the Canadian microprocessor patient card. Although the evidence from the dates of these articles is no more than suggestive, and hardly constitutes a trend, it does suggest a growing interest in the rhetoric of science and technology: 1984, 1985, 1991, 1994, 1995, 1997, 1998.
8. Our review of the last 15 years' worth of Social Studies of Science, for example, turned up the following studies with a strong rhetorical slant: Charles Bazerman, 'Modern Evolution of the Experimental Report in Physics: Spectroscopic Articles in Physical Review, 1893-1980', Social Studies of Science, Vol. 14, No. 2 (May 1984), 163-96; Greg Myers, 'Texts as Knowledge Claims: The Social Construction of Two Biology Articles', ibid., Vol. 15, No. 4 (November 1985), 593-630; Myers, 'Politeness and Certainty: The Language of Collaboration in an AI Project', ibid., Vol. 21, No. 1 (February 1991), 37-73; Myers, 'From Discovery to Invention: The Writing and Rewriting of Two Patents', ibid., Vol. 25, No. 1 (February 1995), 57-105; Bryce Allen, Jian Qin and F.W. Lancaster, 'Persuasive Communities: A Longitudinal Analysis of References in the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, 1665-1990', ibid., Vol. 24, No. 2 (May 1994), 279-310; Benoît Godin, 'The Rhetoric of a Health Technology: The Microprocessor Patient Card', ibid., Vol. 27, No. 6 (December 1997), 865-902; Harro van Lente and Arie Rip, 'The Rise of Membrane Technology: From Rhetorics to Social Reality', ibid., Vol. 28, No. 2 (April 1998), 221-54. In the first of these papers, Bazerman investigated the changing character of communication in 20th-century physics. In three separate papers, Myers analyzed the negotiation of the breadth of biological claims during peer review, the function of politeness strategies in scientific decision-making, and the status of knowledge claims in patents as distinct from scientific papers. Allen, Qin and Lancester examined citation patterns in the Philosophical Transactions as a window on to the persuasive practices of scientific communities over time. Moving in a different direction, van Lente and Rip integrated rhetorical analysis into their examination of the creation of a new social reality in 'membrane technology', and Godin proceeded similarly in tracing the social history of the Canadian microprocessor patient card. Although the evidence from the dates of these articles is no more than suggestive, and hardly constitutes a trend, it does suggest a growing interest in the rhetoric of science and technology: 1984, 1985, 1991, 1994, 1995, 1997, 1998.
9. Our review of the last 15 years' worth of Social Studies of Science, for example, turned up the following studies with a strong rhetorical slant: Charles Bazerman, 'Modern Evolution of the Experimental Report in Physics: Spectroscopic Articles in Physical Review, 1893-1980', Social Studies of Science, Vol. 14, No. 2 (May 1984), 163-96; Greg Myers, 'Texts as Knowledge Claims: The Social Construction of Two Biology Articles', ibid., Vol. 15, No. 4 (November 1985), 593-630; Myers, 'Politeness and Certainty: The Language of Collaboration in an AI Project', ibid., Vol. 21, No. 1 (February 1991), 37-73; Myers, 'From Discovery to Invention: The Writing and Rewriting of Two Patents', ibid., Vol. 25, No. 1 (February 1995), 57-105; Bryce Allen, Jian Qin and F.W. Lancaster, 'Persuasive Communities: A Longitudinal Analysis of References in the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, 1665-1990', ibid., Vol. 24, No. 2 (May 1994), 279-310; Benoît Godin, 'The Rhetoric of a Health Technology: The Microprocessor Patient Card', ibid., Vol. 27, No. 6 (December 1997), 865-902; Harro van Lente and Arie Rip, 'The Rise of Membrane Technology: From Rhetorics to Social Reality', ibid., Vol. 28, No. 2 (April 1998), 221-54. In the first of these papers, Bazerman investigated the changing character of communication in 20th-century physics. In three separate papers, Myers analyzed the negotiation of the breadth of biological claims during peer review, the function of politeness strategies in scientific decision-making, and the status of knowledge claims in patents as distinct from scientific papers. Allen, Qin and Lancester examined citation patterns in the Philosophical Transactions as a window on to the persuasive practices of scientific communities over time. Moving in a different direction, van Lente and Rip integrated rhetorical analysis into their examination of the creation of a new social reality in 'membrane technology', and Godin proceeded similarly in tracing the social history of the Canadian microprocessor patient card. Although the evidence from the dates of these articles is no more than suggestive, and hardly constitutes a trend, it does suggest a growing interest in the rhetoric of science and technology: 1984, 1985, 1991, 1994, 1995, 1997, 1998.
10. Our review of the last 15 years' worth of Social Studies of Science, for example, turned up the following studies with a strong rhetorical slant: Charles Bazerman, 'Modern Evolution of the Experimental Report in Physics: Spectroscopic Articles in Physical Review, 1893-1980', Social Studies of Science, Vol. 14, No. 2 (May 1984), 163-96; Greg Myers, 'Texts as Knowledge Claims: The Social Construction of Two Biology Articles', ibid., Vol. 15, No. 4 (November 1985), 593-630; Myers, 'Politeness and Certainty: The Language of Collaboration in an AI Project', ibid., Vol. 21, No. 1 (February 1991), 37-73; Myers, 'From Discovery to Invention: The Writing and Rewriting of Two Patents', ibid., Vol. 25, No. 1 (February 1995), 57-105; Bryce Allen, Jian Qin and F.W. Lancaster, 'Persuasive Communities: A Longitudinal Analysis of References in the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, 1665-1990', ibid., Vol. 24, No. 2 (May 1994), 279-310; Benoît Godin, 'The Rhetoric of a Health Technology: The Microprocessor Patient Card', ibid., Vol. 27, No. 6 (December 1997), 865-902; Harro van Lente and Arie Rip, 'The Rise of Membrane Technology: From Rhetorics to Social Reality', ibid., Vol. 28, No. 2 (April 1998), 221-54. In the first of these papers, Bazerman investigated the changing character of communication in 20th-century physics. In three separate papers, Myers analyzed the negotiation of the breadth of biological claims during peer review, the function of politeness strategies in scientific decision-making, and the status of knowledge claims in patents as distinct from scientific papers. Allen, Qin and Lancester examined citation patterns in the Philosophical Transactions as a window on to the persuasive practices of scientific communities over time. Moving in a different direction, van Lente and Rip integrated rhetorical analysis into their examination of the creation of a new social reality in 'membrane technology', and Godin proceeded similarly in tracing the social history of the Canadian microprocessor patient card. Although the evidence from the dates of these articles is no more than suggestive, and hardly constitutes a trend, it does suggest a growing interest in the rhetoric of science and technology: 1984, 1985, 1991, 1994, 1995, 1997, 1998.
