Is preservice teacher training worth the money? A study of teachers in ethnic minority regions of the People's Republic of China

Comparative Education Review

Volumn 44, Issue 3, 2000, Pages 300-325

  Chapman, David W ^a   Chen, Xiaoyu ^a   Postiglione, Gerard A ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0034338401     PISSN: 00104086     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1086/447616     Document Type: Article

References (62)

1. D. W. Chapman and C. W. Snyder, Jr., "Teachers' Beliefs about Effective Teaching: A View from Botswana," in Handbook of Teachers and Teacher Education in Botswana, ed. P. T. Marope and D. W. Chapman (Gaborone, Botswana: Lentswe La Lesedi (Pty) Ltd., 1992), pp. 89-104.
2. Ibid.; see also R. Craig, H. Kraft, and J. du Plessis, Teacher Development: Making an Impact, Advancing Basic Education and Literacy (ABEL) Project (Washington, D.C.), Academy for Educational Development and Human Development Network, Effective Schools and Teachers (Washington, D.C.: World Bank, 1998).
3. Ibid.; see also R. Craig, H. Kraft, and J. du Plessis, Teacher Development: Making an Impact, Advancing Basic Education and Literacy (ABEL) Project (Washington, D.C.), Academy for Educational Development and Human Development Network, Effective Schools and Teachers (Washington, D.C.: World Bank, 1998).
4. Chapman and Snyder, "Teachers' Beliefs about Effective Teaching."
5. China Education Yearbook, 1998 (Beijing: People's Education Press, 1998).
6. Ethnic Minority Education Handbook, 1991 (Beijing: Ethnic Publishing House, 1991).
7. While the education literature offers conflicting claims about what instructional practices constitute effective teaching, we argue that there is, nonetheless, a substantial and widespread consensus about the characteristics of effective teaching. This consensus is well documented in the work of M. C. Wang, G. D. Haertel, and H. J. Walberg, "Toward a Knowledge Base for School Learning," Review of Educational Research 63, no. 3 (1993): 249-94; J. Brophy and T. Good, Looking in Classrooms, 6th ed. (New York: Harper Collins, 1994); and M. L. Wittrock, Handbook of Research on Teaching, 3d ed. (New York: American Educational Research Association, 1986). Effective teaching includes such characteristics as clear, organized presentation of content, opportunity for guided student practice, feedback on performance, review, and maintenance of appropriate discipline.
8. While the education literature offers conflicting claims about what instructional practices constitute effective teaching, we argue that there is, nonetheless, a substantial and widespread consensus about the characteristics of effective teaching. This consensus is well documented in the work of M. C. Wang, G. D. Haertel, and H. J. Walberg, "Toward a Knowledge Base for School Learning," Review of Educational Research 63, no. 3 (1993): 249-94; J. Brophy and T. Good, Looking in Classrooms, 6th ed. (New York: Harper Collins, 1994); and M. L. Wittrock, Handbook of Research on Teaching, 3d ed. (New York: American Educational Research Association, 1986). Effective teaching includes such characteristics as clear, organized presentation of content, opportunity for guided student practice, feedback on performance, review, and maintenance of appropriate discipline.
9. While the education literature offers conflicting claims about what instructional practices constitute effective teaching, we argue that there is, nonetheless, a substantial and widespread consensus about the characteristics of effective teaching. This consensus is well documented in the work of M. C. Wang, G. D. Haertel, and H. J. Walberg, "Toward a Knowledge Base for School Learning," Review of Educational Research 63, no. 3 (1993): 249-94; J. Brophy and T. Good, Looking in Classrooms, 6th ed. (New York: Harper Collins, 1994); and M. L. Wittrock, Handbook of Research on Teaching, 3d ed. (New York: American Educational Research Association, 1986). Effective teaching includes such characteristics as clear, organized presentation of content, opportunity for guided student practice, feedback on performance, review, and maintenance of appropriate discipline.
10. D. W. Chapman and G. Postiglione, Strengthening the Department of Ethnic Minority Education in the People's, Republic of China, final report of TA. no. 2455-PRC (Manila: Asian Development Bank, 1998).
11. Marlaine Lockheed and Adrian Verspoor, Improving Primary Education in Developing Countries: A Review of Policy Options (Washington, D.C.: World Bank, 1990); Chapman and Snyder, "Teachers' Beliefs about Effective Teaching"; L. Anderson, E. Ryan, and B. Shapiro, The IEA Classroom Environment Study (Oxford: Pergamon, 1989).
