Self-help criminality as resistance?: Currency counterfeiting in colonial Nigeria

International Review of Social History

Volumn 45, Issue 3, 2000, Pages 385-407

  Olukoju, Ayodeji ^a  

^a NONE

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EID: 0034339747     PISSN: 00208590     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/s0020859000000225     Document Type: Article

References (128)

1. See, for example, T.O. Ranger, Revolt in Southern Rhodesia 1896-7: A study in African Resistance (London, 1967); and Michael Crowder (ed.), West African Resistance: The Military Response to Colonial Occupation (London, 1971).
2. See, for example, T.O. Ranger, Revolt in Southern Rhodesia 1896-7: A study in African Resistance (London, 1967); and Michael Crowder (ed.), West African Resistance: The Military Response to Colonial Occupation (London, 1971).
3. Donald Crummey, "Introduction: 'The great beast'", in Donald Crummey (ed.), Banditry, Rebellion and Social Protest in Africa (London, 1986), pp. 2-3.
4. Ibid., p. 10.
5. Ibid., p. 4.
6. Ibid., p. 3.
7. Ibid.
8. Toyin Falola, "'Manufacturing Trouble': Currency Forgery in Colonial Southwestern Nigeria", African Economic History, 25 (1997), p. 122.
9. Kemi Rotimi, "The Ijebu and the Police in Colonial Nigeria before 1940", Ife Journal of History, 2 (1995), p. 102.
10. Falola, "Currency Forgery", p. 131.
11. Details in E.A. Ayandele, The Ijebu of Yorubaland, 1850-1950: Politics, Economy and Society (Ibadan, 1992).
12. Obaro Ikime (ed.), Groundwork of Nigerian History (Ibadan, 1980), among others, treats aspects of this theme.
13. R. Olufemi Ekundare, Economic History of Nigeria 1860-1960 (London, 1973); A.G. Hopkins, An Economic History of West Africa (London, 1975); and Toyin Falola (ed.), Britain and Nigeria: Exploitation or Development? (London, 1987).
14. R. Olufemi Ekundare, Economic History of Nigeria 1860-1960 (London, 1973); A.G. Hopkins, An Economic History of West Africa (London, 1975); and Toyin Falola (ed.), Britain and Nigeria: Exploitation or Development? (London, 1987).
15. R. Olufemi Ekundare, Economic History of Nigeria 1860-1960 (London, 1973); A.G. Hopkins, An Economic History of West Africa (London, 1975); and Toyin Falola (ed.), Britain and Nigeria: Exploitation or Development? (London, 1987).
16. A.G. Hopkins, "The Currency Revolution in Southwest Nigeria in the Late Nineteenth Century", Journal of the Historical Society of Nigeria, 3 (1966), pp. 471-483; and Walter Ofonagoro, "From Traditional to British Currency in Southern Nigeria: Analysis of a Currency Revolution, 1880-1948", Journal of Economic History, 39 (1979), pp. 623-654.
17. A.G. Hopkins, "The Currency Revolution in Southwest Nigeria in the Late Nineteenth Century", Journal of the Historical Society of Nigeria, 3 (1966), pp. 471-483; and Walter Ofonagoro, "From Traditional to British Currency in Southern Nigeria: Analysis of a Currency Revolution, 1880-1948", Journal of Economic History, 39 (1979), pp. 623-654.
18. Ayodeji Olukoju, "Nigeria's Colonial Government, Commercial Banks and the Currency Crisis of 1916-1920", International Journal of African Historical Studies, 30 (1997), pp. 277-298.
19. National Archives of Nigeria, Kaduna (NAK) Secretary, Northern Provinces (SNP) 6/2/117/ 1906, "Counterfeit coinage [...]", extract from Report No. 32 for quarter ending 31 March 1906 by Dr Paul Dwyer, Resident, Ilorin Province, para. 5.
20. NAK SNP 17/2 13258, "Counterfeit Coins", Acting Resident, Kabba Province to SNP, Zunshy; geru, 24 September 1912.
21. National Archives of Nigeria, Ibadan (NAI) CSO 26/1/03447, "Counterfeit Coins", Kabba Province [...], Intelligence Report for quarter ending, 30 September 1929.
22. The association of the Ijebu with currency counterfeiting is vividly expressed in the Yoruba saying: "Owo kii tan lowo Ijebu; kanran k'owo tan lowo Ijebu, a ya l'agbede, a lo ro'mii di" ("An Ijebu is never short of cash for he would simply mint his own coins")! My source is Dimeji Ajikobi, an expert on Yoruba culture, Lagos, January 2000.