11. There are many excellent historical works on the early journals and scientific societies, including Sherman B. Barnes, 'The Scientific Journal, 1665-1730', The Scientific Monthly, Vol. 38 (1934), 257-60; Raymond Birn, 'Le journal des savants sous l'Ancien Régime', Journal des Savants (Janvier-Mars 1964), 15-35; Roger Hahn, The Anatomy of a Scientific Institution: The Paris Academy of Sciences, 1666-1803 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1971); Marie Boas Hall, 'The Royal Society's Role in the Diffusion of Information in the Seventeenth Century', Notes and Records of the Royal Society, Vol. 29 (1975), 173-92; David A. Kronick, A History of Scientific & Technical Periodicals: The Origin and Development of the Scientific and Technical Press 1665-1790 (Metuchen, NJ: Scarecrow Press, 1976); Hub Laeven, The Acta Eruditorum under the Editorship of Otto Mencke (1644-1707): The History of an International Learned Journal between 1662-1707 (Amsterdam: Holland University Press, 1990); Roger Philip McCutcheon, 'The Journal des Sçavans and the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society', Studies in Philology, Vol. 21 (1924), 626-28; James E. McClellan, III, Science Reorganized: Scientific Societies in the Eighteenth Century (New York: Columbia University Press, 1985); Douglas McKie, 'The Scientific Periodical from 1665 to 1798', Philosophical Magazine, Commemorative Issue (1948), 122-32; Martha Ornstein, The Role of Scientific Societies in the Seventeenth Century (Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press, 2nd edn, 1928); Dorothy Stimson, Scientists and Amateurs: A History of the Royal Society (New York: Greenwood Press, 1968); Alice Stroup, A Company of Scientists: Botany, Patronage, and Community at the Seventeenth-Century Parisian Royal Academy of Sciences (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990).
12. There are many excellent historical works on the early journals and scientific societies, including Sherman B. Barnes, 'The Scientific Journal, 1665-1730', The Scientific Monthly, Vol. 38 (1934), 257-60; Raymond Birn, 'Le journal des savants sous l'Ancien Régime', Journal des Savants (Janvier-Mars 1964), 15-35; Roger Hahn, The Anatomy of a Scientific Institution: The Paris Academy of Sciences, 1666-1803 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1971); Marie Boas Hall, 'The Royal Society's Role in the Diffusion of Information in the Seventeenth Century', Notes and Records of the Royal Society, Vol. 29 (1975), 173-92; David A. Kronick, A History of Scientific & Technical Periodicals: The Origin and Development of the Scientific and Technical Press 1665-1790 (Metuchen, NJ: Scarecrow Press, 1976); Hub Laeven, The Acta Eruditorum under the Editorship of Otto Mencke (1644-1707): The History of an International Learned Journal between 1662-1707 (Amsterdam: Holland University Press, 1990); Roger Philip McCutcheon, 'The Journal des Sçavans and the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society', Studies in Philology, Vol. 21 (1924), 626-28; James E. McClellan, III, Science Reorganized: Scientific Societies in the Eighteenth Century (New York: Columbia University Press, 1985); Douglas McKie, 'The Scientific Periodical from 1665 to 1798', Philosophical Magazine, Commemorative Issue (1948), 122-32; Martha Ornstein, The Role of Scientific Societies in the Seventeenth Century (Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press, 2nd edn, 1928); Dorothy Stimson, Scientists and Amateurs: A History of the Royal Society (New York: Greenwood Press, 1968); Alice Stroup, A Company of Scientists: Botany, Patronage, and Community at the Seventeenth-Century Parisian Royal Academy of Sciences (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990).
13. There are many excellent historical works on the early journals and scientific societies, including Sherman B. Barnes, 'The Scientific Journal, 1665-1730', The Scientific Monthly, Vol. 38 (1934), 257-60; Raymond Birn, 'Le journal des savants sous l'Ancien Régime', Journal des Savants (Janvier-Mars 1964), 15-35; Roger Hahn, The Anatomy of a Scientific Institution: The Paris Academy of Sciences, 1666-1803 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1971); Marie Boas Hall, 'The Royal Society's Role in the Diffusion of Information in the Seventeenth Century', Notes and Records of the Royal Society, Vol. 29 (1975), 173-92; David A. Kronick, A History of Scientific & Technical Periodicals: The Origin and Development of the Scientific and Technical Press 1665-1790 (Metuchen, NJ: Scarecrow Press, 1976); Hub Laeven, The Acta Eruditorum under the Editorship of Otto Mencke (1644-1707): The History of an International Learned Journal between 1662-1707 (Amsterdam: Holland University Press, 1990); Roger Philip McCutcheon, 'The Journal des Sçavans and the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society', Studies in Philology, Vol. 21 (1924), 626-28; James E. McClellan, III, Science Reorganized: Scientific Societies in the Eighteenth Century (New York: Columbia University Press, 1985); Douglas McKie, 'The Scientific Periodical from 1665 to 1798', Philosophical Magazine, Commemorative Issue (1948), 122-32; Martha Ornstein, The Role of Scientific Societies in the Seventeenth Century (Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press, 2nd edn, 1928); Dorothy Stimson, Scientists and Amateurs: A History of the Royal Society (New York: Greenwood Press, 1968); Alice Stroup, A Company of Scientists: Botany, Patronage, and Community at the Seventeenth-Century Parisian Royal Academy of Sciences (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990).
