'Tropical east ends' and the Second World War: Some contradictions in colonial office welfare initiatives

Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History

Volumn 28, Issue 2, 2000, Pages 42-66

  Lewis, J E ^a  

^a DURHAM UNIVERSITY   (United Kingdom)

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[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 0034339003     PISSN: 03086534     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/03086530008583089     Document Type: Article

References (87)

1. 1. For a detailed treatment of the topic and a history of subsequent events in relation to Kenya, see Joanna Lewis, Empire State-Building: War and Welfare in Colonial Kenya, 1925-52 (forthcoming, 2000). 'Tropical East Ends' was a term used by Margery Perham in 1942 writing in The Times after the Fall of Singapore in March 1942. On the fate of African women in the twentieth century, see Catherine Coquery-Vidrovitch, African Women: A Modern History (Colorado, 1997).
2. 1. For a detailed treatment of the topic and a history of subsequent events in relation to Kenya, see Joanna Lewis, Empire State-Building: War and Welfare in Colonial Kenya, 1925-52 (forthcoming, 2000). 'Tropical East Ends' was a term used by Margery Perham in 1942 writing in The Times after the Fall of Singapore in March 1942. On the fate of African women in the twentieth century, see Catherine Coquery-Vidrovitch, African Women: A Modern History (Colorado, 1997).
3. 2. See more generally, John Darwin, Britain and Decolonization (London, 1988); D.A. Low, Eclipse of Empire (Cambridge, 1991) and J.M. Lee, '"Forward thinking" and the War: The Colonial Office during the 1940', Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History, 6, 1 (1977), 64-79.
4. 2. See more generally, John Darwin, Britain and Decolonization (London, 1988); D.A. Low, Eclipse of Empire (Cambridge, 1991) and J.M. Lee, '"Forward thinking" and the War: The Colonial Office during the 1940', Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History, 6, 1 (1977), 64-79.
5. 2. See more generally, John Darwin, Britain and Decolonization (London, 1988); D.A. Low, Eclipse of Empire (Cambridge, 1991) and J.M. Lee, '"Forward thinking" and the War: The Colonial Office during the 1940', Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History, 6, 1 (1977), 64-79.
6. 3. This suggests an amendment is needed to the argument that moral disarmament increasingly debilitated official efforts: see R. Robinson 'The Moral Disarmament of the African Empire, 1919-1947', Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History, 8 (1979), 86-104. At the Colonial Office in particular and within expert opinion, the sense that the capabilities of the state and the application of technology had much to contribute to the imperial mission of transformation functioned as a strong energizing force at this time which countered the dismay generated by the moral feebleness of racial rule.
7. 4. For example, E.V. Buxton to PC (Kisumu), 2 Jan. 1934, RH (Rhodes House, Oxford) Mss.Afr. s.1103; minutes of a protracted discussion in 1935 among officials of the East Africa Department in response to the 1933 Native Affairs Annual Report, Public Record Office, London, CO 533/475, 18. More generally see B. Berman, Control and Crisis in Colonial Kenya: The Dialectic of Domination. (London, 1990), 49-72.
8. 5. For details, see ch. 1 in Lewis, Empire State Building.
9. 6. D.V. Jones, 'The League of Nations' Experience in International Protection', Ethics and International Affairs, 8 (1994), 77-96.
10. 7. C. Miller, 'Lobbying the League: Women's International Organizations and the League of Nations' (unpublished D.Phil, dissertation, Oxford University, 1992), 156.
11. 8. Extracts from Advisory committee for native education in British Tropical Africa: Education policy in British Tropical Africa, Cmd. Parliamentary Paper No.2374, 1925, in SCWE 6/39, 'Female Education in the Colonial Empire: Summary of Facts showing the Present Position', 3-5. See also more generally, S.R. Ashton and S.E. Stockwell (eds.), British Documents on the End of Empire: Imperial Policy and Colonial Practice 1925-1945, Part II, ch.5, 'Social Policies and Colonial Research', 220-374.