12. Marlaine Lockheed and Adrian Verspoor, Improving Primary Education in Developing Countries: A Review of Policy Options (Washington, D.C.: World Bank, 1990); Chapman and Snyder, "Teachers' Beliefs about Effective Teaching"; L. Anderson, E. Ryan, and B. Shapiro, The IEA Classroom Environment Study (Oxford: Pergamon, 1989).
13. Marlaine Lockheed and Adrian Verspoor, Improving Primary Education in Developing Countries: A Review of Policy Options (Washington, D.C.: World Bank, 1990); Chapman and Snyder, "Teachers' Beliefs about Effective Teaching"; L. Anderson, E. Ryan, and B. Shapiro, The IEA Classroom Environment Study (Oxford: Pergamon, 1989).
14. G. Postiglione, Ethnic Minority Education in China: Culture, Schooling and Development (New York: Garland, 1999), "National Minority Regions: Studying School Discontinuation," in The Ethnographic Eye: Ethnographic Research on Education in China, ed. J. Liu (New York: Garland, 1999), and "China's National Minorities and Educational Change," Journal of Contemporary Asia 22, no. 1 (1992): 20-44; and G. Postiglione, X. Teng, and Y. Ai, "Basic Education and School Discontinuation in National Minority Border Areas of China," in Social Change and Educational Development: Mainland China, Taiwan and Hong Kong, ed. G. Postiglione and W. O. Lee (Hong Kong: Centre of Asian Studies, 1996), pp. 186-206; Chapman and Postiglione; Yang Xiuming, Minzu jiaoyu de Yaolan (Cradle of training teachers for nationalities) (Guiyang: Guizhou Education Publishing House, 1996); W. Borchigud, "The Impact of Urban Ethnic Education on Modern Mongolian Ethnicity, 1949-1966," in Cultural Encounters on China's Ethnic frontiers, ed. Stevan Harrell (Seattle: University of Washington Press); J. LaMomagne, "Improving the Education of China's National Minorities," in Education and Cultural Differences: New Perspectives, ed. D. Ray and D. H. Poonwassie (New York: Garland, 1991); Xie Qihuang et al., eds., Zhonggau minzu jiaoyu fcizhan zhanlüe jueze (Chosing a strategy for developing China's minority education) (Beijing: Zhongyang minzu xueyuan chubanshe, 1991) ; Wang Qihong et al., eds., Zhongguo bianjing minzu jiaoyu (Education of minority nationalities living in China's border areas) (Beijing: Zhongyang minzu xueyuan chubanshe, 1990); Sun Ruoqiong et al., eds., Zhongguo shaoshu minzu jiaoyuxue gailun (An introduction to the education of China's national minorities) (Beijing: Zhongyang minzu xueyuan chubanshe, 1990); Julia Kwong and Hong Xiao, "Educational Equality among China's Minorities," Comparative Education 25, no. 2 (1989): 229-43.
15. G. Postiglione, Ethnic Minority Education in China: Culture, Schooling and Development (New York: Garland, 1999), "National Minority Regions: Studying School Discontinuation," in The Ethnographic Eye: Ethnographic Research on Education in China, ed. J. Liu (New York: Garland, 1999), and "China's National Minorities and Educational Change," Journal of Contemporary Asia 22, no. 1 (1992): 20-44; and G. Postiglione, X. Teng, and Y. Ai, "Basic Education and School Discontinuation in National Minority Border Areas of China," in Social Change and Educational Development: Mainland China, Taiwan and Hong Kong, ed. G. Postiglione and W. O. Lee (Hong Kong: Centre of Asian Studies, 1996), pp. 186-206; Chapman and Postiglione; Yang Xiuming, Minzu jiaoyu de Yaolan (Cradle of training teachers for nationalities) (Guiyang: Guizhou Education Publishing House, 1996); W. Borchigud, "The Impact of Urban Ethnic Education on Modern Mongolian Ethnicity, 1949-1966," in Cultural Encounters on China's Ethnic frontiers, ed. Stevan Harrell (Seattle: University of Washington Press); J. LaMomagne, "Improving the Education of China's National Minorities," in Education and Cultural Differences: New Perspectives, ed. D. Ray and D. H. Poonwassie (New York: Garland, 1991); Xie Qihuang et al., eds., Zhonggau minzu jiaoyu fcizhan zhanlüe jueze (Chosing a strategy for developing China's minority education) (Beijing: Zhongyang minzu xueyuan chubanshe, 1991) ; Wang Qihong et al., eds., Zhongguo bianjing minzu jiaoyu (Education of minority nationalities living in China's border areas) (Beijing: Zhongyang minzu xueyuan chubanshe, 1990); Sun Ruoqiong et al., eds., Zhongguo shaoshu minzu jiaoyuxue gailun (An introduction to the education of China's national minorities) (Beijing: Zhongyang minzu xueyuan chubanshe, 1990); Julia Kwong and Hong Xiao, "Educational Equality among China's Minorities," Comparative Education 25, no. 2 (1989): 229-43.