14. There are many excellent historical works on the early journals and scientific societies, including Sherman B. Barnes, 'The Scientific Journal, 1665-1730', The Scientific Monthly, Vol. 38 (1934), 257-60; Raymond Birn, 'Le journal des savants sous l'Ancien Régime', Journal des Savants (Janvier-Mars 1964), 15-35; Roger Hahn, The Anatomy of a Scientific Institution: The Paris Academy of Sciences, 1666-1803 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1971); Marie Boas Hall, 'The Royal Society's Role in the Diffusion of Information in the Seventeenth Century', Notes and Records of the Royal Society, Vol. 29 (1975), 173-92; David A. Kronick, A History of Scientific & Technical Periodicals: The Origin and Development of the Scientific and Technical Press 1665-1790 (Metuchen, NJ: Scarecrow Press, 1976); Hub Laeven, The Acta Eruditorum under the Editorship of Otto Mencke (1644-1707): The History of an International Learned Journal between 1662-1707 (Amsterdam: Holland University Press, 1990); Roger Philip McCutcheon, 'The Journal des Sçavans and the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society', Studies in Philology, Vol. 21 (1924), 626-28; James E. McClellan, III, Science Reorganized: Scientific Societies in the Eighteenth Century (New York: Columbia University Press, 1985); Douglas McKie, 'The Scientific Periodical from 1665 to 1798', Philosophical Magazine, Commemorative Issue (1948), 122-32; Martha Ornstein, The Role of Scientific Societies in the Seventeenth Century (Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press, 2nd edn, 1928); Dorothy Stimson, Scientists and Amateurs: A History of the Royal Society (New York: Greenwood Press, 1968); Alice Stroup, A Company of Scientists: Botany, Patronage, and Community at the Seventeenth-Century Parisian Royal Academy of Sciences (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990).
15. There are many excellent historical works on the early journals and scientific societies, including Sherman B. Barnes, 'The Scientific Journal, 1665-1730', The Scientific Monthly, Vol. 38 (1934), 257-60; Raymond Birn, 'Le journal des savants sous l'Ancien Régime', Journal des Savants (Janvier-Mars 1964), 15-35; Roger Hahn, The Anatomy of a Scientific Institution: The Paris Academy of Sciences, 1666-1803 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1971); Marie Boas Hall, 'The Royal Society's Role in the Diffusion of Information in the Seventeenth Century', Notes and Records of the Royal Society, Vol. 29 (1975), 173-92; David A. Kronick, A History of Scientific & Technical Periodicals: The Origin and Development of the Scientific and Technical Press 1665-1790 (Metuchen, NJ: Scarecrow Press, 1976); Hub Laeven, The Acta Eruditorum under the Editorship of Otto Mencke (1644-1707): The History of an International Learned Journal between 1662-1707 (Amsterdam: Holland University Press, 1990); Roger Philip McCutcheon, 'The Journal des Sçavans and the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society', Studies in Philology, Vol. 21 (1924), 626-28; James E. McClellan, III, Science Reorganized: Scientific Societies in the Eighteenth Century (New York: Columbia University Press, 1985); Douglas McKie, 'The Scientific Periodical from 1665 to 1798', Philosophical Magazine, Commemorative Issue (1948), 122-32; Martha Ornstein, The Role of Scientific Societies in the Seventeenth Century (Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press, 2nd edn, 1928); Dorothy Stimson, Scientists and Amateurs: A History of the Royal Society (New York: Greenwood Press, 1968); Alice Stroup, A Company of Scientists: Botany, Patronage, and Community at the Seventeenth-Century Parisian Royal Academy of Sciences (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990).
16. There are many excellent historical works on the early journals and scientific societies, including Sherman B. Barnes, 'The Scientific Journal, 1665-1730', The Scientific Monthly, Vol. 38 (1934), 257-60; Raymond Birn, 'Le journal des savants sous l'Ancien Régime', Journal des Savants (Janvier-Mars 1964), 15-35; Roger Hahn, The Anatomy of a Scientific Institution: The Paris Academy of Sciences, 1666-1803 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1971); Marie Boas Hall, 'The Royal Society's Role in the Diffusion of Information in the Seventeenth Century', Notes and Records of the Royal Society, Vol. 29 (1975), 173-92; David A. Kronick, A History of Scientific & Technical Periodicals: The Origin and Development of the Scientific and Technical Press 1665-1790 (Metuchen, NJ: Scarecrow Press, 1976); Hub Laeven, The Acta Eruditorum under the Editorship of Otto Mencke (1644-1707): The History of an International Learned Journal between 1662-1707 (Amsterdam: Holland University Press, 1990); Roger Philip McCutcheon, 'The Journal des Sçavans and the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society', Studies in Philology, Vol. 21 (1924), 626-28; James E. McClellan, III, Science Reorganized: Scientific Societies in the Eighteenth Century (New York: Columbia University Press, 1985); Douglas McKie, 'The Scientific Periodical from 1665 to 1798', Philosophical Magazine, Commemorative Issue (1948), 122-32; Martha Ornstein, The Role of Scientific Societies in the Seventeenth Century (Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press, 2nd edn, 1928); Dorothy Stimson, Scientists and Amateurs: A History of the Royal Society (New York: Greenwood Press, 1968); Alice Stroup, A Company of Scientists: Botany, Patronage, and Community at the Seventeenth-Century Parisian Royal Academy of Sciences (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990).
17. There are many excellent historical works on the early journals and scientific societies, including Sherman B. Barnes, 'The Scientific Journal, 1665-1730', The Scientific Monthly, Vol. 38 (1934), 257-60; Raymond Birn, 'Le journal des savants sous l'Ancien Régime', Journal des Savants (Janvier-Mars 1964), 15-35; Roger Hahn, The Anatomy of a Scientific Institution: The Paris Academy of Sciences, 1666-1803 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1971); Marie Boas Hall, 'The Royal Society's Role in the Diffusion of Information in the Seventeenth Century', Notes and Records of the Royal Society, Vol. 29 (1975), 173-92; David A. Kronick, A History of Scientific & Technical Periodicals: The Origin and Development of the Scientific and Technical Press 1665-1790 (Metuchen, NJ: Scarecrow Press, 1976); Hub Laeven, The Acta Eruditorum under the Editorship of Otto Mencke (1644-1707): The History of an International Learned Journal between 1662-1707 (Amsterdam: Holland University Press, 1990); Roger Philip McCutcheon, 'The Journal des Sçavans and the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society', Studies in Philology, Vol. 21 (1924), 626-28; James E. McClellan, III, Science Reorganized: Scientific Societies in the Eighteenth Century (New York: Columbia University Press, 1985); Douglas McKie, 'The Scientific Periodical from 1665 to 1798', Philosophical Magazine, Commemorative Issue (1948), 122-32; Martha Ornstein, The Role of Scientific Societies in the Seventeenth Century (Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press, 2nd edn, 1928); Dorothy Stimson, Scientists and Amateurs: A History of the Royal Society (New York: Greenwood Press, 1968); Alice Stroup, A Company of Scientists: Botany, Patronage, and Community at the Seventeenth-Century Parisian Royal Academy of Sciences (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990).