12. 9. A. Davin, 'Imperialism and Motherhood', History Workshop Journal, 5 (1978), 9-65; Winifred Holtby, Women and a Changing Civilization (London, 1934), 112. On the eve of war in 1939, the Hygiene Committee of the Women's Group on Public Welfare insisted that the drop in infant mortality was not due to girls having learnt cleanliness in the elementary schools but rather the effects of better ventilation, clothing and food. Indeed, 'the problem of teaching the principles of decent living to the future mothers of the race remained to be solved'. Hygiene Committee of the Women's Group on Public Welfare, Our Towns: A Close Up (Oxford, 1943 edn.), 3.
13. 9. A. Davin, 'Imperialism and Motherhood', History Workshop Journal, 5 (1978), 9-65; Winifred Holtby, Women and a Changing Civilization (London, 1934), 112. On the eve of war in 1939, the Hygiene Committee of the Women's Group on Public Welfare insisted that the drop in infant mortality was not due to girls having learnt cleanliness in the elementary schools but rather the effects of better ventilation, clothing and food. Indeed, 'the problem of teaching the principles of decent living to the future mothers of the race remained to be solved'. Hygiene Committee of the Women's Group on Public Welfare, Our Towns: A Close Up (Oxford, 1943 edn.), 3.
14. 9. A. Davin, 'Imperialism and Motherhood', History Workshop Journal, 5 (1978), 9-65; Winifred Holtby, Women and a Changing Civilization (London, 1934), 112. On the eve of war in 1939, the Hygiene Committee of the Women's Group on Public Welfare insisted that the drop in infant mortality was not due to girls having learnt cleanliness in the elementary schools but rather the effects of better ventilation, clothing and food. Indeed, 'the problem of teaching the principles of decent living to the future mothers of the race remained to be solved'. Hygiene Committee of the Women's Group on Public Welfare, Our Towns: A Close Up (Oxford, 1943 edn.), 3.
15. 10. Memorandum on the Education of African Communities Colonial Parliamentary Paper No. 103, 1935, extracts contained in SCWE 6/3, 'Female Education in the Colonial Empire: Summary of Facts showing the present position', CO 859/1/9.
16. 11. R. Weight and A. Beach (eds.), The Right to Belong: Citizenship and National Identity in Britain, 1930-1960 (London, 1998); Clive Sanger, Malcolm MacDonald: Bringing an End to Empire (Liverpool, 1995); Ashton and Stockwell, (eds.), Imperial Policy and Colonial Practice, Part I, xxvi. See more specifically petitions made to the Treasury in 1939 for the running of the social service department, CO 822/33.
17. 11. R. Weight and A. Beach (eds.), The Right to Belong: Citizenship and National Identity in Britain, 1930-1960 (London, 1998); Clive Sanger, Malcolm MacDonald: Bringing an End to Empire (Liverpool, 1995); Ashton and Stockwell, (eds.), Imperial Policy and Colonial Practice, Part I, xxvi. See more specifically petitions made to the Treasury in 1939 for the running of the social service department, CO 822/33.
18. 11. R. Weight and A. Beach (eds.), The Right to Belong: Citizenship and National Identity in Britain, 1930-1960 (London, 1998); Clive Sanger, Malcolm MacDonald: Bringing an End to Empire (Liverpool, 1995); Ashton and Stockwell, (eds.), Imperial Policy and Colonial Practice, Part I, xxvi. See more specifically petitions made to the Treasury in 1939 for the running of the social service department, CO 822/33.
19. 12. Nutrition in the Colonial Empire (Cmd. 6050, 1939).
20. 13. Ibid., 7, J.A. Mangan argues that many contributed to the maintenance of empire by directing domestic orientated welfare policies, constituting an elite cadre of unofficial social workers 'which had won the good will of the subject races'; J.A. Mangan (ed.), Making Imperial Mentalities (Manchester, 1990), 7.
