High-cost activism and the worker household: Interests, commitment, and the costs of revolutionary activism in a philippine plantation region

Theory and Society

Volumn 29, Issue 2, 2000, Pages 215-252

  Rutten, Rosanne ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF AMSTERDAM   (Netherlands)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0034340860     PISSN: 03042421     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1023/A:1007032519735     Document Type: Article

References (84)

1. The research in the 1990s concerns the rise and decline of popular support for the revolutionary movement CPP-NPA from the perspective of two communities in Negros Occidental, a lowland sugarcane plantation and an upland village. This article concentrates on developments in the plantation. It is primarily based on the informal interviews I had with workers, male and female, when I lived there for nine months in 1992 and one month in 1995. Reestablishing old friendships and contacts from my previous fieldwork in 1977-1978, I tried to reconstruct the mobilization histories of individual persons and families in the context of the plantation community.
2. Rosanne Rutten, Women Workers of Hacienda Milagros: Wage Labor and Household Subsistence on a Philippine Sugarcane Plantation (Amsterdam: Antropologisch-Sociologisch Centrum, Universiteit van Amsterdam, 1982).
3. Gregg R. Jones, Red Revolution: Inside the Philippine Guerrilla Movement (Boulder: Westview Press, 1989), 8. The number of civilian sympathizers and supporters was estimated at 1.7 million people in 1986. By 1993, the number of guerrillas had dropped from an estimated 24, 000 in 1988 to 10, 600, and the percentage of NPA controlled or influenced villages and urban neighborhoods had dwindled from 20 to 3 percent. Estimates for 1997 mention 6, 790 guerrilla fighters nationwide, a number that increased again to almost 8, 000 by 1999. Alfred W. McCoy, "Low Intensity Conflict in the Philippines, " in Low Intensity Conflict: Theory and Practice in Central America and South-East Asia, ed. Barry Carr and Elaine McKay (Melbourne: La Trobe University, Institute of Latin American Studies, and Monash University, Centre of Southeast Asian Studies, 1988), 61; John McBeth, "Internal Contradictions: Support for Communists Wanes as Party Splits, " Far Eastern Economic Review (August 26, 1993); "Military Slays Four Communist Rebels, " Philippine News Agency through the email newslist Balita News, 6 August 1999. On the CPP-NPA, see also Patricio N. Abinales, editor. The Revolution Falters: The Left in Philippine Politics After 1986 (Ithaca: Southeast Asia Program, Cornell University, 1996); William Chapman, Inside the Philippine Revolution (New York: W.W. Norton, 1987); Joel Rocamora, Breaking Through: The Struggle Within the Communist Party of the Philippines (Pasig City, Manila: Anvil, 1994); Mark P. Thompson, "The Decline of Philippine Communism: A Review Essay, " South East Asia Research 6 (1998): 105-129.
4. Gregg R. Jones, Red Revolution: Inside the Philippine Guerrilla Movement (Boulder: Westview Press, 1989), 8. The number of civilian sympathizers and supporters was estimated at 1.7 million people in 1986. By 1993, the number of guerrillas had dropped from an estimated 24, 000 in 1988 to 10, 600, and the percentage of NPA controlled or influenced villages and urban neighborhoods had dwindled from 20 to 3 percent. Estimates for 1997 mention 6, 790 guerrilla fighters nationwide, a number that increased again to almost 8, 000 by 1999. Alfred W. McCoy, "Low Intensity Conflict in the Philippines, " in Low Intensity Conflict: Theory and Practice in Central America and South-East Asia, ed. Barry Carr and Elaine McKay (Melbourne: La Trobe University, Institute of Latin American Studies, and Monash University, Centre of Southeast Asian Studies, 1988), 61; John McBeth, "Internal Contradictions: Support for Communists Wanes as Party Splits, " Far Eastern Economic Review (August 26, 1993); "Military Slays Four Communist Rebels, " Philippine News Agency through the email newslist Balita News, 6 August 1999. On the CPP-NPA, see also Patricio N. Abinales, editor. The Revolution Falters: The Left in Philippine Politics After 1986 (Ithaca: Southeast Asia Program, Cornell University, 1996); William Chapman, Inside the Philippine Revolution (New York: W.W. Norton, 1987); Joel Rocamora, Breaking Through: The Struggle Within the Communist Party of the Philippines (Pasig City, Manila: Anvil, 1994); Mark P. Thompson, "The Decline of Philippine Communism: A Review Essay, " South East Asia Research 6 (1998): 105-129.
5. Gregg R. Jones, Red Revolution: Inside the Philippine Guerrilla Movement (Boulder: Westview Press, 1989), 8. The number of civilian sympathizers and supporters was estimated at 1.7 million people in 1986. By 1993, the number of guerrillas had dropped from an estimated 24, 000 in 1988 to 10, 600, and the percentage of NPA controlled or influenced villages and urban neighborhoods had dwindled from 20 to 3 percent. Estimates for 1997 mention 6, 790 guerrilla fighters nationwide, a number that increased again to almost 8, 000 by 1999. Alfred W. McCoy, "Low Intensity Conflict in the Philippines, " in Low Intensity Conflict: Theory and Practice in Central America and South-East Asia, ed. Barry Carr and Elaine McKay (Melbourne: La Trobe University, Institute of Latin American Studies, and Monash University, Centre of Southeast Asian Studies, 1988), 61; John McBeth, "Internal Contradictions: Support for Communists Wanes as Party Splits, " Far Eastern Economic Review (August 26, 1993); "Military Slays Four Communist Rebels, " Philippine News Agency through the email newslist Balita News, 6 August 1999. On the CPP-NPA, see also Patricio N. Abinales, editor. The Revolution Falters: The Left in Philippine Politics After 1986 (Ithaca: Southeast Asia Program, Cornell University, 1996); William Chapman, Inside the Philippine Revolution (New York: W.W. Norton, 1987); Joel Rocamora, Breaking Through: The Struggle Within the Communist Party of the Philippines (Pasig City, Manila: Anvil, 1994); Mark P. Thompson, "The Decline of Philippine Communism: A Review Essay, " South East Asia Research 6 (1998): 105-129.