18. There are many excellent historical works on the early journals and scientific societies, including Sherman B. Barnes, 'The Scientific Journal, 1665-1730', The Scientific Monthly, Vol. 38 (1934), 257-60; Raymond Birn, 'Le journal des savants sous l'Ancien Régime', Journal des Savants (Janvier-Mars 1964), 15-35; Roger Hahn, The Anatomy of a Scientific Institution: The Paris Academy of Sciences, 1666-1803 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1971); Marie Boas Hall, 'The Royal Society's Role in the Diffusion of Information in the Seventeenth Century', Notes and Records of the Royal Society, Vol. 29 (1975), 173-92; David A. Kronick, A History of Scientific & Technical Periodicals: The Origin and Development of the Scientific and Technical Press 1665-1790 (Metuchen, NJ: Scarecrow Press, 1976); Hub Laeven, The Acta Eruditorum under the Editorship of Otto Mencke (1644-1707): The History of an International Learned Journal between 1662-1707 (Amsterdam: Holland University Press, 1990); Roger Philip McCutcheon, 'The Journal des Sçavans and the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society', Studies in Philology, Vol. 21 (1924), 626-28; James E. McClellan, III, Science Reorganized: Scientific Societies in the Eighteenth Century (New York: Columbia University Press, 1985); Douglas McKie, 'The Scientific Periodical from 1665 to 1798', Philosophical Magazine, Commemorative Issue (1948), 122-32; Martha Ornstein, The Role of Scientific Societies in the Seventeenth Century (Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press, 2nd edn, 1928); Dorothy Stimson, Scientists and Amateurs: A History of the Royal Society (New York: Greenwood Press, 1968); Alice Stroup, A Company of Scientists: Botany, Patronage, and Community at the Seventeenth-Century Parisian Royal Academy of Sciences (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990).
19. There are many excellent historical works on the early journals and scientific societies, including Sherman B. Barnes, 'The Scientific Journal, 1665-1730', The Scientific Monthly, Vol. 38 (1934), 257-60; Raymond Birn, 'Le journal des savants sous l'Ancien Régime', Journal des Savants (Janvier-Mars 1964), 15-35; Roger Hahn, The Anatomy of a Scientific Institution: The Paris Academy of Sciences, 1666-1803 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1971); Marie Boas Hall, 'The Royal Society's Role in the Diffusion of Information in the Seventeenth Century', Notes and Records of the Royal Society, Vol. 29 (1975), 173-92; David A. Kronick, A History of Scientific & Technical Periodicals: The Origin and Development of the Scientific and Technical Press 1665-1790 (Metuchen, NJ: Scarecrow Press, 1976); Hub Laeven, The Acta Eruditorum under the Editorship of Otto Mencke (1644-1707): The History of an International Learned Journal between 1662-1707 (Amsterdam: Holland University Press, 1990); Roger Philip McCutcheon, 'The Journal des Sçavans and the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society', Studies in Philology, Vol. 21 (1924), 626-28; James E. McClellan, III, Science Reorganized: Scientific Societies in the Eighteenth Century (New York: Columbia University Press, 1985); Douglas McKie, 'The Scientific Periodical from 1665 to 1798', Philosophical Magazine, Commemorative Issue (1948), 122-32; Martha Ornstein, The Role of Scientific Societies in the Seventeenth Century (Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press, 2nd edn, 1928); Dorothy Stimson, Scientists and Amateurs: A History of the Royal Society (New York: Greenwood Press, 1968); Alice Stroup, A Company of Scientists: Botany, Patronage, and Community at the Seventeenth-Century Parisian Royal Academy of Sciences (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990).
20. There are many excellent historical works on the early journals and scientific societies, including Sherman B. Barnes, 'The Scientific Journal, 1665-1730', The Scientific Monthly, Vol. 38 (1934), 257-60; Raymond Birn, 'Le journal des savants sous l'Ancien Régime', Journal des Savants (Janvier-Mars 1964), 15-35; Roger Hahn, The Anatomy of a Scientific Institution: The Paris Academy of Sciences, 1666-1803 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1971); Marie Boas Hall, 'The Royal Society's Role in the Diffusion of Information in the Seventeenth Century', Notes and Records of the Royal Society, Vol. 29 (1975), 173-92; David A. Kronick, A History of Scientific & Technical Periodicals: The Origin and Development of the Scientific and Technical Press 1665-1790 (Metuchen, NJ: Scarecrow Press, 1976); Hub Laeven, The Acta Eruditorum under the Editorship of Otto Mencke (1644-1707): The History of an International Learned Journal between 1662-1707 (Amsterdam: Holland University Press, 1990); Roger Philip McCutcheon, 'The Journal des Sçavans and the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society', Studies in Philology, Vol. 21 (1924), 626-28; James E. McClellan, III, Science Reorganized: Scientific Societies in the Eighteenth Century (New York: Columbia University Press, 1985); Douglas McKie, 'The Scientific Periodical from 1665 to 1798', Philosophical Magazine, Commemorative Issue (1948), 122-32; Martha Ornstein, The Role of Scientific Societies in the Seventeenth Century (Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press, 2nd edn, 1928); Dorothy Stimson, Scientists and Amateurs: A History of the Royal Society (New York: Greenwood Press, 1968); Alice Stroup, A Company of Scientists: Botany, Patronage, and Community at the Seventeenth-Century Parisian Royal Academy of Sciences (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990).
21. There are many excellent historical works on the early journals and scientific societies, including Sherman B. Barnes, 'The Scientific Journal, 1665-1730', The Scientific Monthly, Vol. 38 (1934), 257-60; Raymond Birn, 'Le journal des savants sous l'Ancien Régime', Journal des Savants (Janvier-Mars 1964), 15-35; Roger Hahn, The Anatomy of a Scientific Institution: The Paris Academy of Sciences, 1666-1803 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1971); Marie Boas Hall, 'The Royal Society's Role in the Diffusion of Information in the Seventeenth Century', Notes and Records of the Royal Society, Vol. 29 (1975), 173-92; David A. Kronick, A History of Scientific & Technical Periodicals: The Origin and Development of the Scientific and Technical Press 1665-1790 (Metuchen, NJ: Scarecrow Press, 1976); Hub Laeven, The Acta Eruditorum under the Editorship of Otto Mencke (1644-1707): The History of an International Learned Journal between 1662-1707 (Amsterdam: Holland University Press, 1990); Roger Philip McCutcheon, 'The Journal des Sçavans and the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society', Studies in Philology, Vol. 21 (1924), 626-28; James E. McClellan, III, Science Reorganized: Scientific Societies in the Eighteenth Century (New York: Columbia University Press, 1985); Douglas McKie, 'The Scientific Periodical from 1665 to 1798', Philosophical Magazine, Commemorative Issue (1948), 122-32; Martha Ornstein, The Role of Scientific Societies in the Seventeenth Century (Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press, 2nd edn, 1928); Dorothy Stimson, Scientists and Amateurs: A History of the Royal Society (New York: Greenwood Press, 1968); Alice Stroup, A Company of Scientists: Botany, Patronage, and Community at the Seventeenth-Century Parisian Royal Academy of Sciences (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990).