16. G. Postiglione, Ethnic Minority Education in China: Culture, Schooling and Development (New York: Garland, 1999), "National Minority Regions: Studying School Discontinuation," in The Ethnographic Eye: Ethnographic Research on Education in China, ed. J. Liu (New York: Garland, 1999), and "China's National Minorities and Educational Change," Journal of Contemporary Asia 22, no. 1 (1992): 20-44; and G. Postiglione, X. Teng, and Y. Ai, "Basic Education and School Discontinuation in National Minority Border Areas of China," in Social Change and Educational Development: Mainland China, Taiwan and Hong Kong, ed. G. Postiglione and W. O. Lee (Hong Kong: Centre of Asian Studies, 1996), pp. 186-206; Chapman and Postiglione; Yang Xiuming, Minzu jiaoyu de Yaolan (Cradle of training teachers for nationalities) (Guiyang: Guizhou Education Publishing House, 1996); W. Borchigud, "The Impact of Urban Ethnic Education on Modern Mongolian Ethnicity, 1949-1966," in Cultural Encounters on China's Ethnic frontiers, ed. Stevan Harrell (Seattle: University of Washington Press); J. LaMomagne, "Improving the Education of China's National Minorities," in Education and Cultural Differences: New Perspectives, ed. D. Ray and D. H. Poonwassie (New York: Garland, 1991); Xie Qihuang et al., eds., Zhonggau minzu jiaoyu fcizhan zhanlüe jueze (Chosing a strategy for developing China's minority education) (Beijing: Zhongyang minzu xueyuan chubanshe, 1991) ; Wang Qihong et al., eds., Zhongguo bianjing minzu jiaoyu (Education of minority nationalities living in China's border areas) (Beijing: Zhongyang minzu xueyuan chubanshe, 1990); Sun Ruoqiong et al., eds., Zhongguo shaoshu minzu jiaoyuxue gailun (An introduction to the education of China's national minorities) (Beijing: Zhongyang minzu xueyuan chubanshe, 1990); Julia Kwong and Hong Xiao, "Educational Equality among China's Minorities," Comparative Education 25, no. 2 (1989): 229-43.
17. G. Postiglione, Ethnic Minority Education in China: Culture, Schooling and Development (New York: Garland, 1999), "National Minority Regions: Studying School Discontinuation," in The Ethnographic Eye: Ethnographic Research on Education in China, ed. J. Liu (New York: Garland, 1999), and "China's National Minorities and Educational Change," Journal of Contemporary Asia 22, no. 1 (1992): 20-44; and G. Postiglione, X. Teng, and Y. Ai, "Basic Education and School Discontinuation in National Minority Border Areas of China," in Social Change and Educational Development: Mainland China, Taiwan and Hong Kong, ed. G. Postiglione and W. O. Lee (Hong Kong: Centre of Asian Studies, 1996), pp. 186-206; Chapman and Postiglione; Yang Xiuming, Minzu jiaoyu de Yaolan (Cradle of training teachers for nationalities) (Guiyang: Guizhou Education Publishing House, 1996); W. Borchigud, "The Impact of Urban Ethnic Education on Modern Mongolian Ethnicity, 1949-1966," in Cultural Encounters on China's Ethnic frontiers, ed. Stevan Harrell (Seattle: University of Washington Press); J. LaMomagne, "Improving the Education of China's National Minorities," in Education and Cultural Differences: New Perspectives, ed. D. Ray and D. H. Poonwassie (New York: Garland, 1991); Xie Qihuang et al., eds., Zhonggau minzu jiaoyu fcizhan zhanlüe jueze (Chosing a strategy for developing China's minority education) (Beijing: Zhongyang minzu xueyuan chubanshe, 1991) ; Wang Qihong et al., eds., Zhongguo bianjing minzu jiaoyu (Education of minority nationalities living in China's border areas) (Beijing: Zhongyang minzu xueyuan chubanshe, 1990); Sun Ruoqiong et al., eds., Zhongguo shaoshu minzu jiaoyuxue gailun (An introduction to the education of China's national minorities) (Beijing: Zhongyang minzu xueyuan chubanshe, 1990); Julia Kwong and Hong Xiao, "Educational Equality among China's Minorities," Comparative Education 25, no. 2 (1989): 229-43.