6. Gregg R. Jones, Red Revolution: Inside the Philippine Guerrilla Movement (Boulder: Westview Press, 1989), 8. The number of civilian sympathizers and supporters was estimated at 1.7 million people in 1986. By 1993, the number of guerrillas had dropped from an estimated 24, 000 in 1988 to 10, 600, and the percentage of NPA controlled or influenced villages and urban neighborhoods had dwindled from 20 to 3 percent. Estimates for 1997 mention 6, 790 guerrilla fighters nationwide, a number that increased again to almost 8, 000 by 1999. Alfred W. McCoy, "Low Intensity Conflict in the Philippines, " in Low Intensity Conflict: Theory and Practice in Central America and South-East Asia, ed. Barry Carr and Elaine McKay (Melbourne: La Trobe University, Institute of Latin American Studies, and Monash University, Centre of Southeast Asian Studies, 1988), 61; John McBeth, "Internal Contradictions: Support for Communists Wanes as Party Splits, " Far Eastern Economic Review (August 26, 1993); "Military Slays Four Communist Rebels, " Philippine News Agency through the email newslist Balita News, 6 August 1999. On the CPP-NPA, see also Patricio N. Abinales, editor. The Revolution Falters: The Left in Philippine Politics After 1986 (Ithaca: Southeast Asia Program, Cornell University, 1996); William Chapman, Inside the Philippine Revolution (New York: W.W. Norton, 1987); Joel Rocamora, Breaking Through: The Struggle Within the Communist Party of the Philippines (Pasig City, Manila: Anvil, 1994); Mark P. Thompson, "The Decline of Philippine Communism: A Review Essay, " South East Asia Research 6 (1998): 105-129.
7. Gregg R. Jones, Red Revolution: Inside the Philippine Guerrilla Movement (Boulder: Westview Press, 1989), 8. The number of civilian sympathizers and supporters was estimated at 1.7 million people in 1986. By 1993, the number of guerrillas had dropped from an estimated 24, 000 in 1988 to 10, 600, and the percentage of NPA controlled or influenced villages and urban neighborhoods had dwindled from 20 to 3 percent. Estimates for 1997 mention 6, 790 guerrilla fighters nationwide, a number that increased again to almost 8, 000 by 1999. Alfred W. McCoy, "Low Intensity Conflict in the Philippines, " in Low Intensity Conflict: Theory and Practice in Central America and South-East Asia, ed. Barry Carr and Elaine McKay (Melbourne: La Trobe University, Institute of Latin American Studies, and Monash University, Centre of Southeast Asian Studies, 1988), 61; John McBeth, "Internal Contradictions: Support for Communists Wanes as Party Splits, " Far Eastern Economic Review (August 26, 1993); "Military Slays Four Communist Rebels, " Philippine News Agency through the email newslist Balita News, 6 August 1999. On the CPP-NPA, see also Patricio N. Abinales, editor. The Revolution Falters: The Left in Philippine Politics After 1986 (Ithaca: Southeast Asia Program, Cornell University, 1996); William Chapman, Inside the Philippine Revolution (New York: W.W. Norton, 1987); Joel Rocamora, Breaking Through: The Struggle Within the Communist Party of the Philippines (Pasig City, Manila: Anvil, 1994); Mark P. Thompson, "The Decline of Philippine Communism: A Review Essay, " South East Asia Research 6 (1998): 105-129.
8. Gregg R. Jones, Red Revolution: Inside the Philippine Guerrilla Movement (Boulder: Westview Press, 1989), 8. The number of civilian sympathizers and supporters was estimated at 1.7 million people in 1986. By 1993, the number of guerrillas had dropped from an estimated 24, 000 in 1988 to 10, 600, and the percentage of NPA controlled or influenced villages and urban neighborhoods had dwindled from 20 to 3 percent. Estimates for 1997 mention 6, 790 guerrilla fighters nationwide, a number that increased again to almost 8, 000 by 1999. Alfred W. McCoy, "Low Intensity Conflict in the Philippines, " in Low Intensity Conflict: Theory and Practice in Central America and South-East Asia, ed. Barry Carr and Elaine McKay (Melbourne: La Trobe University, Institute of Latin American Studies, and Monash University, Centre of Southeast Asian Studies, 1988), 61; John McBeth, "Internal Contradictions: Support for Communists Wanes as Party Splits, " Far Eastern Economic Review (August 26, 1993); "Military Slays Four Communist Rebels, " Philippine News Agency through the email newslist Balita News, 6 August 1999. On the CPP-NPA, see also Patricio N. Abinales, editor. The Revolution Falters: The Left in Philippine Politics After 1986 (Ithaca: Southeast Asia Program, Cornell University, 1996); William Chapman, Inside the Philippine Revolution (New York: W.W. Norton, 1987); Joel Rocamora, Breaking Through: The Struggle Within the Communist Party of the Philippines (Pasig City, Manila: Anvil, 1994); Mark P. Thompson, "The Decline of Philippine Communism: A Review Essay, " South East Asia Research 6 (1998): 105-129.