22. There are many excellent historical works on the early journals and scientific societies, including Sherman B. Barnes, 'The Scientific Journal, 1665-1730', The Scientific Monthly, Vol. 38 (1934), 257-60; Raymond Birn, 'Le journal des savants sous l'Ancien Régime', Journal des Savants (Janvier-Mars 1964), 15-35; Roger Hahn, The Anatomy of a Scientific Institution: The Paris Academy of Sciences, 1666-1803 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1971); Marie Boas Hall, 'The Royal Society's Role in the Diffusion of Information in the Seventeenth Century', Notes and Records of the Royal Society, Vol. 29 (1975), 173-92; David A. Kronick, A History of Scientific & Technical Periodicals: The Origin and Development of the Scientific and Technical Press 1665-1790 (Metuchen, NJ: Scarecrow Press, 1976); Hub Laeven, The Acta Eruditorum under the Editorship of Otto Mencke (1644-1707): The History of an International Learned Journal between 1662-1707 (Amsterdam: Holland University Press, 1990); Roger Philip McCutcheon, 'The Journal des Sçavans and the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society', Studies in Philology, Vol. 21 (1924), 626-28; James E. McClellan, III, Science Reorganized: Scientific Societies in the Eighteenth Century (New York: Columbia University Press, 1985); Douglas McKie, 'The Scientific Periodical from 1665 to 1798', Philosophical Magazine, Commemorative Issue (1948), 122-32; Martha Ornstein, The Role of Scientific Societies in the Seventeenth Century (Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press, 2nd edn, 1928); Dorothy Stimson, Scientists and Amateurs: A History of the Royal Society (New York: Greenwood Press, 1968); Alice Stroup, A Company of Scientists: Botany, Patronage, and Community at the Seventeenth-Century Parisian Royal Academy of Sciences (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990).
23. From work cited in note 4, see Hahn, 1-34; Hall; McClellan, 41-66; Stroup, 3-61.
24. From work cited in note 4, see Hahn, 1-34; Hall; McClellan, 41-66; Stroup, 3-61.
25. From work cited in note 4, see Hahn, 1-34; Hall; McClellan, 41-66; Stroup, 3-61.
26. McClellan (op. cit. note 4, 30) notes that in the 18th century the Royal Society did receive governmental funding for 'several [large] expeditions and projects that had an immediate bearing on the government's interests in navigation, trade, and colonial expansion'.
27. Henry Oldenburg, Correspondence, ed. and trans. A. Rupert Hall and Marie Boas Hall (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1965-86).
28. Stroup, op. cit. note 4, 34.
29. Joseph Ben-David, The Scientist's Role in Society: A Comparative Study (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1971), 82.
30. Steven Shapin, 'Pump and Circumstance: Robert Boyle's Literary Technology', Social Studies of Science, Vol. 14, No. 4 (November 1984), 481-520; Jan V. Golinski, 'Robert Boyle: Scepticism and Authority in Seventeenth-Century Chemical Discourse', in Andrew E. Benjamin, Geoffrey N. Cantor and John R.R. Christie (eds), The Figural and the Literal: Problems of Language in the History of Science and Philosophy, 1630-1800 (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1987), 58-82.
31. Steven Shapin, 'Pump and Circumstance: Robert Boyle's Literary Technology', Social Studies of Science, Vol. 14, No. 4 (November 1984), 481-520; Jan V. Golinski, 'Robert Boyle: Scepticism and Authority in Seventeenth-Century Chemical Discourse', in Andrew E. Benjamin, Geoffrey N. Cantor and John R.R. Christie (eds), The Figural and the Literal: Problems of Language in the History of Science and Philosophy, 1630-1800 (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1987), 58-82.
32. Alan G. Gross, The Rhetoric of Science (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2nd edn, 1996), 119-28.
33. Charles Bazerman, 'Forums of Validation and Forms of Knowledge: The Magical Rhetoric of Otto von Guericke's Sulfur Globe', Configurations, Vol. 1 (1993), 201-27.
34. In addition to the work of Allen, Qin and Lancaster, discussed in note 3, see: Charles Bazerman, Shaping Written Knowledge: The Genre and Activity of the Experimental Article in Science (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1988), 59-79; Ellen Valle, 'A Scientific Community and Its Texts: A Historical Discourse Study', in Britt-Louise Gunnarsson, Per Linell and Bengt Norberg (eds), The Construction of Professional Discourse (London: Longman, 1997), 76-97; Dwight Atkinson, Scientific Discourse in Sociohistorical Context: The Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, 1675-1975 (Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1999). Our study differs from these earlier ones in several respects, most importantly in the comparison with the French journals, but also in our method for selecting and analyzing texts.
35. In addition to the work of Allen, Qin and Lancaster, discussed in note 3, see: Charles Bazerman, Shaping Written Knowledge: The Genre and Activity of the Experimental Article in Science (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1988), 59-79; Ellen Valle, 'A Scientific Community and Its Texts: A Historical Discourse Study', in Britt-Louise Gunnarsson, Per Linell and Bengt Norberg (eds), The Construction of Professional Discourse (London: Longman, 1997), 76-97; Dwight Atkinson, Scientific Discourse in Sociohistorical Context: The Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, 1675-1975 (Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1999). Our study differs from these earlier ones in several respects, most importantly in the comparison with the French journals, but also in our method for selecting and analyzing texts.
36. In addition to the work of Allen, Qin and Lancaster, discussed in note 3, see: Charles Bazerman, Shaping Written Knowledge: The Genre and Activity of the Experimental Article in Science (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1988), 59-79; Ellen Valle, 'A Scientific Community and Its Texts: A Historical Discourse Study', in Britt-Louise Gunnarsson, Per Linell and Bengt Norberg (eds), The Construction of Professional Discourse (London: Longman, 1997), 76-97; Dwight Atkinson, Scientific Discourse in Sociohistorical Context: The Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, 1675-1975 (Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1999). Our study differs from these earlier ones in several respects, most importantly in the comparison with the French journals, but also in our method for selecting and analyzing texts.