21. 13. Ibid., 7, J.A. Mangan argues that many contributed to the maintenance of empire by directing domestic orientated welfare policies, constituting an elite cadre of unofficial social workers 'which had won the good will of the subject races'; J.A. Mangan (ed.), Making Imperial Mentalities (Manchester, 1990), 7.
22. 14. Miller, 'Lobbying the League', esp. 134-36.
23. 15. See Barbara Bush, '"Britain's Conscience on Africa": white women, race and imperial politics in inter-war Britain', in Claire Midgley (ed.), Gender and Imperialism (Manchester, 1997), 200-23.
24. 16. For an account of the controversy surrounding an earlier feminist discourse centred upon the 'liberation' of African women, at the africa Inland Mission, Kijabe, Kenya, in the 1920s, see David Anderson, 'Maidens, Missions and Morality: The Kikuyu Female Circumcision Crisis', paper given at the East African Seminar Series, African Studies Centre, Cambridge University, 11 Jan. 1992.
25. 17. Correspondence relating to the Welfare of Women in Tropical Africa 1935-37 (Cmd. 5784, 1938); see J.M. Lonsdale, 'Archdeacon Owen and the Kavirondo taxpayers welfare association', in 'Proceedings of the East African Institute of Social Research Conference, held at Kivukoni college, Dar es Salaam, 1963'.
26. 17. Correspondence relating to the Welfare of Women in Tropical Africa 1935-37 (Cmd. 5784, 1938); see J.M. Lonsdale, 'Archdeacon Owen and the Kavirondo taxpayers welfare association', in 'Proceedings of the East African Institute of Social Research Conference, held at Kivukoni college, Dar es Salaam, 1963'.
27. 18. M.P. Blacklock, 'Welfare of Women and Children in the Colonies', Annals of Tropical Medicine and Parasitology, 2 (July 1936), 221-63, also quoted in 'Summary of Facts' SCWE6/39, CO 859/1/9.
28. 19. 'Female Education in the Colonial Empire', 1, SCWE 6/39, CO 859/1/9.
29. 20. Extract from Native Affairs, Annual Report, 1936, 85, CO 533/479/9; Native Affairs, Annual Report, 1937, 74 CO 533/491/5.
30. 20. Extract from Native Affairs, Annual Report, 1936, 85, CO 533/479/9; Native Affairs, Annual Report, 1937, 74 CO 533/491/5.
31. 21. EAC Memo despatched to colonies in April 1937, 'Teaching of Domestic Science in England and its Application to work in the Colonies', CO 859/1/9. Gambia had 3 per cent of its girls in school, Nigeria 5 per cent, whilst Uganda an impressive 33 per cent. Statistics relating to the provision of domestic science and general education of African girls in African Colonies; SCWE 11/39 (undated), ibid.
32. 22. Item 8, Minutes of the 97th Meeting of the Advisory Committee on Education (EAC) in the Colonies, 21 Sept. 1939, CO 859/1/9. The members were to be Clauson (Head of Social Services) as Chairman, Keith and Mayhew (CO officials), Rev. J.W.C. Dougall (former headmaster of Jeanes School, Kenya), Bishop Myers or Father O'Callaghan (missionary educationalists), Miss Oakden, Miss Perham, Hans Vischer, and Miss Wright Secretary from the Social Services Dept; Sir Edward Stubbs was to be invited to join later. The subcommittee was authorized to co-opt anyone they wished. Representatives of the Medical and Agricultural Advisory Committees were to be invited to help construct the Report.
33. 23. These included an article by Margaret Wrong written for the 1940 Year Book of Education; a Memorandum on Aspects of Welfare of Women and Children in the Colonies by Dr Blacklock (AEC 41/36); and an article by Dr Janet Welch, Medical Officer, Nyasaland at a Church of Scotland Mission Hospital. Also circulated were three government papers: 'European Women Employed by the Government in Colonial Territories'; 'Teaching of Domestic Science in England and its Application to work in the Colonies'; and 'Colonial Office Notes on the recruitment of women for the Colonial Service 1931'; First meeting of SCWE, 17 Nov. 1939 CO 859/1/9.