23. NAI CSO 20/9 NC75/1921, "Counterfeiting of Coinage at Ijebu-Ode", Acting Resident to Chief Secretary to the Government (CSG), Lagos, 3 April 1921.
24. NAI OyoProf 1 1592, vol. 1, "Counterfeit Coinage: Correspondence re", Assistant District Officer (DO), Ilesha to Resident, Oyo Province, 18 May 1936.
25. A study of a similar clandestine activity is Ayodeji Olukoju, "Prohibition and Paternalism: The State and the Clandestine Liquor Traffic in Northern Nigeria, c. 1898-1918", International Journal of African Historical Studies, 24 (1991), pp. 349-368.
26. NAI IjeProf 2 C.12, vol. 1 "(1) Counterfeiting (2) Counterfeit Coining", Rex vs Salami Temishy; yemi, Confid. I/1926.
27. SNP 17/2 13258, Resident, Katsina to SNP, Kaduna, 15 April 1938.
28. For arrests in towns (Ibadan, Ilesha, Ijebu-Ode and Lagos), see Nigerian Pioneer, 17 October 1924; NAI CSO 20/9 NC 75/1921, "Counterfeiting of Coinage at Ijebu-Ode", and NAI Oyo Prof 1 1592, vols. 1 and 2, "Counterfeit Coinage: Correspondence re", especially, enc. in A.V.D. Ince, Assistant Commissioner of Police (ACP), Oyo-Ondo Province to IGP, Lagos, 13 June 1936. See also, Falola, "Currency Forgery", pp. 125-126, Table 2.
29. For arrests in towns (Ibadan, Ilesha, Ijebu-Ode and Lagos), see Nigerian Pioneer, 17 October 1924; NAI CSO 20/9 NC 75/1921, "Counterfeiting of Coinage at Ijebu-Ode", and NAI Oyo Prof 1 1592, vols. 1 and 2, "Counterfeit Coinage: Correspondence re", especially, enc. in A.V.D. Ince, Assistant Commissioner of Police (ACP), Oyo-Ondo Province to IGP, Lagos, 13 June 1936. See also, Falola, "Currency Forgery", pp. 125-126, Table 2.
30. For arrests in towns (Ibadan, Ilesha, Ijebu-Ode and Lagos), see Nigerian Pioneer, 17 October 1924; NAI CSO 20/9 NC 75/1921, "Counterfeiting of Coinage at Ijebu-Ode", and NAI Oyo Prof 1 1592, vols. 1 and 2, "Counterfeit Coinage: Correspondence re", especially, enc. in A.V.D. Ince, Assistant Commissioner of Police (ACP), Oyo-Ondo Province to IGP, Lagos, 13 June 1936. See also, Falola, "Currency Forgery", pp. 125-126, Table 2.
31. For arrests in towns (Ibadan, Ilesha, Ijebu-Ode and Lagos), see Nigerian Pioneer, 17 October 1924; NAI CSO 20/9 NC 75/1921, "Counterfeiting of Coinage at Ijebu-Ode", and NAI Oyo Prof 1 1592, vols. 1 and 2, "Counterfeit Coinage: Correspondence re", especially, enc. in A.V.D. Ince, Assistant Commissioner of Police (ACP), Oyo-Ondo Province to IGP, Lagos, 13 June 1936. See also, Falola, "Currency Forgery", pp. 125-126, Table 2.
32. NAI IjeProf 2 C.12, vol. 3, Commissioner of Police (CP) to Resident, Ijebu Province, 28 November 1936.
33. NAI IjeProf 2 C.12, vol. 1, Acting Resident, Ijebu Province to Secretary, Southern Provinces (SSP) Enugu, 3 April 1921; C.W. Duncan, Inspector General of Police, Lagos (IGP) to Treasurer, Lagos, 9 December 1929.
34. NAI IjeProf 2 C.12, vol. 1, Acting Resident, Ijebu Province to Secretary, Southern Provinces (SSP) Enugu, 3 April 1921; C.W. Duncan, Inspector General of Police, Lagos (IGP) to Treasurer, Lagos, 9 December 1929.
35. Ibid., Confid. 1/1926: Rex vs (i) Sani Owuseni (ii) Awonuyi; Report by Acting District Officer, Ijebu-Ode, 23 April 1926. This writer could not find any documentation of direct Levantine involvement in this business. A study of a group of Levantines in this region is Toyin Falola, "Lebanese Traders in Southwestern Nigeria, 1900-1960", African Affairs, 89 (1990), pp. 523-553.