37. For a historically-based analysis of select rhetorical features of English prose in the 17th century, see Peter Dear, 'Totius in Verba: Rhetoric and Authority in the Early Royal Society', Isis, Vol. 76, No. 282 (June 1985), 145-61. For a historical treatment of early French scientific articles, see Frederic L. Holmes, 'Argument and Narrative in Scientific Writing', in Dear (ed.), The Literary Structure of Scientific Argument (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1989), 164-81.
38. For a historically-based analysis of select rhetorical features of English prose in the 17th century, see Peter Dear, 'Totius in Verba: Rhetoric and Authority in the Early Royal Society', Isis, Vol. 76, No. 282 (June 1985), 145-61. For a historical treatment of early French scientific articles, see Frederic L. Holmes, 'Argument and Narrative in Scientific Writing', in Dear (ed.), The Literary Structure of Scientific Argument (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1989), 164-81.
39. In De Elocutione, Demetrius noted: 'If anybody should write of logical subtleties or questions of natural history in a letter, he writes indeed, but not a letter'; quoted in Abraham J. Malherbe, Ancient Epistolary Theorists (Atlanta, GA: Scholars Press, 1988), 19.
40. Chaïm Perelman and Lucie Olbrechts-Tyteca, trans. John Wilkinson and Purcell Weaver, The New Rhetoric: A Treatise on Argumentation (Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press, 1969).
41. See Shapin, op. cit. note 10; Gross, op. cit. note 11; Bazerman, op. cit. note 13; Dear (1985), op. cit. note 14; Holmes, op cit. note 14; Peter Dear, Discipline and Experience: The Mathematical Way in the Scientific Revolution (Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press, 1995); Lorraine Daston and Katharine Park, 'Strange Facts', in their Wonders and the Order of Nature, 1150-1750 (New York: Zone Books, 1998), 215-54.
42. See Shapin, op. cit. note 10; Gross, op. cit. note 11; Bazerman, op. cit. note 13; Dear (1985), op. cit. note 14; Holmes, op cit. note 14; Peter Dear, Discipline and Experience: The Mathematical Way in the Scientific Revolution (Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press, 1995); Lorraine Daston and Katharine Park, 'Strange Facts', in their Wonders and the Order of Nature, 1150-1750 (New York: Zone Books, 1998), 215-54.
43. See Shapin, op. cit. note 10; Gross, op. cit. note 11; Bazerman, op. cit. note 13; Dear (1985), op. cit. note 14; Holmes, op cit. note 14; Peter Dear, Discipline and Experience: The Mathematical Way in the Scientific Revolution (Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press, 1995); Lorraine Daston and Katharine Park, 'Strange Facts', in their Wonders and the Order of Nature, 1150-1750 (New York: Zone Books, 1998), 215-54.
44. See Shapin, op. cit. note 10; Gross, op. cit. note 11; Bazerman, op. cit. note 13; Dear (1985), op. cit. note 14; Holmes, op cit. note 14; Peter Dear, Discipline and Experience: The Mathematical Way in the Scientific Revolution (Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press, 1995); Lorraine Daston and Katharine Park, 'Strange Facts', in their Wonders and the Order of Nature, 1150-1750 (New York: Zone Books, 1998), 215-54.
45. See Shapin, op. cit. note 10; Gross, op. cit. note 11; Bazerman, op. cit. note 13; Dear (1985), op. cit. note 14; Holmes, op cit. note 14; Peter Dear, Discipline and Experience: The Mathematical Way in the Scientific Revolution (Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press, 1995); Lorraine Daston and Katharine Park, 'Strange Facts', in their Wonders and the Order of Nature, 1150-1750 (New York: Zone Books, 1998), 215-54.
46. See Shapin, op. cit. note 10; Gross, op. cit. note 11; Bazerman, op. cit. note 13; Dear (1985), op. cit. note 14; Holmes, op cit. note 14; Peter Dear, Discipline and Experience: The Mathematical Way in the Scientific Revolution (Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press, 1995); Lorraine Daston and Katharine Park, 'Strange Facts', in their Wonders and the Order of Nature, 1150-1750 (New York: Zone Books, 1998), 215-54.
47. See Shapin, op. cit. note 10; Gross, op. cit. note 11; Bazerman, op. cit. note 13; Dear (1985), op. cit. note 14; Holmes, op cit. note 14; Peter Dear, Discipline and Experience: The Mathematical Way in the Scientific Revolution (Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press, 1995); Lorraine Daston and Katharine Park, 'Strange Facts', in their Wonders and the Order of Nature, 1150-1750 (New York: Zone Books, 1998), 215-54.
48. In the Appendix at the end of this paper, we present the set of questions we derived from the topics of argument.
49. Ken Hyland, Hedging in Scientific Research Articles (Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 1998); Greg Myers, 'The Pragmatics of Politeness in Scientific Articles', Applied Linguistics, Vol. 10 (1989), 1-35, esp. 12-20.
50. Ken Hyland, Hedging in Scientific Research Articles (Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 1998); Greg Myers, 'The Pragmatics of Politeness in Scientific Articles', Applied Linguistics, Vol. 10 (1989), 1-35, esp. 12-20.
51. Theodore M. Porter, Trust in Numbers: The Pursuit of Objectivity in Science and Public Life (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1995), 73-86.
52. Robert Mortimer Gascoigne, A Historical Catalogue of Scientific Periodicals, 1665-1900, with a Survey of their Development (New York: Garland Publishing, 1985). In this book, Gascoigne ranks the available 17th-and 18th-century journals on the basis of the number of prominent 'scientists' who published in a given journal over a select period. The other two 17th-century journals listed by Gascoigne, Miscellanea Curiosa and Acta Eruditorum, originated in German-speaking lands and adopted Latin to reach the widest possible audience.
53. Robert Mortimer Gascoigne, A Historical Catalogue of Scientific Periodicals, 1665-1900, with a Survey of their Development (New York: Garland Publishing, 1985). In this book, Gascoigne ranks the available 17th-and 18th-century journals on the basis of the number of prominent 'scientists' who published in a given journal over a select period. The other two 17th-century journals listed by Gascoigne, Miscellanea Curiosa and Acta Eruditorum, originated in German-speaking lands and adopted Latin to reach the widest possible audience.
54. These references indicate year of publication, journal abbreviation (PT = Philosophical Transactions, JS = Journal des Sçavans, and MAS = Mémoires de l'Académie Royale des Sciences), and our working code number.
55. Steven Shapin and Simon Schaffer, Leviathan and the Air-Pump: Hobbes, Boyle, and the Experimental Life (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1985), 24.