9. Gregg R. Jones, Red Revolution: Inside the Philippine Guerrilla Movement (Boulder: Westview Press, 1989), 8. The number of civilian sympathizers and supporters was estimated at 1.7 million people in 1986. By 1993, the number of guerrillas had dropped from an estimated 24, 000 in 1988 to 10, 600, and the percentage of NPA controlled or influenced villages and urban neighborhoods had dwindled from 20 to 3 percent. Estimates for 1997 mention 6, 790 guerrilla fighters nationwide, a number that increased again to almost 8, 000 by 1999. Alfred W. McCoy, "Low Intensity Conflict in the Philippines, " in Low Intensity Conflict: Theory and Practice in Central America and South-East Asia, ed. Barry Carr and Elaine McKay (Melbourne: La Trobe University, Institute of Latin American Studies, and Monash University, Centre of Southeast Asian Studies, 1988), 61; John McBeth, "Internal Contradictions: Support for Communists Wanes as Party Splits, " Far Eastern Economic Review (August 26, 1993); "Military Slays Four Communist Rebels, " Philippine News Agency through the email newslist Balita News, 6 August 1999. On the CPP-NPA, see also Patricio N. Abinales, editor. The Revolution Falters: The Left in Philippine Politics After 1986 (Ithaca: Southeast Asia Program, Cornell University, 1996); William Chapman, Inside the Philippine Revolution (New York: W.W. Norton, 1987); Joel Rocamora, Breaking Through: The Struggle Within the Communist Party of the Philippines (Pasig City, Manila: Anvil, 1994); Mark P. Thompson, "The Decline of Philippine Communism: A Review Essay, " South East Asia Research 6 (1998): 105-129.
10. Gregg R. Jones, Red Revolution: Inside the Philippine Guerrilla Movement (Boulder: Westview Press, 1989), 8. The number of civilian sympathizers and supporters was estimated at 1.7 million people in 1986. By 1993, the number of guerrillas had dropped from an estimated 24, 000 in 1988 to 10, 600, and the percentage of NPA controlled or influenced villages and urban neighborhoods had dwindled from 20 to 3 percent. Estimates for 1997 mention 6, 790 guerrilla fighters nationwide, a number that increased again to almost 8, 000 by 1999. Alfred W. McCoy, "Low Intensity Conflict in the Philippines, " in Low Intensity Conflict: Theory and Practice in Central America and South-East Asia, ed. Barry Carr and Elaine McKay (Melbourne: La Trobe University, Institute of Latin American Studies, and Monash University, Centre of Southeast Asian Studies, 1988), 61; John McBeth, "Internal Contradictions: Support for Communists Wanes as Party Splits, " Far Eastern Economic Review (August 26, 1993); "Military Slays Four Communist Rebels, " Philippine News Agency through the email newslist Balita News, 6 August 1999. On the CPP-NPA, see also Patricio N. Abinales, editor. The Revolution Falters: The Left in Philippine Politics After 1986 (Ithaca: Southeast Asia Program, Cornell University, 1996); William Chapman, Inside the Philippine Revolution (New York: W.W. Norton, 1987); Joel Rocamora, Breaking Through: The Struggle Within the Communist Party of the Philippines (Pasig City, Manila: Anvil, 1994); Mark P. Thompson, "The Decline of Philippine Communism: A Review Essay, " South East Asia Research 6 (1998): 105-129.
11. A more detailed analysis of why and how workers supported the CPP-NPA, which traces the process of mobilization and demobilization among workers of Hda. Milagros, can be found in Rosanne Rutten, "Popular Support for the Revolutionary Movement CPP-NPA: Experiences in a Hacienda in Negros Occidental, 1978-1995, " in Abinales, editor. The Revolution Falters, 110-153.
12. See, e.g., Michael Adas, "From Avoidance to Confrontation: Peasant Protest in Precolonial and Colonial Southeast Asia, " Comparative Studies in Society and History 23 (1981): 217-247; James C. Scott, The Moral Economy of the Peasant: Rebellion and Subsistence in Southeast Asia (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1976); Timothy P. Wickham-Crowley, Exploring Revolution: Essays on Latin American Insurgency and Revolutionary Theory (Armonk, NY and London: M.E. Sharpe, 1991); Ronald Waterbury, "Non-revolutionary Peasants: Oaxaca Compared to Morelos in the Mexican Revolution, " Comparative Studies in Society and History 17 (1975): 410-442.
13. See, e.g., Michael Adas, "From Avoidance to Confrontation: Peasant Protest in Precolonial and Colonial Southeast Asia, " Comparative Studies in Society and History 23 (1981): 217-247; James C. Scott, The Moral Economy of the Peasant: Rebellion and Subsistence in Southeast Asia (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1976); Timothy P. Wickham-Crowley, Exploring Revolution: Essays on Latin American Insurgency and Revolutionary Theory (Armonk, NY and London: M.E. Sharpe, 1991); Ronald Waterbury, "Non-revolutionary Peasants: Oaxaca Compared to Morelos in the Mexican Revolution, " Comparative Studies in Society and History 17 (1975): 410-442.
14. See, e.g., Michael Adas, "From Avoidance to Confrontation: Peasant Protest in Precolonial and Colonial Southeast Asia, " Comparative Studies in Society and History 23 (1981): 217-247; James C. Scott, The Moral Economy of the Peasant: Rebellion and Subsistence in Southeast Asia (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1976); Timothy P. Wickham-Crowley, Exploring Revolution: Essays on Latin American Insurgency and Revolutionary Theory (Armonk, NY and London: M.E. Sharpe, 1991); Ronald Waterbury, "Non-revolutionary Peasants: Oaxaca Compared to Morelos in the Mexican Revolution, " Comparative Studies in Society and History 17 (1975): 410-442.
15. See, e.g., Michael Adas, "From Avoidance to Confrontation: Peasant Protest in Precolonial and Colonial Southeast Asia, " Comparative Studies in Society and History 23 (1981): 217-247; James C. Scott, The Moral Economy of the Peasant: Rebellion and Subsistence in Southeast Asia (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1976); Timothy P. Wickham-Crowley, Exploring Revolution: Essays on Latin American Insurgency and Revolutionary Theory (Armonk, NY and London: M.E. Sharpe, 1991); Ronald Waterbury, "Non-revolutionary Peasants: Oaxaca Compared to Morelos in the Mexican Revolution, " Comparative Studies in Society and History 17 (1975): 410-442.