34. 24. SCWE Report on the Education and Welfare of Women and Girls, 1940, 16, ibid.
35. 24. SCWE Report on the Education and Welfare of Women and Girls, 1940, 16, ibid.
36. 25. Initially it was hoped that Margaret Wrong (involved with promoting Christian literature overseas), Miss Read, Mrs Johnston, Dr Mary Blacklock and even certain African women in England could all be co-opted on the sub-commitee.
37. 26. SCWE Report ch.IV 'Develpment of Community Education', 21-22, ibid. Perham and Oakden supported this view.
38. 26. SCWE Report ch.IV 'Develpment of Community Education', 21-22, ibid. Perham and Oakden supported this view.
39. 27. For example, see wartime editorials in journals such as Oversea Education, African Affairs, and Quarterly Notes, cited in '"Kingi Georgi mtukufu": African soldiers, welfare and the Second World War', ch.4 in Lewis, Empire State-Building.
40. 28. 'The Community Centre', Memo from C.W.M. Cox, 25 April 1940, SCWE 12/40, CO 859/1/9. Cox, an Oxford academic, had been Director of Education in the Sudan since 1937. As adviser he replaced the two joint secretaries of the EAC, Mayhew and Vischer, when it was reorganized in 1939; 99th Meeting of the EAC, 16 Nov. 1939, CO 859/2/43.
41. 29. SCWE Report (1940), 31-2, CO 859/1/9.
42. 30. See Ashton and Stockwell (eds.), Imperial Policy and Colonial Practice, Part I, Ixxx-Ixxxii and Part II, 338-54.
43. 31. For the effects of the Second World in general see R. Rathbone and D. Killingray (eds.), Africa and the Second World War (New York, 1986); P. Addison, The Road to 1945 (London, 1977) and R. Hyam (ed.), The Labour Government and the End of Empire, 1945-51, Part I, High Policy and Administration; Part II, Economics and International Relations; Part III, Strategy, Politics and Constitutional Change; Part IV, Race Relations and the Commonwealth. British Documents on the End of Empire, Series A, Volume 2 (London, 1992).
44. 31. For the effects of the Second World in general see R. Rathbone and D. Killingray (eds.), Africa and the Second World War (New York, 1986); P. Addison, The Road to 1945 (London, 1977) and R. Hyam (ed.), The Labour Government and the End of Empire, 1945-51, Part I, High Policy and Administration; Part II, Economics and International Relations; Part III, Strategy, Politics and Constitutional Change; Part IV, Race Relations and the Commonwealth. British Documents on the End of Empire, Series A, Volume 2 (London, 1992).
45. 31. For the effects of the Second World in general see R. Rathbone and D. Killingray (eds.), Africa and the Second World War (New York, 1986); P. Addison, The Road to 1945 (London, 1977) and R. Hyam (ed.), The Labour Government and the End of Empire, 1945-51, Part I, High Policy and Administration; Part II, Economics and International Relations; Part III, Strategy, Politics and Constitutional Change; Part IV, Race Relations and the Commonwealth. British Documents on the End of Empire, Series A, Volume 2 (London, 1992).
46. 32. It has been described as 'the first systematic attempt to deal with general problems of growth in colonial territories'; D.J. Morgan, The Official History of Colonial Development: Changes in British Aid Policy, 1951-1970 (London, 1980), 2, Item 6A, CO 859/19/18. See also more generally, chs I and 4 Ashton and Stockwell (eds.), Imperial Policy and Colonial Practice, Part 1 and Part II.
47. 32. It has been described as 'the first systematic attempt to deal with general problems of growth in colonial territories'; D.J. Morgan, The Official History of Colonial Development: Changes in British Aid Policy, 1951-1970 (London, 1980), 2, Item 6A, CO 859/19/18. See also more generally, chs I and 4 Ashton and Stockwell (eds.), Imperial Policy and Colonial Practice, Part 1 and Part II.