56. This expectation did not, of course, eliminate the occasional appearance of unfounded or ludicrous assertions. In his Review of the Works of the Royal Society (London, 1751), John Hill mercilessly criticized Philosophical Transactions for publishing 'trivial and downright foolish articles' over the previous century. As evidence, he cited articles on a merman discovered in Virginia, and a miraculous plant that heals fresh wounds ('but to touch it, is to be healed'), as well as 'incontestible proofs of a strange and surprising Fact, namely, that Fish will live in Water'. Not long after Hill's scathing attack, in 1752, the Society established a committee to review articles for publication on the basis of 'the importance and singularity of the subjects, or the advantageous manner of treating them': see Stimson, op. cit. note 4, 141. Worth noting, however, is that our sample of 100 randomly selected English and French articles did not have any obvious examples of ill-advised articles like those criticized by Hill.
57. This expectation did not, of course, eliminate the occasional appearance of unfounded or ludicrous assertions. In his Review of the Works of the Royal Society (London, 1751), John Hill mercilessly criticized Philosophical Transactions for publishing 'trivial and downright foolish articles' over the previous century. As evidence, he cited articles on a merman discovered in Virginia, and a miraculous plant that heals fresh wounds ('but to touch it, is to be healed'), as well as 'incontestible proofs of a strange and surprising Fact, namely, that Fish will live in Water'. Not long after Hill's scathing attack, in 1752, the Society established a committee to review articles for publication on the basis of 'the importance and singularity of the subjects, or the advantageous manner of treating them': see Stimson, op. cit. note 4, 141. Worth noting, however, is that our sample of 100 randomly selected English and French articles did not have any obvious examples of ill-advised articles like those criticized by Hill.
58. This expectation did not, of course, eliminate the occasional appearance of unfounded or ludicrous assertions. In his Review of the Works of the Royal Society (London, 1751), John Hill mercilessly criticized Philosophical Transactions for publishing 'trivial and downright foolish articles' over the previous century. As evidence, he cited articles on a merman discovered in Virginia, and a miraculous plant that heals fresh wounds ('but to touch it, is to be healed'), as well as 'incontestible proofs of a strange and surprising Fact, namely, that Fish will live in Water'. Not long after Hill's scathing attack, in 1752, the Society established a committee to review articles for publication on the basis of 'the importance and singularity of the subjects, or the advantageous manner of treating them': see Stimson, op. cit. note 4, 141. Worth noting, however, is that our sample of 100 randomly selected English and French articles did not have any obvious examples of ill-advised articles like those criticized by Hill.
59. Myers (1989), op. cit. note 19, 12-20.
60. The much lower French average for hedging may reflect inherent differences in the two languages, as well as less concern with the open display of gentlemanly politeness than among the English.
61. For comparison, we found that an analogous sample drawn from the 20th century yielded hedge counts of 1.82 and 1.29 instances per 100 words for English and French scientific articles, respectively.
62. This controversy, the first major open dispute in the scientific journal literature, has been much analyzed by both historians and rhetoricians of science. See, for example, Gross, op. cit. note 11, 111-128; Bazerman, op. cit. note 13, 80-127; and Richard S. Westfall, The Life of Isaac Newton (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993), 85-109.
63. This controversy, the first major open dispute in the scientific journal literature, has been much analyzed by both historians and rhetoricians of science. See, for example, Gross, op. cit. note 11, 111-128; Bazerman, op. cit. note 13, 80-127; and Richard S. Westfall, The Life of Isaac Newton (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993), 85-109.
64. This controversy, the first major open dispute in the scientific journal literature, has been much analyzed by both historians and rhetoricians of science. See, for example, Gross, op. cit. note 11, 111-128; Bazerman, op. cit. note 13, 80-127; and Richard S. Westfall, The Life of Isaac Newton (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993), 85-109.
65. Shapin & Schaffer, op. cit. note 23, 225-82, quote at 281.
66. Alan Shapiro, 'The Gradual Acceptance of Newton's Theory of Light and Color, 1672-1727', Perspectives on Science, Vol. 4 (1996), 59-140, at 61.
67. John Swales, Genre Analysis: English in Academic and Research Settings (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990), 137-66.
68. Steven Shapin, A Social History of Truth: Civility and Science in Seventeenth-Century England (Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press), 335. This is not to say, of course, that Boyle did not have in mind a causal explanation for the 'spring of the air', only that he hesitated to spell it out for public consumption in his written communications.
69. Holmes, op. cit. note 14, 165.
70. Dear, op. cit. note 14, 159.
71. For comparison, we found that a similar analysis of passages from the 20th century yielded 3.28 and 2.82 instances per 100 words for English and French scientific articles, respectively.
72. Dear, op. cit. note 14, 152. Note that our sample also contains many passages focused on the natural world, with the observer more in the background, as in the earlier quoted passage of Lister (1672-PT063). Furthermore, in our sample of 100 English passages, we found little evidence that 'Fellows of the Royal Society filled their descriptions with contingent details of time and place in order to convey the impression that these were actual events, of which the authors were faithful reporters' (Holmes, op. cit. note 14, 165, italics added). In the midst of maritime observations, the Englishman Stubbs does report that his ship sailed off course 'to avoid the Spanish Fleet' (1668-PT010), but only a few such apparently extraneous statements appear in our sample. Our own general impression is that when there are details of time and place, as is often the case in reports of astronomical observations, they almost always provide essential information to the technical matter at hand.
73. Dear, op. cit. note 14, 152. Note that our sample also contains many passages focused on the natural world, with the observer more in the background, as in the earlier quoted passage of Lister (1672-PT063). Furthermore, in our sample of 100 English passages, we found little evidence that 'Fellows of the Royal Society filled their descriptions with contingent details of time and place in order to convey the impression that these were actual events, of which the authors were faithful reporters' (Holmes, op. cit. note 14, 165, italics added). In the midst of maritime observations, the Englishman Stubbs does report that his ship sailed off course 'to avoid the Spanish Fleet' (1668-PT010), but only a few such apparently extraneous statements appear in our sample. Our own general impression is that when there are details of time and place, as is often the case in reports of astronomical observations, they almost always provide essential information to the technical matter at hand.
74. The original French passage reads as follows: De sorte que de ces 144 parties égales il en faut prendre 23, pour le premiere heure de l'écoulement; 21, pour la seconde; 19, pour la troisiéme; 17, pour la quatriéme; & enfin 1, pour la douziéme, toûjours suivant la suite naturelle des nombres impairs. EXEMPLE II XI.* La vitesse de l'eau à la sortie par le trou O, demeurant la même que dans l'exemple précedent (art. 8), c'est à dire, comme les racines des hauteurs de la surface de l'eau par dessus ce trou, ensorte que la courbe OVX qui les exprime par ses ordonnées, soit encore une parabola dont le lieu soit v = √px; si l'on veut présentement que la courbe géneratrice FEO du vase donné, soit une section conique quelconque dont le sommet soit en O.