36. Ibid., Confid. 1/1926: Rex vs (i) Sani Owuseni (ii) Awonuyi; Report by Acting District Officer, Ijebu-Ode, 23 April 1926. This writer could not find any documentation of direct Levantine involvement in this business. A study of a group of Levantines in this region is Toyin Falola, "Lebanese Traders in Southwestern Nigeria, 1900-1960", African Affairs, 89 (1990), pp. 523-553.
37. Ibid., Confid. 1/1926: Rex vs (i) Sani Owuseni (ii) Awonuyi; Report by Acting District Officer, Ijebu-Ode, 23 April 1926. This writer could not find any documentation of direct Levantine involvement in this business. A study of a group of Levantines in this region is Toyin Falola, "Lebanese Traders in Southwestern Nigeria, 1900-1960", African Affairs, 89 (1990), pp. 523-553.
38. NAI Ije Prof 2 C.12, vol. 1, IGP to Treasurer, 9 December 1929.
39. NAI CSO 26/1 03447, IGP to CSG, 28 September 1934. Cf. OyoProf 1 1592, vol. I, District Officer (DO), Ife/Ilesha Division to Resident, Oyo Province, 22 June 1936.
40. NAI CSO 26/1 03447, IGP to CSG, 28 September 1934. Cf. OyoProf 1 1592, vol. I, District Officer (DO), Ife/Ilesha Division to Resident, Oyo Province, 22 June 1936.
41. NAI IjeProf 2 C.12, vol. 2, Acting Resident, Ijebu Province to SSP, Enugu, 22 September 1935.
42. NAI IjeProf 2 C.12, vol. 1, IGP to Treasurer, 9 December 1929.
43. NAK SNP 17/2 13258, IGP's minute, 26 November 1912.
44. NAI CSO 20/9 NC 75/1921, Acting Resident, Ijebu to CSG, 3 April 1921. This corrects the claim (Falola, "Currency Forgery", p. 130) that the process of counterfeiting was not documented.
45. NAI CSO 20/9 NC 75/1921, Acting Resident, Ijebu to CSG, 3 April 1921. This corrects the claim (Falola, "Currency Forgery", p. 130) that the process of counterfeiting was not documented.
46. NAI IjeProf 2 C.12, vol. 1, Acting Resident, Ijebu to SSP, 3 April 1921.
47. NAI CSO 26/1 03447, "Re: Counterfeiting of French West African Notes", IGP to CSG, 29 October 1934.
48. NAI IjeProf 2 C.12, vol. 3, Assistant Superintendent of Police (ASP) to Resident, Ijebu, 2 July 1937.
49. Ibid., vol. 2, memo. enclosed in ACP to Resident, Ijebu, 2 July 1936.
50. Ibid.
51. NAI OyoProf 1 1592, vol. 1, DO Ife/Ilesha to Resident, 22 June 1936.
52. Ibid., DO to Resident, 14 July 1936.
53. NAI IjeProf 2 C.12, vol. 3, ACP to Resident, Ijebu, 6 October 1936.
54. Ibid., vol. 1, Acting Resident to SSP, 3 April 1921.
55. 43. NAI CSO 26/1 03447, ACP to IGP, Southern Provinces, Lagos, 23 July 1929.
56. NAK SNP 17/2 13258, ACP, Lokoja to IGP, Kaduna, 25 January 1917.
57. NAI IjeProf 2 C.12, vol. 1, IGP to Treasurer, 9 December 1929.
58. Ibid., vol. 3, ACP to Acting Resident, 6 October 1936.
59. Ibid., vol. 1, Acting Resident to SSP, 3 April 1921.
60. NAI CSO 1/32/78 112, of 6 February 1925, Clifford to Amery.
61. NAI CSO 26/1 03447, "Kabba Province, Nigeria: Intelligence Report for quarter ending 30 September 1929", by E.V. Rochfort Rae, Acting Resident.
62. NAI IjeProf 2 C.12, vol. 1, Resident, Sokoto to Resident, Ijebu, 26 September 1930.
63. NAI OyoProf 1 1592, vol. 1, ACP(Oyo-Ondo) to IGP, Lagos, 13 June 1936.
64. Oral evidence: Iperu and Ijebu-Igbo, 1998.
65. Ibid; corroborated in NAI IjeProf 2 C.12, vol. 3, ASP, Ijebu-Ode to Resident, Ijebu, 2 July 1937.
66. Ibid; corroborated in NAI IjeProf 2 C.12, vol. 3, ASP, Ijebu-Ode to Resident, Ijebu, 2 July 1937.
67. NAK SNP 6/2 117/1906, extract from Report No. 32 [...] by Resident, Ilorin.
68. NAI OyoProf 1 1591, vol. 1, Resident, Oyo to SSP, Enugu, 17 July 1936.
69. See, for example, NAK SNP 17/2 13258, Resident, Kabba to CSG, Zungeru, reply to letter of 2 November 1913; and Rae, Asst. DO to Resident, Niger Province, Bida, 29 September 1917.