18. G. Postiglione, Ethnic Minority Education in China: Culture, Schooling and Development (New York: Garland, 1999), "National Minority Regions: Studying School Discontinuation," in The Ethnographic Eye: Ethnographic Research on Education in China, ed. J. Liu (New York: Garland, 1999), and "China's National Minorities and Educational Change," Journal of Contemporary Asia 22, no. 1 (1992): 20-44; and G. Postiglione, X. Teng, and Y. Ai, "Basic Education and School Discontinuation in National Minority Border Areas of China," in Social Change and Educational Development: Mainland China, Taiwan and Hong Kong, ed. G. Postiglione and W. O. Lee (Hong Kong: Centre of Asian Studies, 1996), pp. 186-206; Chapman and Postiglione; Yang Xiuming, Minzu jiaoyu de Yaolan (Cradle of training teachers for nationalities) (Guiyang: Guizhou Education Publishing House, 1996); W. Borchigud, "The Impact of Urban Ethnic Education on Modern Mongolian Ethnicity, 1949-1966," in Cultural Encounters on China's Ethnic frontiers, ed. Stevan Harrell (Seattle: University of Washington Press); J. LaMomagne, "Improving the Education of China's National Minorities," in Education and Cultural Differences: New Perspectives, ed. D. Ray and D. H. Poonwassie (New York: Garland, 1991); Xie Qihuang et al., eds., Zhonggau minzu jiaoyu fcizhan zhanlüe jueze (Chosing a strategy for developing China's minority education) (Beijing: Zhongyang minzu xueyuan chubanshe, 1991) ; Wang Qihong et al., eds., Zhongguo bianjing minzu jiaoyu (Education of minority nationalities living in China's border areas) (Beijing: Zhongyang minzu xueyuan chubanshe, 1990); Sun Ruoqiong et al., eds., Zhongguo shaoshu minzu jiaoyuxue gailun (An introduction to the education of China's national minorities) (Beijing: Zhongyang minzu xueyuan chubanshe, 1990); Julia Kwong and Hong Xiao, "Educational Equality among China's Minorities," Comparative Education 25, no. 2 (1989): 229-43.
19. G. Postiglione, Ethnic Minority Education in China: Culture, Schooling and Development (New York: Garland, 1999), "National Minority Regions: Studying School Discontinuation," in The Ethnographic Eye: Ethnographic Research on Education in China, ed. J. Liu (New York: Garland, 1999), and "China's National Minorities and Educational Change," Journal of Contemporary Asia 22, no. 1 (1992): 20-44; and G. Postiglione, X. Teng, and Y. Ai, "Basic Education and School Discontinuation in National Minority Border Areas of China," in Social Change and Educational Development: Mainland China, Taiwan and Hong Kong, ed. G. Postiglione and W. O. Lee (Hong Kong: Centre of Asian Studies, 1996), pp. 186-206; Chapman and Postiglione; Yang Xiuming, Minzu jiaoyu de Yaolan (Cradle of training teachers for nationalities) (Guiyang: Guizhou Education Publishing House, 1996); W. Borchigud, "The Impact of Urban Ethnic Education on Modern Mongolian Ethnicity, 1949-1966," in Cultural Encounters on China's Ethnic frontiers, ed. Stevan Harrell (Seattle: University of Washington Press); J. LaMomagne, "Improving the Education of China's National Minorities," in Education and Cultural Differences: New Perspectives, ed. D. Ray and D. H. Poonwassie (New York: Garland, 1991); Xie Qihuang et al., eds., Zhonggau minzu jiaoyu fcizhan zhanlüe jueze (Chosing a strategy for developing China's minority education) (Beijing: Zhongyang minzu xueyuan chubanshe, 1991) ; Wang Qihong et al., eds., Zhongguo bianjing minzu jiaoyu (Education of minority nationalities living in China's border areas) (Beijing: Zhongyang minzu xueyuan chubanshe, 1990); Sun Ruoqiong et al., eds., Zhongguo shaoshu minzu jiaoyuxue gailun (An introduction to the education of China's national minorities) (Beijing: Zhongyang minzu xueyuan chubanshe, 1990); Julia Kwong and Hong Xiao, "Educational Equality among China's Minorities," Comparative Education 25, no. 2 (1989): 229-43.