48. 33. Various discussions within the East Africa Department, July 1935, CO 533/475/18.
49. 34. Memorandum 'Colonial Development', enclosed in letter to Sir John Simon from MacDonald, 11 Oct. 1939, CO 859/19/18. See also Lee, 'Forward Thinking', 70.
50. 34. Memorandum 'Colonial Development', enclosed in letter to Sir John Simon from MacDonald, 11 Oct. 1939, CO 859/19/18. See also Lee, 'Forward Thinking', 70.
51. 35. Note on Colonial Development and Welfare, Meeting between MacDonald, Sir Horace Wilson, Sir R. Wilson and Sir George Gater (perm. USSC), 27 Nov. 1939; record of meeting with Hale (Treasury), 10 Jan. 1940, and 6A CO draft Statement of Policy (undated), CO 859/19/18. Also Minute by Parkinson, 12 Jan. 1940, Minute from MacDonald, 14 Jan. 1940, ibid. Clyde Sanger, Malcolm MacDonald, esp. 61-206.
52. 36. Information taken from the Margery Perham Archive, Rhodes House, Oxford. Also see introduction and articles in A. Smith and M. Bull (eds.), Margery Perham and British Rule in Africa (London, 1991) and A. Kirk-Greene, 'Margery Perham and Colonial Administration: A Direct Influence on Indirect Rule', in F. Madden and D.K. Fieldhouse (eds.) Oxford and the Idea of Commonwealth (London, 1982), 122-43.
53. 36. Information taken from the Margery Perham Archive, Rhodes House, Oxford. Also see introduction and articles in A. Smith and M. Bull (eds.), Margery Perham and British Rule in Africa (London, 1991) and A. Kirk-Greene, 'Margery Perham and Colonial Administration: A Direct Influence on Indirect Rule', in F. Madden and D.K. Fieldhouse (eds.) Oxford and the Idea of Commonwealth (London, 1982), 122-43.
54. 37. J.W. Cell, Hailey: A Study in British Imperialism 1872-1969 (Cambridge, 1992), esp. 241-65.
55. 38. Lord Hailey, Native Administration and Political Development in British Tropical Africa, 1940-4, with introduction by A.H.M. Kirk-Greene (Nelden/Liechtenstein, 1979).
56. 39. Ibid., ch.6, VII, 'Recommendations regarding Native Administration', 223.
57. 40. Perham to Creech Jones, 29 Jan. 1942 and 10 Feb. 1942, Perham Collection, RH Mss.23/1.
58. 41. Perham, Colonial Sequence, 1930-1949 (London, 1967), 225-33, 13 and 14 March 1942, 'The Need for Stocktaking and Review', 'Capital, Labour and the Colour Bar'.
59. 42. Other wartime polemical pieces included Arthur Creech Jones' writing in 'Peace Aims Pamphlet No. 11 - Freedom For Colonial Peoples', 24. Other contributors included Rita Hinden, Arthur Lewis and Lewis Namier. RH. Mss. Perham, Box 705, Colonial Policy - 23.
60. 43. Perham, Colonial Sequence, 229.
61. 44. Hygiene Committee of the Women's Group on Public Welfare, Our Towns, xiii-xiv.
62. 45. Titmuss, Problems of Social Policy, 404-23; Alan Maberly, 'Family Relations', Journal of Social Work, V, 2 (1948), 163-5; M.A. Yellowby, Social Theory and Psychoanalysis (London, 1980), ch.4, 'The Growth of Psychoanalytic Influence', 73-86; R. Pinker, 'Social Work and Social Policy: retrospect and prospect', M. Blumer et al., The Goals of Social Policy, 84-87; Wilson, Women and the Welfare State, Ch.5, 'Welfare since the War', 73-97.