16. See, e.g., John D. McCarthy, "Constraints and Opportunities in Adopting, Adapting, and Inventing, " in Comparative Perspectives on Social Movements: Political Opportunities, Mobilizing Stuctures, and Cultural Framings, ed. Doug McAdam, John D. McCarthy, and Mayer N. Zald (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996), 141-142.
17. Rod Aya, Rethinking Revolutions and Collective Violence: Studies on Concept, Theory, and Method (Amsterdam: Het Spinhuis, 1990), 21-49. For a related critique of the "spasmodic view" of collective protest, see E. P. Thompson, "The Moral Economy of the English Crowd in the Eighteenth Century, " Past and Present, No. 50 (1971): 76-136.
18. Rod Aya, Rethinking Revolutions and Collective Violence: Studies on Concept, Theory, and Method (Amsterdam: Het Spinhuis, 1990), 21-49. For a related critique of the "spasmodic view" of collective protest, see E. P. Thompson, "The Moral Economy of the English Crowd in the Eighteenth Century, " Past and Present, No. 50 (1971): 76-136.
19. See, e.g., David A. Snow et al., "Frame Alignment Processes, Micromobilization, and Movement Participation, " American Sociological Review 51 (1986): 464-481.
20. E. J. Hobsbawm, "Peasants and Politics, " Journal of Peasant Studies 1 (1973/74), 12.
21. Scott, The Moral Economy of the Peasant, 194-195; Marcel van der Linden, "Connecting Household History and Labour History, " International Review of Social History 38 (1993): 163-173.
22. Scott, The Moral Economy of the Peasant, 194-195; Marcel van der Linden, "Connecting Household History and Labour History, " International Review of Social History 38 (1993): 163-173.
23. Waterbury, "Non-revolutionary Peasants, " 440.
24. Samuel Popkin, "Political Entrepreneurs and Peasant Movements in Vietnam, " in Rationality and Revolution, ed. Michael Taylor (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988), 11.
25. Diane L. Wolf, Factory Daughters: Gender, Household Dynamics, and Rural Industrialization in Java (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992), 14-15; and Wolf, "Daughters, Decisions and Domination: An Empirical and Conceptual Critique of Household Strategies, " Development and Change 21 (1990), 43-74.
26. Diane L. Wolf, Factory Daughters: Gender, Household Dynamics, and Rural Industrialization in Java (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992), 14-15; and Wolf, "Daughters, Decisions and Domination: An Empirical and Conceptual Critique of Household Strategies, " Development and Change 21 (1990), 43-74.
27. Don Kalb, for instance, has shown how a particular employment policy fostered commitment to, and solidarity within, the households of workers in the Philips lightbulb and appliances factories in the Netherlands in the 1920s and 1930s. By rewarding fathers who provided the factory with several hardworking and obedient daughters, and by guaranteeing the subsistence of loyal worker households in lean times, the Philips company promoted intrahousehold interdependence and parental socialization of children into committed income-earners for their household. Among shoemakers in the same region who labored under a similar employment regime, daughters cut short their rare participation in a strike when their "fathers had forcefully reminded [them]… that their 'irresponsible behavior' was threatening household incomes." Don Kalb, Expanding Class. Power and Everyday Politics in Industrial Communities, The Netherlands, 1850-1950 (Durham and London: Duke University Press, 1997), 51, 91.
28. Louise Tilly, "Paths of Proletarianization: Organization of Production, Sexual Division of Labor, and Women's Collective Action, " Signs 7 (1981), 416.
29. Carol R. Berkin and Clara M. Lovett, "Part Two: Introduction, " in Women, War, and Revolution, ed. by Carol R. Berkin and Clara M. Lovett (New York: Holmes and Meier, 1980), 82. Linda Lobao made a similar point regarding women and revolutionary activism in Latin America: "when women have major responsibility for both domestic and nondomestic aspects of family survival, and they perceive government as threatening, they may participate in revolutionary movements, especially if such movements are seen as facilitating these joint roles of mother and wage earner." Linda Labao, "Women in Revolutionary Movements: Changing Patterns of Latin American Guerrilla Struggle, " in Women and Social Protest, edited by Guida West and Rhoda Lois Blumberg New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1990, 185.
30. Carol R. Berkin and Clara M. Lovett, "Part Two: Introduction, " in Women, War, and Revolution, ed. by Carol R. Berkin and Clara M. Lovett (New York: Holmes and Meier, 1980), 82. Linda Lobao made a similar point regarding women and revolutionary activism in Latin America: "when women have major responsibility for both domestic and nondomestic aspects of family survival, and they perceive government as threatening, they may participate in revolutionary movements, especially if such movements are seen as facilitating these joint roles of mother and wage earner." Linda Labao, "Women in Revolutionary Movements: Changing Patterns of Latin American Guerrilla Struggle, " in Women and Social Protest, edited by Guida West and Rhoda Lois Blumberg New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1990, 185.
31. AMES (The Association of Salvadoran Women), "Participation of Latin American Women in Social and Political Organizations: Reflections of Salvadoran Women, " Monthly Review 34 (1982): 18-19, quoted in Lobao, "Women in Revolutionary Movements, " 200.
32. AMES (The Association of Salvadoran Women), "Participation of Latin American Women in Social and Political Organizations: Reflections of Salvadoran Women, " Monthly Review 34 (1982): 18-19, quoted in Lobao, "Women in Revolutionary Movements, " 200.
33. Norma J. Kriger, Zimbabwe's Guerrilla War: Peasant Voices (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992).
34. Jane Collins, "The Household and Relations of Production in Southern Peru, " Comparative Studies in Society and History 28 (1986), 667.
35. Doug McAdam and Ronnelle Paulsen, "Specifying the Relationship between Social Ties and Activism, " American Journal of Sociology 99 (1993), 640, 642.