75. Thomas Sprat, History of the Royal Society of London, For the Improving of Natural Knowledge (London: J. Martyn & J. Allestry, 1667), 113.
76. The expense did not impede the production of books that were magnificently illustrated and designed, such as Robert Hooke's Micrographia: or, Some Physiological Descriptions of Minute Bodies Made by Magnifying Glasses (London, 1665) and the Accademia del Cimento's Saggi di Naturali Esperienzi (Florence, 1667). For a vivid portrait of the costs and perils associated with 17th-century publishing in natural philosophy, see Adrian Johns, The Nature of the Book: Print and Knowledge in the Making (Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press, 1998), 444-542.
77. The expense did not impede the production of books that were magnificently illustrated and designed, such as Robert Hooke's Micrographia: or, Some Physiological Descriptions of Minute Bodies Made by Magnifying Glasses (London, 1665) and the Accademia del Cimento's Saggi di Naturali Esperienzi (Florence, 1667). For a vivid portrait of the costs and perils associated with 17th-century publishing in natural philosophy, see Adrian Johns, The Nature of the Book: Print and Knowledge in the Making (Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press, 1998), 444-542.
78. The expense did not impede the production of books that were magnificently illustrated and designed, such as Robert Hooke's Micrographia: or, Some Physiological Descriptions of Minute Bodies Made by Magnifying Glasses (London, 1665) and the Accademia del Cimento's Saggi di Naturali Esperienzi (Florence, 1667). For a vivid portrait of the costs and perils associated with 17th-century publishing in natural philosophy, see Adrian Johns, The Nature of the Book: Print and Knowledge in the Making (Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press, 1998), 444-542.
79. Printing technology at this time allowed for text to accompany tables, but engravings are inserted separately (often at the end of the journal issue), and the relative space taken up by illustrations depends on how many fit on to a single plate, not on their argumentative importance to the articles they illustrate.
80. For a discussion of the later use of graphs, their rôle in argumentation, and the distribution of their use across 20th-century science, see Laurence D. Smith, Lisa A. Best, D. Alan Stubbs, John Johnston and Andrea Bastiani Archibald, 'Scientific Graphs and the Hierarchy of the Sciences: A Latourian Survey of Inscription Practices', Social Studies of Science, Vol. 30, No. 1 (February 2000), 73-94, esp. 74-76, 84-87.
81. See Shapin & Scharfer, note 23, 27.
82. All of our categories of science are anachronistic, with the possible exceptions of astronomy, chemistry, mathematics and medicine. In applying these categories to the 17th century, we have attempted merely to identify what these men were doing, with no pretence that they would have identified their tasks exactly as such. Some of our other terminology must be so viewed: for example, 'scientist', and even 'experiment'.
83. Hahn, op. cit. note 4, 16.
84. This finding is a little deceptive in that some of the Académie Royale research in plant and animal biology had an underlying medical motivation. As Stroup points out (op. cit. note 4, 172-73), nearly 30% of the 17th-cenrury Académie members had been trained as physicians or apothecaries, yet the Académie 'established its scientific program to be independent of medical research'. Also, at this time in France, medicine was already a well-developed discipline with various career tracks available, including academic ones.
85. Denis Dodart, 'Mémoire pour Servir à l'Histoire des Plantes', in Mémoires de l'Académie Royale des Sciences depuis 1666 jusqu'à 1699, Tome IV (1731), 121-333; Claude Perrault, Mémoires pour Servir à l'Histoire Naturelle des A nimaux (Paris, 1671).
86. Denis Dodart, 'Mémoire pour Servir à l'Histoire des Plantes', in Mémoires de l'Académie Royale des Sciences depuis 1666 jusqu'à 1699, Tome IV (1731), 121-333; Claude Perrault, Mémoires pour Servir à l'Histoire Naturelle des Animaux (Paris, 1671).
87. See also Holmes, op. cit. note 14, 177-78.
88. While translations of articles by Robert Boyle and other English authors did appear in Journal des Sçavans, it is worth noting that our complete random sample of French whole articles and short passages contains only two authors not members of the Académie Royale (Francine and Bernoulli), neither of them English.
89. Ben-David, op. cit. note 9, 108.
90. This early professionalization, as well as its financial underpinnings, has been masterfully documented by historian Alice Stroup (op. cit. note 4).
91. Not surprising but sad to say, this openness did not extend to women authors. Atkinson (op. cit. note 13, 102) reports that the first article with a woman listed as author did not appear in Philosophical Transactions until 1760: 'Effects of a Thunderstorm at Rickmansworth, Herts', by Ann Whitfield. The astronomer Caroline Herschel reported her sightings of comets in several short Philosophical Transactions articles published in the 1790s.
92. Not surprising but sad to say, this openness did not extend to women authors. Atkinson (op. cit. note 13, 102) reports that the first article with a woman listed as author did not appear in Philosophical Transactions until 1760: 'Effects of a Thunderstorm at Rickmansworth, Herts', by Ann Whitfield. The astronomer Caroline Herschel reported her sightings of comets in several short Philosophical Transactions articles published in the 1790s.
93. Not surprising but sad to say, this openness did not extend to women authors. Atkinson (op. cit. note 13, 102) reports that the first article with a woman listed as author did not appear in Philosophical Transactions until 1760: 'Effects of a Thunderstorm at Rickmansworth, Herts', by Ann Whitfield. The astronomer Caroline Herschel reported her sightings of comets in several short Philosophical Transactions articles published in the 1790s.
94. Not surprising but sad to say, this openness did not extend to women authors. Atkinson (op. cit. note 13, 102) reports that the first article with a woman listed as author did not appear in Philosophical Transactions until 1760: 'Effects of a Thunderstorm at Rickmansworth, Herts', by Ann Whitfield. The astronomer Caroline Herschel reported her sightings of comets in several short Philosophical Transactions articles published in the 1790s.
95. Ben-David, op. cit. note 9, 108.
96. McClellan, op. cit. note 4, 67-68, 89-99.
97. For good discussions of the argumentative practices in the 18th-century Philosophical Transactions, see this work cited in note 13: Bazerman, 59-79;
98. Valle; and Atkinson, 75-109.