20. G. Postiglione, Ethnic Minority Education in China: Culture, Schooling and Development (New York: Garland, 1999), "National Minority Regions: Studying School Discontinuation," in The Ethnographic Eye: Ethnographic Research on Education in China, ed. J. Liu (New York: Garland, 1999), and "China's National Minorities and Educational Change," Journal of Contemporary Asia 22, no. 1 (1992): 20-44; and G. Postiglione, X. Teng, and Y. Ai, "Basic Education and School Discontinuation in National Minority Border Areas of China," in Social Change and Educational Development: Mainland China, Taiwan and Hong Kong, ed. G. Postiglione and W. O. Lee (Hong Kong: Centre of Asian Studies, 1996), pp. 186-206; Chapman and Postiglione; Yang Xiuming, Minzu jiaoyu de Yaolan (Cradle of training teachers for nationalities) (Guiyang: Guizhou Education Publishing House, 1996); W. Borchigud, "The Impact of Urban Ethnic Education on Modern Mongolian Ethnicity, 1949-1966," in Cultural Encounters on China's Ethnic frontiers, ed. Stevan Harrell (Seattle: University of Washington Press); J. LaMomagne, "Improving the Education of China's National Minorities," in Education and Cultural Differences: New Perspectives, ed. D. Ray and D. H. Poonwassie (New York: Garland, 1991); Xie Qihuang et al., eds., Zhonggau minzu jiaoyu fcizhan zhanlüe jueze (Chosing a strategy for developing China's minority education) (Beijing: Zhongyang minzu xueyuan chubanshe, 1991) ; Wang Qihong et al., eds., Zhongguo bianjing minzu jiaoyu (Education of minority nationalities living in China's border areas) (Beijing: Zhongyang minzu xueyuan chubanshe, 1990); Sun Ruoqiong et al., eds., Zhongguo shaoshu minzu jiaoyuxue gailun (An introduction to the education of China's national minorities) (Beijing: Zhongyang minzu xueyuan chubanshe, 1990); Julia Kwong and Hong Xiao, "Educational Equality among China's Minorities," Comparative Education 25, no. 2 (1989): 229-43.
21. G. Postiglione, Ethnic Minority Education in China: Culture, Schooling and Development (New York: Garland, 1999), "National Minority Regions: Studying School Discontinuation," in The Ethnographic Eye: Ethnographic Research on Education in China, ed. J. Liu (New York: Garland, 1999), and "China's National Minorities and Educational Change," Journal of Contemporary Asia 22, no. 1 (1992): 20-44; and G. Postiglione, X. Teng, and Y. Ai, "Basic Education and School Discontinuation in National Minority Border Areas of China," in Social Change and Educational Development: Mainland China, Taiwan and Hong Kong, ed. G. Postiglione and W. O. Lee (Hong Kong: Centre of Asian Studies, 1996), pp. 186-206; Chapman and Postiglione; Yang Xiuming, Minzu jiaoyu de Yaolan (Cradle of training teachers for nationalities) (Guiyang: Guizhou Education Publishing House, 1996); W. Borchigud, "The Impact of Urban Ethnic Education on Modern Mongolian Ethnicity, 1949-1966," in Cultural Encounters on China's Ethnic frontiers, ed. Stevan Harrell (Seattle: University of Washington Press); J. LaMomagne, "Improving the Education of China's National Minorities," in Education and Cultural Differences: New Perspectives, ed. D. Ray and D. H. Poonwassie (New York: Garland, 1991); Xie Qihuang et al., eds., Zhonggau minzu jiaoyu fcizhan zhanlüe jueze (Chosing a strategy for developing China's minority education) (Beijing: Zhongyang minzu xueyuan chubanshe, 1991) ; Wang Qihong et al., eds., Zhongguo bianjing minzu jiaoyu (Education of minority nationalities living in China's border areas) (Beijing: Zhongyang minzu xueyuan chubanshe, 1990); Sun Ruoqiong et al., eds., Zhongguo shaoshu minzu jiaoyuxue gailun (An introduction to the education of China's national minorities) (Beijing: Zhongyang minzu xueyuan chubanshe, 1990); Julia Kwong and Hong Xiao, "Educational Equality among China's Minorities," Comparative Education 25, no. 2 (1989): 229-43.