63. 45. Titmuss, Problems of Social Policy, 404-23; Alan Maberly, 'Family Relations', Journal of Social Work, V, 2 (1948), 163-5; M.A. Yellowby, Social Theory and Psychoanalysis (London, 1980), ch.4, 'The Growth of Psychoanalytic Influence', 73-86; R. Pinker, 'Social Work and Social Policy: retrospect and prospect', M. Blumer et al., The Goals of Social Policy, 84-87; Wilson, Women and the Welfare State, Ch.5, 'Welfare since the War', 73-97.
64. 45. Titmuss, Problems of Social Policy, 404-23; Alan Maberly, 'Family Relations', Journal of Social Work, V, 2 (1948), 163-5; M.A. Yellowby, Social Theory and Psychoanalysis (London, 1980), ch.4, 'The Growth of Psychoanalytic Influence', 73-86; R. Pinker, 'Social Work and Social Policy: retrospect and prospect', M. Blumer et al., The Goals of Social Policy, 84-87; Wilson, Women and the Welfare State, Ch.5, 'Welfare since the War', 73-97.
65. 45. Titmuss, Problems of Social Policy, 404-23; Alan Maberly, 'Family Relations', Journal of Social Work, V, 2 (1948), 163-5; M.A. Yellowby, Social Theory and Psychoanalysis (London, 1980), ch.4, 'The Growth of Psychoanalytic Influence', 73-86; R. Pinker, 'Social Work and Social Policy: retrospect and prospect', M. Blumer et al., The Goals of Social Policy, 84-87; Wilson, Women and the Welfare State, Ch.5, 'Welfare since the War', 73-97.
66. 45. Titmuss, Problems of Social Policy, 404-23; Alan Maberly, 'Family Relations', Journal of Social Work, V, 2 (1948), 163-5; M.A. Yellowby, Social Theory and Psychoanalysis (London, 1980), ch.4, 'The Growth of Psychoanalytic Influence', 73-86; R. Pinker, 'Social Work and Social Policy: retrospect and prospect', M. Blumer et al., The Goals of Social Policy, 84-87; Wilson, Women and the Welfare State, Ch.5, 'Welfare since the War', 73-97.
67. 46. John Iliffe, The African Poor (Cambridge, 1987), 200.
68. 47. J.J. Paskin, 7 Jan. 1942, Note entitled 'Juvenile Delinquency Juvenile Welfare', CO 859/73/11. Minute by Sir Kenneth Poyser, 9 Feb. 1942, reply from Jeffries, 9 Feb. 1942, ibid.
69. 47. J.J. Paskin, 7 Jan. 1942, Note entitled 'Juvenile Delinquency Juvenile Welfare', CO 859/73/11. Minute by Sir Kenneth Poyser, 9 Feb. 1942, reply from Jeffries, 9 Feb. 1942, ibid.
70. 47. J.J. Paskin, 7 Jan. 1942, Note entitled 'Juvenile Delinquency Juvenile Welfare', CO 859/73/11. Minute by Sir Kenneth Poyser, 9 Feb. 1942, reply from Jeffries, 9 Feb. 1942, ibid.
71. 48. Six other women were made assistant principals and as an experiment in 1944 women were sent out to the colonies as temporary junior administrators; Helen Calloway, Gender, Culture and Empire (London, 1987), 139. Richards spent much of her time during her time at the Colonial Office setting up the Colonial Social Science Research Council with Lord Hailey which was instrumental in planning the post-war programme of anthropological research; Lord Blake, C.S. Nicholls (eds.), Dictionary of National Biography, 1981-1985 (Oxford, 1990), 336-37.
72. 48. Six other women were made assistant principals and as an experiment in 1944 women were sent out to the colonies as temporary junior administrators; Helen Calloway, Gender, Culture and Empire (London, 1987), 139. Richards spent much of her time during her time at the Colonial Office setting up the Colonial Social Science Research Council with Lord Hailey which was instrumental in planning the post-war programme of anthropological research; Lord Blake, C.S. Nicholls (eds.), Dictionary of National Biography, 1981-1985 (Oxford, 1990), 336-37.