36. Craig Calhoun, "The Problem of Identity in Collective Action, " in Macro-Micro Linkages in Sociology, ed. Joan Huber (Newbury Park: Sage, 1991); and Charles Tilly, Durable Inequality (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1998), 218.
37. Craig Calhoun, "The Problem of Identity in Collective Action, " in Macro-Micro Linkages in Sociology, ed. Joan Huber (Newbury Park: Sage, 1991); and Charles Tilly, Durable Inequality (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1998), 218.
38. Joel S. Migdal, Peasants, Politics, and Revolution: Pressures Toward Political and Social Change in the Third World (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1974), 251-252.
39. Popkin, "Political Entrepreneurs and Peasant Movements in Vietnam, " 60.
40. See, e.g., Roger V. Gould, "Multiple Networks and Mobilization in the Paris Commune, 1871, " American Sociological Review 56 (1991): 716-729.
41. David A. Snow, Louis A. Zurcher, Jr., and Sheldon Ekland-Olson, "Social Networks and Social Movements: A Microstructural Approach to Differential Recruitment, " American Sociological Review 45 (1980), 793.
42. Daniel B. Cornfield, Hilquias B. Cavalcanti Filho, Bang Jee Chun, "Household, Work, and Labor Activism: Gender Differences in the Determinants of Union Membership Participation, " Work and Occupations 17 (1990), 132.
43. Cf. Michael Hechter, "The Attainment of Solidarity in Intentional Communities, " Rationality and Society 2 (1990), 142-155.
44. Cf. Lewis A. Coser, Greedy Institutions: Patterns of Undivided Commitment (New York: The Free Press, 1974).
45. Jeff Goodwin, "The Libininal Constitution of a High-Risk Social Movement: Affectual Ties and Solidarity in the Huk Rebellion, 1946 to 1954, " American Sociological Review 62 (1997): 53-69.
46. Marianne Schmink, "Household Economic Strategies: Review and Research Agenda, " Latin American Research Review 19 (1984), 95.
47. Wolf, "Daughters, Decisions, and Domination, " 20, 263.
48. Van der Linden, "Connecting Household History and Labour History, " 166.
49. See, e.g., Popkin, "Political Entrepreneurs and Peasant Movements in Vietnam"; and Jeffrey Race, War Comes to Long An: Revolutionary Conflict in a Vietnamese Province (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1972).
50. See, e.g., Popkin, "Political Entrepreneurs and Peasant Movements in Vietnam"; and Jeffrey Race, War Comes to Long An: Revolutionary Conflict in a Vietnamese Province (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1972).
51. McAdam defines "biographical availability" as "the absence of personal constraints that may increase the costs and risks of movement participation, such as full-time employment, marriage, and family responsibilities." Doug McAdam, "Recruitment to High-Risk Activism: The Case of Freedom Summer, " American Journal of Sociology 92 (1986), 70.
52. Cynthia Keppley Mahmood, Fighting for Faith and Nation: Dialogues with Sikh Militants (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1996), 105.
53. Iris Jean-Klein, who studied family and community contexts of Palestinian activists on the West Bank, noted divergent views within Palestinian families. Once a son had become involved in high-risk activism, the emotionally intimate motherson bond and competitive father-son relationship fostered, in some cases at least, a cooperative attitude of mothers and an unsupportive stance of fathers, with mothers hiding knowledge of their sons' illicit sorties from their husbands. Although a mother might do her utmost to prevent her son from taking high-risk actions, her social and emotional dependence on him promoted complicity and cooperation once his activist involvement was known to her. In contrast, as sons formed a potential threat to their father's authority in the Palestinian family, an activist son who withstood the hardships of imprisonment and therefore felt entitled to some authority in the house, might encounter protracted opposition from his father. "Even if and where the senior male member of a household was himself involved in resistant activities… the emergence of his sons as activists posed a multiplicity of centres of moral authority which competed with each other…. Senior men showed their resistance to the state of affairs in the course of daily household procedures, silently or militantly." Iris Jean-Klein, "Palestinian Militancy, Martyrdom and Nationalist Communities in the West Bank during the Intifada, " in Martyrdom and Political Resistance: Essays from Asia and Europe, ed. Joyce Pettigrew (Amsterdam: VU University Press, Comparative Asian Studies 18, 1997), 98.
54. Mahmood, Fighting for Faith and Nation; Joseba Zulaika, Basque Violence: Metaphor and Sacrament (Reno: University of Nevads Press, 1988); Robert W. White, "From Peaceful Protest to Guerrilla War: Micromobilization of the Provisional Irish Republican Army, " American Journal of Sociology 94 (1989): 1277-1302.
55. Mahmood, Fighting for Faith and Nation; Joseba Zulaika, Basque Violence: Metaphor and Sacrament (Reno: University of Nevads Press, 1988); Robert W. White, "From Peaceful Protest to Guerrilla War: Micromobilization of the Provisional Irish Republican Army, " American Journal of Sociology 94 (1989): 1277-1302.
56. Mahmood, Fighting for Faith and Nation; Joseba Zulaika, Basque Violence: Metaphor and Sacrament (Reno: University of Nevads Press, 1988); Robert W. White, "From Peaceful Protest to Guerrilla War: Micromobilization of the Provisional Irish Republican Army, " American Journal of Sociology 94 (1989): 1277-1302.
57. Exceptions are studies that consider the effects of poor people's involvement in social-movement organizations, e.g., Migdal, Peasants, Politics, and Revolution, and Race, War Comes to Long An.