70. See, for example, NAK SNP 17/2 13258, Resident, Kabba to CSG, Zungeru, reply to letter of 2 November 1913; and Rae, Asst. DO to Resident, Niger Province, Bida, 29 September 1917.
71. Details in NAI CSO 26/1 03447, Supervising Agent, UAC to CSG, 1 June 1929; Acting Resident, Benin Province to SSP, 12 June 1929; Resident, Warri Province to SSP, 4 July 1929; and ACP to IGP, 23 July 1929.
72. NAI CSO 20/9 NC75/1921, Acting Resident, Ijebu to CSG, Lagos, 3 April 1921.
73. NAI IjeProf 2 C.12, vol. 1, Resident, Ijebu to Residents, Kano, Zaria and Sokoto Provinces, 9 February 1930.
74. Ibid., Resident, Ijebu to Resident, Sokoto, 10 October 1930.
75. NAI IjeProf 2 C.12, vol. 2, Acting Resident, Ijebu, 22 September 1935.
76. Ibid., Resident, Oyo to Bale and Council, Ibadan, 5 September 1935.
77. Ibid., SSP, Enugu to Resident, Oyo, 20 September 1935.
78. NAI IjeProf 2 C.12, vol. 3, ASP, Ijebu-Ode to Resident, Ijebu, 2 July 1937.
79. NAK SNP 17/2 14769, vol. 1, "Kano Chamber of Commerce: Minutes of Meetings", Meetings of 12 May 1932 and 14 September 1933.
80. NAI IjeProf 2 C.12, vol. 2, Acting Resident, Ijebu to SSP, Enugu, 2 July 1936. Ironically, Awujale Adenuga attempted to get rid of a political opponent by framing him as a counterfeiter. This backfired, as the incident provided the occasion for his deposition in 1929. See Ayandele, The Ijebu of Yorubaland, pp. 86-87. It is disappointing that this is the only reference to this burning issue in the entire book!
81. NAI IjeProf 2 C.12, vol. 2, Acting Resident, Ijebu to SSP, Enugu, 2 July 1936. Ironically, Awujale Adenuga attempted to get rid of a political opponent by framing him as a counterfeiter. This backfired, as the incident provided the occasion for his deposition in 1929. See Ayandele, The Ijebu of Yorubaland, pp. 86-87. It is disappointing that this is the only reference to this burning issue in the entire book!
82. Nigerian Pioneer, 17 October 1924, Police News.
83. NAI Ije Prof 2 C.12, vol. 2, Acting Resident, Ijebu to SSP, Enugu, 22 September, 1935.
84. NAI Comcol 1 1279, "Counterfeit Coins", Assistant DO, Lagos District to DO, Lagos, 25 September 1931.
85. Ibid., SSP to all Residents, 3 November 1936.
86. Ibid., Commissioner of the Lagos Colony (COMCOL) to Financial Secretary, Lagos, 8 April 1938; Financial Secretary to COMCOL, 25 July 1938.
87. NAI IjeProf 2 C.12, vol. 1, Confid. I/1926: Rex vs Salami Temiyemi.
88. Ibid., Report by Acting DO, Ijebu-Ode, 23 April 1926.
89. NAI CSO 20/9 NC75/1921, Acting Resident, Ijebu to CSG, Lagos, 3 April 1921. This also implies that the counterfeiters had some form of implicit support in their "war" against the colonial state.
90. Ibid., Acting Commissioner of Police, Western Division, Ibadan to IGP, Lagos, enclosed in SSP to CSG, Lagos, 2 November 1921.