22. G. Postiglione, Ethnic Minority Education in China: Culture, Schooling and Development (New York: Garland, 1999), "National Minority Regions: Studying School Discontinuation," in The Ethnographic Eye: Ethnographic Research on Education in China, ed. J. Liu (New York: Garland, 1999), and "China's National Minorities and Educational Change," Journal of Contemporary Asia 22, no. 1 (1992): 20-44; and G. Postiglione, X. Teng, and Y. Ai, "Basic Education and School Discontinuation in National Minority Border Areas of China," in Social Change and Educational Development: Mainland China, Taiwan and Hong Kong, ed. G. Postiglione and W. O. Lee (Hong Kong: Centre of Asian Studies, 1996), pp. 186-206; Chapman and Postiglione; Yang Xiuming, Minzu jiaoyu de Yaolan (Cradle of training teachers for nationalities) (Guiyang: Guizhou Education Publishing House, 1996); W. Borchigud, "The Impact of Urban Ethnic Education on Modern Mongolian Ethnicity, 1949-1966," in Cultural Encounters on China's Ethnic frontiers, ed. Stevan Harrell (Seattle: University of Washington Press); J. LaMomagne, "Improving the Education of China's National Minorities," in Education and Cultural Differences: New Perspectives, ed. D. Ray and D. H. Poonwassie (New York: Garland, 1991); Xie Qihuang et al., eds., Zhonggau minzu jiaoyu fcizhan zhanlüe jueze (Chosing a strategy for developing China's minority education) (Beijing: Zhongyang minzu xueyuan chubanshe, 1991) ; Wang Qihong et al., eds., Zhongguo bianjing minzu jiaoyu (Education of minority nationalities living in China's border areas) (Beijing: Zhongyang minzu xueyuan chubanshe, 1990); Sun Ruoqiong et al., eds., Zhongguo shaoshu minzu jiaoyuxue gailun (An introduction to the education of China's national minorities) (Beijing: Zhongyang minzu xueyuan chubanshe, 1990); Julia Kwong and Hong Xiao, "Educational Equality among China's Minorities," Comparative Education 25, no. 2 (1989): 229-43.
23. G. Postiglione, Ethnic Minority Education in China: Culture, Schooling and Development (New York: Garland, 1999), "National Minority Regions: Studying School Discontinuation," in The Ethnographic Eye: Ethnographic Research on Education in China, ed. J. Liu (New York: Garland, 1999), and "China's National Minorities and Educational Change," Journal of Contemporary Asia 22, no. 1 (1992): 20-44; and G. Postiglione, X. Teng, and Y. Ai, "Basic Education and School Discontinuation in National Minority Border Areas of China," in Social Change and Educational Development: Mainland China, Taiwan and Hong Kong, ed. G. Postiglione and W. O. Lee (Hong Kong: Centre of Asian Studies, 1996), pp. 186-206; Chapman and Postiglione; Yang Xiuming, Minzu jiaoyu de Yaolan (Cradle of training teachers for nationalities) (Guiyang: Guizhou Education Publishing House, 1996); W. Borchigud, "The Impact of Urban Ethnic Education on Modern Mongolian Ethnicity, 1949-1966," in Cultural Encounters on China's Ethnic frontiers, ed. Stevan Harrell (Seattle: University of Washington Press); J. LaMomagne, "Improving the Education of China's National Minorities," in Education and Cultural Differences: New Perspectives, ed. D. Ray and D. H. Poonwassie (New York: Garland, 1991); Xie Qihuang et al., eds., Zhonggau minzu jiaoyu fcizhan zhanlüe jueze (Chosing a strategy for developing China's minority education) (Beijing: Zhongyang minzu xueyuan chubanshe, 1991) ; Wang Qihong et al., eds., Zhongguo bianjing minzu jiaoyu (Education of minority nationalities living in China's border areas) (Beijing: Zhongyang minzu xueyuan chubanshe, 1990); Sun Ruoqiong et al., eds., Zhongguo shaoshu minzu jiaoyuxue gailun (An introduction to the education of China's national minorities) (Beijing: Zhongyang minzu xueyuan chubanshe, 1990); Julia Kwong and Hong Xiao, "Educational Equality among China's Minorities," Comparative Education 25, no. 2 (1989): 229-43.