58. Relevant studies on the plantation society of Negros Occidental include Filomeno V. Aguilar, Jr., Clash of Spirits: The History of Power and Sugar Planter Hegemony on a Visayan Island (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1998); Alan Berlow, Dead Season: A Story of Murder and Revenge on the Philippine Island of Negros (New York: Pantheon, 1996); John A. Larkin, Sugar and the Origins of Modern Philippine Society (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1993); Alfred W. McCoy, Priests on Trial (Ringwood, Victoria: Penguin Books Australia, 1984), and "The Restoration of Planter Power in La Carlota City, " in From Marcos to Aquino: Local Perspectives on Political Transition in the Philippines, ed. Benedict J. Kerkvliet and Resil B. Mojares (Honolulu: Uriversity of Hawaii Press, 1991); Niall O'Brien, Island of Tears, Island of Hope: Living the Gospel in a Revolutionary Situation (New York: Orbis Books, London: Lynne Riener Publishers, 1993); Romana de los Reyes and Sylvia Ma. G. Jopillo, Pursuing Agrarian Reform in Negros Occidental (Quezon City: Institute of Philippine Culture, Ateneo de Manila University, 1991); Rosanne Rutten, "Courting the Workers' Vote in a Hacienda Region: Rhetoric and Response in the 1992 Philippine Elections, " Philipinas No. 22 (1994): 1-34, and "Popular Support for the Revolutionary Movement CPP-NPA."
59. Relevant studies on the plantation society of Negros Occidental include Filomeno V. Aguilar, Jr., Clash of Spirits: The History of Power and Sugar Planter Hegemony on a Visayan Island (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1998); Alan Berlow, Dead Season: A Story of Murder and Revenge on the Philippine Island of Negros (New York: Pantheon, 1996); John A. Larkin, Sugar and the Origins of Modern Philippine Society (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1993); Alfred W. McCoy, Priests on Trial (Ringwood, Victoria: Penguin Books Australia, 1984), and "The Restoration of Planter Power in La Carlota City, " in From Marcos to Aquino: Local Perspectives on Political Transition in the Philippines, ed. Benedict J. Kerkvliet and Resil B. Mojares (Honolulu: Uriversity of Hawaii Press, 1991); Niall O'Brien, Island of Tears, Island of Hope: Living the Gospel in a Revolutionary Situation (New York: Orbis Books, London: Lynne Riener Publishers, 1993); Romana de los Reyes and Sylvia Ma. G. Jopillo, Pursuing Agrarian Reform in Negros Occidental (Quezon City: Institute of Philippine Culture, Ateneo de Manila University, 1991); Rosanne Rutten, "Courting the Workers' Vote in a Hacienda Region: Rhetoric and Response in the 1992 Philippine Elections, " Philipinas No. 22 (1994): 1-34, and "Popular Support for the Revolutionary Movement CPP-NPA."
60. Relevant studies on the plantation society of Negros Occidental include Filomeno V. Aguilar, Jr., Clash of Spirits: The History of Power and Sugar Planter Hegemony on a Visayan Island (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1998); Alan Berlow, Dead Season: A Story of Murder and Revenge on the Philippine Island of Negros (New York: Pantheon, 1996); John A. Larkin, Sugar and the Origins of Modern Philippine Society (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1993); Alfred W. McCoy, Priests on Trial (Ringwood, Victoria: Penguin Books Australia, 1984), and "The Restoration of Planter Power in La Carlota City, " in From Marcos to Aquino: Local Perspectives on Political Transition in the Philippines, ed. Benedict J. Kerkvliet and Resil B. Mojares (Honolulu: Uriversity of Hawaii Press, 1991); Niall O'Brien, Island of Tears, Island of Hope: Living the Gospel in a Revolutionary Situation (New York: Orbis Books, London: Lynne Riener Publishers, 1993); Romana de los Reyes and Sylvia Ma. G. Jopillo, Pursuing Agrarian Reform in Negros Occidental (Quezon City: Institute of Philippine Culture, Ateneo de Manila University, 1991); Rosanne Rutten, "Courting the Workers' Vote in a Hacienda Region: Rhetoric and Response in the 1992 Philippine Elections, " Philipinas No. 22 (1994): 1-34, and "Popular Support for the Revolutionary Movement CPP-NPA."
61. Relevant studies on the plantation society of Negros Occidental include Filomeno V. Aguilar, Jr., Clash of Spirits: The History of Power and Sugar Planter Hegemony on a Visayan Island (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1998); Alan Berlow, Dead Season: A Story of Murder and Revenge on the Philippine Island of Negros (New York: Pantheon, 1996); John A. Larkin, Sugar and the Origins of Modern Philippine Society (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1993); Alfred W. McCoy, Priests on Trial (Ringwood, Victoria: Penguin Books Australia, 1984), and "The Restoration of Planter Power in La Carlota City, " in From Marcos to Aquino: Local Perspectives on Political Transition in the Philippines, ed. Benedict J. Kerkvliet and Resil B. Mojares (Honolulu: Uriversity of Hawaii Press, 1991); Niall O'Brien, Island of Tears, Island of Hope: Living the Gospel in a Revolutionary Situation (New York: Orbis Books, London: Lynne Riener Publishers, 1993); Romana de los Reyes and Sylvia Ma. G. Jopillo, Pursuing Agrarian Reform in Negros Occidental (Quezon City: Institute of Philippine Culture, Ateneo de Manila University, 1991); Rosanne Rutten, "Courting the Workers' Vote in a Hacienda Region: Rhetoric and Response in the 1992 Philippine Elections, " Philipinas No. 22 (1994): 1-34, and "Popular Support for the Revolutionary Movement CPP-NPA."