91. Nigerian Pioneer, 17 October 1924, Police News.
92. NAI IjeProf 2 C.12, vol. 3, Commissioner of Police (COMPOL) to Resident, Ijebu, 28 November 1936.
93. NAI OyoProf 1 1592, vol. 1, Commissioner, CID, Lagos to ASP, Ibadan, 2 July 1937.
94. Ibid., Acting DO(Ife/Ilesha Division) to Resident, Oyo, 17 April 1937.
95. NAI IjeProf 2 C.12, vol. 2, Acting Resident, Ijebu to SSP, 22 September 1935.
96. NAI OyoProf 1 1592, vol. 1, SP to COMPOL, Lagos, 4 June 1937.
97. NAI CSO 1/32/146 283 of 3 March 1939, Bourdillon to MacDonald.
98. NAI IjeProf 2 C.12, vol. I, Resident, Ijebu to Resident, Sokoto, 29 October 1931.
99. NAI CSO 20/9 NC75/1921, enclosed in SSP to CSG, Lagos, 2 November 1921.
100. NAI IjeProf 2 C.12, vol. 1, Chief Registrar, Lagos to Resident, Ijebu, 25 September 1933; Resident to Registrar, 10 October 1933.
101. Ibid., vol. 3, COMPOL to Resident, Ijebu, 28 November 1936.
102. Ibid., vol. 2, Acting Resident, Ijebu to SSP, Enugu, 2 July 1936.
103. Ibid., vol. 1, Resident, Ijebu to Resident, Sokoto, 29 June 1931.
104. Ibid., vol. 2, ACP to Resident, n.d., enclosed in Resident, Ijebu to SSP, 2 July 1936.
105. Ibid., ACP to Resident, n.d. (1936).
106. Details in NAI CSO 26 23870, "International Convention for the Suppression of Counterfeit Currency".
107. NAK SNP 17/2 13258, Lieutenant Gouveneur du Dahomey, Porto Novo to Lieutenant Governor, Northern Nigeria, 7 September 1910; C.L. Temple, Acting Governor to Governor General, French West Africa, 2 February 1911.
108. NAK SNP 17/2 13258, Lieutenant Gouveneur du Dahomey, Porto Novo to Lieutenant Governor, Northern Nigeria, 7 September 1910; C.L. Temple, Acting Governor to Governor General, French West Africa, 2 February 1911.
109. Nigerian Pioneer, 8 July 1927, "Rambling Notes and News".
110. NAI CSO 1/32/82 236 of 20 March 1926, Thomson to Amery.
111. NAI CSO 1/34/40, Confid. 3 November 1936, Hunt to Ormsby-Gore.
112. NAI OyoProf 1 1592, vol. 1, DO (Ife/Ilesha Div.) to Resident, Oyo 14 July 1936.
113. NAI CSO 1/34/40, Confid. 3 November 1936, Hunt to McDonald.
114. NAI CSO 1/32/142 576 of 20 June 1938, Hunt to McDonald.
115. NAK SNP 17/2 14769, vol. 1, Minutes of meeting of 12 November 1937.
116. NAI CSO 1/34/44, Confid. 15 April 1939, Bourdillon to McDonald.
117. Daily Times (Lagos), 26 April 1950, Okubotin to Editor.
118. Falola, "Currency Forgery", p. 124.
119. Ibid., p. 131.
120. Dan R. Aronson, The City is our Farm: Seven Migrant Ijebu Yoruba Families (Cambridge, MA, 1978), p. xix. The Ijebu love of money is said to be revealed by their offering sacrifice of pigs to Osaluga, deity of wealth. This is peculiar to them among the Yoruba. I owe this information to Dimeji Ajikobi, Lagos, January 2000.
121. NAK SNP 17/2 13258, Resident, Katsina to SNP, 15 April 1938. The artisanal skill of the Ijebu is acknowledged by other Yoruba who describe them as "Omo a wo irin tun 'rin ro" (those capable of smelting and moulding metals into any object). I thank Dimeji Ajikobi for this information.
122. William Freund, "Theft and Social Protest among the Tin Miners of Northern Nigeria", in Crummey, Banditry, p. 60.
123. Rotimi, "The Ijebu and the Police", pp. 98-105.
124. Ibid., p. 98.
125. Ibid., p. 104.
126. Ibid., p. 102.
127. H.J.K. Jenkins, "Guadeloupe, Martinique and Commerce Raiding: Two Colonies in Conflict, 1797-1798", Revue Française d'Histoire d'Outre-Mer, 78 (1991), p. 468.
128. This does not suggest that all Ijebu were counterfeiters, or that all counterfeiters were Ijebu. Yet, the popular association of the Ijebu with the crime is recorded even in a popular Yoruba song: "Ohun gbogbo n'Ijebu nse o: Ijebu ns'owo, Ijebu ns'omo" (literally, "Ijebu 'make' all things including money and babies"). I owe this information to Dr Kemi Rotimi, oral communication, London, November 1998. The Yoruba expression, "se owo", in this sense, denotes counterfeiting rather than "making money" in the ordinary business sense.