73. 49. As welfare was being extended in the colonies, he argued, more home recruitment of probation officers, welfare officers, headmasters would take place so that such a committee could act as a Selection Board choosing staff for prisons, reformatory schools and probation services plus all welfare personnel; A. Paterson to A. Richards, 16 March 1942, CO 859/73/11. Paterson later became chairman of the resulting sub-committee, Richards its secretary.
74. 50. Minute from Sir Cosmo Parkinson, 12 Jan. 1942, Richards to Paterson, 18 March 1942, ibid. Note on Juvenile Delinquency Sub-Committee (undated), ibid. Topics of relevance were wide-ranging: treatment of vagrants, destitute children, truancy, public assistance; prevention through repatriation, hostels for young wage-earners, links between school, police or probation officers, school after-care, recreation; personnel issues including the type of officers suitable for juvenile welfare, their functions, liaison with youth and organizations, and the division of departmental responsibilities between Prison, Education and Labour Departments; training of specialized officers recruited in England and of local personnel such as probation officers, club leaders, hostel manager and youth leaders; voluntary groups and liason with native authorities in Africa, women workers and missionary groups.
75. 51. Ibid., paras 2 and 3. Flagellation was changed to whipping for the final draft.
76. 52. Draft Report, Part I, paras 1 and 2, CO 859/73/11; Minute from A. Richards, 18 Jan. 1943, ibid.
77. 53. Note from A. Richards to Prof. Simey, 12 Dec. 1942; Sir Charles Jeffries to Sir George Gater, 19 Jan. 1943, ibid.
78. 54. Ibid., 3. Scott actually called for the number of district officers to be reduced by half, their geographical areas widened. He supported the suggestion that administrative officers should receive prior welfare training in England but he wanted voluntary bodies to be encouraged to assist in remedial measures through detention homes and the provision of Approved Schools to ensure a strong religious element which Government Schools would lack. Also, remarks made by Grace, extract from 177th EAC meeting, 4, ibid. This was what Kenya's Information Officer argued when proposing that the colony employ a new cadre of welfare officer.
79. 55. Richards to Blaxter, 16 Sept. 1942, CO 859/75/13. She suggested experts on Rural Council work, Wome's Institutes, Young Ministry of Health scheme, and the National Councils of Social Service might be asked. One critic of the report was Professor Thomas Simey of the Social Science faculty at Liverpool University. Finding it unsuitable for West Indians conditions, he insisted that the control of youth organizations should be under the control of a Social Welfare Officer and generally found the suggestions for social welfare machinery confusing; Summary of criticism, 14 Nov. 1942, and reply from Richards, 12 Dec. 1942, CO 859/73/11.
80. 56. This was set out in a Draft to the Colonies, 17 April 1943, CO 859/73/11, informing them that the juvenile delinquency sub-committee had been dissolved and the Advisory apparently Miss Darlow also; minute by Jeffries 14 Jan. 1944, ibid.
81. 57. Jeffries to Gater, 14 Jan. 1944, CO 859/75/13, conveying the views of himself, Blaxter and apparently Miss Darlow also; minute by Jeffries 14 Jan. 1944, ibid.
82. 58. Various SWAC Meetings 1944, CO 997/1.
83. 59. 'Training of Prospective Mothers in Sierra Leone', CSWAC 42/22, CO 997/1.
84. 60. 'Vocational Training for African Welfare Workers', CSWAC 54/44, by A.I. Richards, discussed by the SWAC, 4 Dec. 1944, ibid.
85. 60. 'Vocational Training for African Welfare Workers', CSWAC 54/44, by A.I. Richards, discussed by the SWAC, 4 Dec. 1944, ibid.
86. 61. 'Social Welfare in the Colonies', April 1945, CO 859/519. This was in line with popular thinking on African societies; see L.P. Mair, Welfare in the British Colonies (London, 1944), the argument being that delinquency was not a problem in rural areas where the chief was respected and everyone could find employment on the land.
87. 62. 'Social Welfare in the Colonies', 2-3, CO 859/519.