62. Relevant studies on the plantation society of Negros Occidental include Filomeno V. Aguilar, Jr., Clash of Spirits: The History of Power and Sugar Planter Hegemony on a Visayan Island (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1998); Alan Berlow, Dead Season: A Story of Murder and Revenge on the Philippine Island of Negros (New York: Pantheon, 1996); John A. Larkin, Sugar and the Origins of Modern Philippine Society (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1993); Alfred W. McCoy, Priests on Trial (Ringwood, Victoria: Penguin Books Australia, 1984), and "The Restoration of Planter Power in La Carlota City, " in From Marcos to Aquino: Local Perspectives on Political Transition in the Philippines, ed. Benedict J. Kerkvliet and Resil B. Mojares (Honolulu: Uriversity of Hawaii Press, 1991); Niall O'Brien, Island of Tears, Island of Hope: Living the Gospel in a Revolutionary Situation (New York: Orbis Books, London: Lynne Riener Publishers, 1993); Romana de los Reyes and Sylvia Ma. G. Jopillo, Pursuing Agrarian Reform in Negros Occidental (Quezon City: Institute of Philippine Culture, Ateneo de Manila University, 1991); Rosanne Rutten, "Courting the Workers' Vote in a Hacienda Region: Rhetoric and Response in the 1992 Philippine Elections, " Philipinas No. 22 (1994): 1-34, and "Popular Support for the Revolutionary Movement CPP-NPA."
63. Relevant studies on the plantation society of Negros Occidental include Filomeno V. Aguilar, Jr., Clash of Spirits: The History of Power and Sugar Planter Hegemony on a Visayan Island (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1998); Alan Berlow, Dead Season: A Story of Murder and Revenge on the Philippine Island of Negros (New York: Pantheon, 1996); John A. Larkin, Sugar and the Origins of Modern Philippine Society (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1993); Alfred W. McCoy, Priests on Trial (Ringwood, Victoria: Penguin Books Australia, 1984), and "The Restoration of Planter Power in La Carlota City, " in From Marcos to Aquino: Local Perspectives on Political Transition in the Philippines, ed. Benedict J. Kerkvliet and Resil B. Mojares (Honolulu: Uriversity of Hawaii Press, 1991); Niall O'Brien, Island of Tears, Island of Hope: Living the Gospel in a Revolutionary Situation (New York: Orbis Books, London: Lynne Riener Publishers, 1993); Romana de los Reyes and Sylvia Ma. G. Jopillo, Pursuing Agrarian Reform in Negros Occidental (Quezon City: Institute of Philippine Culture, Ateneo de Manila University, 1991); Rosanne Rutten, "Courting the Workers' Vote in a Hacienda Region: Rhetoric and Response in the 1992 Philippine Elections, " Philipinas No. 22 (1994): 1-34, and "Popular Support for the Revolutionary Movement CPP-NPA."
64. Relevant studies on the plantation society of Negros Occidental include Filomeno V. Aguilar, Jr., Clash of Spirits: The History of Power and Sugar Planter Hegemony on a Visayan Island (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1998); Alan Berlow, Dead Season: A Story of Murder and Revenge on the Philippine Island of Negros (New York: Pantheon, 1996); John A. Larkin, Sugar and the Origins of Modern Philippine Society (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1993); Alfred W. McCoy, Priests on Trial (Ringwood, Victoria: Penguin Books Australia, 1984), and "The Restoration of Planter Power in La Carlota City, " in From Marcos to Aquino: Local Perspectives on Political Transition in the Philippines, ed. Benedict J. Kerkvliet and Resil B. Mojares (Honolulu: Uriversity of Hawaii Press, 1991); Niall O'Brien, Island of Tears, Island of Hope: Living the Gospel in a Revolutionary Situation (New York: Orbis Books, London: Lynne Riener Publishers, 1993); Romana de los Reyes and Sylvia Ma. G. Jopillo, Pursuing Agrarian Reform in Negros Occidental (Quezon City: Institute of Philippine Culture, Ateneo de Manila University, 1991); Rosanne Rutten, "Courting the Workers' Vote in a Hacienda Region: Rhetoric and Response in the 1992 Philippine Elections, " Philipinas No. 22 (1994): 1-34, and "Popular Support for the Revolutionary Movement CPP-NPA."
65. Relevant studies on the plantation society of Negros Occidental include Filomeno V. Aguilar, Jr., Clash of Spirits: The History of Power and Sugar Planter Hegemony on a Visayan Island (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1998); Alan Berlow, Dead Season: A Story of Murder and Revenge on the Philippine Island of Negros (New York: Pantheon, 1996); John A. Larkin, Sugar and the Origins of Modern Philippine Society (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1993); Alfred W. McCoy, Priests on Trial (Ringwood, Victoria: Penguin Books Australia, 1984), and "The Restoration of Planter Power in La Carlota City, " in From Marcos to Aquino: Local Perspectives on Political Transition in the Philippines, ed. Benedict J. Kerkvliet and Resil B. Mojares (Honolulu: Uriversity of Hawaii Press, 1991); Niall O'Brien, Island of Tears, Island of Hope: Living the Gospel in a Revolutionary Situation (New York: Orbis Books, London: Lynne Riener Publishers, 1993); Romana de los Reyes and Sylvia Ma. G. Jopillo, Pursuing Agrarian Reform in Negros Occidental (Quezon City: Institute of Philippine Culture, Ateneo de Manila University, 1991); Rosanne Rutten, "Courting the Workers' Vote in a Hacienda Region: Rhetoric and Response in the 1992 Philippine Elections, " Philipinas No. 22 (1994): 1-34, and "Popular Support for the Revolutionary Movement CPP-NPA."
66. Larkin, Sugar and the Origins of Modern Philippine Society, 136-146, 188-193; Alfred W. McCoy, "Baylan: Animist Religion and Philippine Peasant Ideology, " Philippine Quarterly of Culture and Society 10 (1982): 141-194; David Sturtevant, Popular Uprisings in the Philippines 1840-1940 (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1976).
67. Larkin, Sugar and the Origins of Modern Philippine Society, 136-146, 188-193; Alfred W. McCoy, "Baylan: Animist Religion and Philippine Peasant Ideology, " Philippine Quarterly of Culture and Society 10 (1982): 141-194; David Sturtevant, Popular Uprisings in the Philippines 1840-1940 (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1976).
68. Larkin, Sugar and the Origins of Modern Philippine Society, 136-146, 188-193; Alfred W. McCoy, "Baylan: Animist Religion and Philippine Peasant Ideology, " Philippine Quarterly of Culture and Society 10 (1982): 141-194; David Sturtevant, Popular Uprisings in the Philippines 1840-1940 (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1976).
69. Leonardo S. Nicdao, "History of the Establishment of the CPP/NPA in Negros Occidental, " typescript, n.d., 3; Jones, Red Revolution, 92-93.
70. Leonardo S. Nicdao, "History of the Establishment of the CPP/NPA in Negros Occidental, " typescript, n.d., 3; Jones, Red Revolution, 92-93.
71. Miguel G. Coronel, Pro-Democracy People's War (Quezon City: Vanmarc Ventures, 1991), 658, 660, 665, 669.
72. Negros Occidental counted, in 1998, some 300 guerrilla fighters belonging to the two rival armies that grew out of the split in the NPA. "AFP takes all COIN operations vs NPA, " Philippine News Agency through the email newslist Balita News, 11 Jan. 1999. On the decline of the NPA, see Abinales, editor, The Revolution Falters, and Thompson, "The Decline of Philippine Communism."
73. Negros Occidental counted, in 1998, some 300 guerrilla fighters belonging to the two rival armies that grew out of the split in the NPA. "AFP takes all COIN operations vs NPA, " Philippine News Agency through the email newslist Balita News, 11 Jan. 1999. On the decline of the NPA, see Abinales, editor, The Revolution Falters, and Thompson, "The Decline of Philippine Communism."
74. Negros Occidental counted, in 1998, some 300 guerrilla fighters belonging to the two rival armies that grew out of the split in the NPA. "AFP takes all COIN operations vs NPA, " Philippine News Agency through the email newslist Balita News, 11 Jan. 1999. On the decline of the NPA, see Abinales, editor, The Revolution Falters, and Thompson, "The Decline of Philippine Communism."
75. For a more extensive discussion of this episode, see Rosanne Rutten, "Class and Kin: Conflicting Loyalties on a Philippine Hacienda, " in Cognation and Social Organization in Southeast Asia, edited by Frans Hüsken and Jeremy Kemp (Leiden: KITLV Press, 1991): 183-192.
76. On similar "collective action frames" that are intended to inspire action, see William A. Gamson, Talking Politics (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1992), 7.
77. Ben Kerkvliet made a similar observation in his study of the "Huk" peasant guerrilla movement in the Philippine region of Central Luzon in the 1940s-1950s. Speaking of the time when the movement was fighting the Japanese occupation forces, he states, "villagers believed that every family should have at least one adult male to look after it; consequently many husbands and brothers did not feel free to join [the guerrilla army]." Benedict J. Kerkvliet, The Huk Rebellion: A Study of Peasant Revolt in the Philippines (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1977), 68.
78. McAdam and Paulsen, "Specifying the Relationship Between Social Ties and Activism, " 642.
79. 640, 642.
80. Cf.: "In Veblenesque terms, there is a trained capacity for handling the world in a particular way, and a trained incapacity for handling it in any other way." Ulf Hannerz, Cultural Complexity: Studies in the Social Organization of Meaning (New York: Columbia University Press, 1992), 67.
81. Benjamin N. F. White, "Rural Household Studies in Anthropological Perspective, " in Rural Household Studies in Asia, ed. Hans P. Binswanger et al. (Singapore: Singapore University Press, 1980), 12.
82. The present case of shifts in solidarities among worker-revolutionaries differs from the "logic of solidarity" found among labor activists in nineteenth-century Europe and the United States. The "logic of solidarity" refers to workers widening their solidarities in the form of strategic coalitions with other classes or class segments on the basis of perceived shared interests, when expedient. The widening solidarities of these workers were all the while firmly anchored to their interests as laborers and breadwinners. In other words, workers' primary commitments to household members and workfloor mates remained at the center of their expanding concentric circles of solidarity. (Michael Hanagan, The Logic of Solidarity: Artisans and Industrial Workers in Three French Towns, 1871-1914 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1981), and Theory and Society, Special Issue on Solidary Logics, 17/3 (May 1988), ed. Charles Tilly and Michael Hanagan). The present case of Philippine workers who became revolutionary activists shows how wider solidarities may "detach" committed activists from their interests as householders and laborers, and indicates that those who became the most committed to forming class and cross-class solidarities under the aegis of the revolutionary movement (the young single men and women who became full-timers) were mostly informed by interests other than their interests as household members and workers.
83. The present case of shifts in solidarities among worker-revolutionaries differs from the "logic of solidarity" found among labor activists in nineteenth-century Europe and the United States. The "logic of solidarity" refers to workers widening their solidarities in the form of strategic coalitions with other classes or class segments on the basis of perceived shared interests, when expedient. The widening solidarities of these workers were all the while firmly anchored to their interests as laborers and breadwinners. In other words, workers' primary commitments to household members and workfloor mates remained at the center of their expanding concentric circles of solidarity. (Michael Hanagan, The Logic of Solidarity: Artisans and Industrial Workers in Three French Towns, 1871-1914 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1981), and Theory and Society, Special Issue on Solidary Logics, 17/3 (May 1988), ed. Charles Tilly and Michael Hanagan). The present case of Philippine workers who became revolutionary activists shows how wider solidarities may "detach" committed activists from their interests as householders and laborers, and indicates that those who became the most committed to forming class and cross-class solidarities under the aegis of the revolutionary movement (the young single men and women who became full-timers) were mostly informed by interests other than their interests as household members and workers.
84. Snow et al., "Frame Alignment Processes, MicromobiliFSzation, and Movement Participation, " 466-467.