24. G. Postiglione, Ethnic Minority Education in China: Culture, Schooling and Development (New York: Garland, 1999), "National Minority Regions: Studying School Discontinuation," in The Ethnographic Eye: Ethnographic Research on Education in China, ed. J. Liu (New York: Garland, 1999), and "China's National Minorities and Educational Change," Journal of Contemporary Asia 22, no. 1 (1992): 20-44; and G. Postiglione, X. Teng, and Y. Ai, "Basic Education and School Discontinuation in National Minority Border Areas of China," in Social Change and Educational Development: Mainland China, Taiwan and Hong Kong, ed. G. Postiglione and W. O. Lee (Hong Kong: Centre of Asian Studies, 1996), pp. 186-206; Chapman and Postiglione; Yang Xiuming, Minzu jiaoyu de Yaolan (Cradle of training teachers for nationalities) (Guiyang: Guizhou Education Publishing House, 1996); W. Borchigud, "The Impact of Urban Ethnic Education on Modern Mongolian Ethnicity, 1949-1966," in Cultural Encounters on China's Ethnic frontiers, ed. Stevan Harrell (Seattle: University of Washington Press); J. LaMomagne, "Improving the Education of China's National Minorities," in Education and Cultural Differences: New Perspectives, ed. D. Ray and D. H. Poonwassie (New York: Garland, 1991); Xie Qihuang et al., eds., Zhonggau minzu jiaoyu fcizhan zhanlüe jueze (Chosing a strategy for developing China's minority education) (Beijing: Zhongyang minzu xueyuan chubanshe, 1991) ; Wang Qihong et al., eds., Zhongguo bianjing minzu jiaoyu (Education of minority nationalities living in China's border areas) (Beijing: Zhongyang minzu xueyuan chubanshe, 1990); Sun Ruoqiong et al., eds., Zhongguo shaoshu minzu jiaoyuxue gailun (An introduction to the education of China's national minorities) (Beijing: Zhongyang minzu xueyuan chubanshe, 1990); Julia Kwong and Hong Xiao, "Educational Equality among China's Minorities," Comparative Education 25, no. 2 (1989): 229-43.
25. B. Fuller, "What School Factors Raise Achievement in the Third World?" Review of Educational Research 57, no. 3 (1987): 255-92, and "What Investments Raise Achievement in the Third World?" in Improving Educational Quality: A Global Perspective, ed. D. Chapman and C. Carrier (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood, 1990), pp. 2-43.
26. B. Fuller, "What School Factors Raise Achievement in the Third World?" Review of Educational Research 57, no. 3 (1987): 255-92, and "What Investments Raise Achievement in the Third World?" in Improving Educational Quality: A Global Perspective, ed. D. Chapman and C. Carrier (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood, 1990), pp. 2-43.
27. Lockheed and Verspoor.
28. Chapman and Snyder, "Teachers' Beliefs about Effective Teaching" (n. 1 above); C. W. Snyder, Jr., "Affective Contexts of Schools as a Potential Indicator of Teacher Receptivity to Instructional Change and Teacher Worklife Quality," in Chapman and Carrier, eds. pp. 153-70.
29. Chapman and Snyder, "Teachers' Beliefs about Effective Teaching" (n. 1 above); C. W. Snyder, Jr., "Affective Contexts of Schools as a Potential Indicator of Teacher Receptivity to Instructional Change and Teacher Worklife Quality," in Chapman and Carrier, eds. pp. 153-70.
30. Snyder.
31. China's Ethnic Statistical Yearbook, 1996 (Beijing: Ethnic Publishing House, 1996).
32. G. Postiglione, "National Minorities and National Policies in China," in The National Question, ed. B. Berberoglu (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1995).
33. T. Heberer, China and Its National Minorities: Autonomy or Assimilation (New York: M. E. Sharpe, 1989); Ma, Yin, China's National Minorities (Beijing: Foreign Language Press, 1989).
34. T. Heberer, China and Its National Minorities: Autonomy or Assimilation (New York: M. E. Sharpe, 1989); Ma, Yin, China's National Minorities (Beijing: Foreign Language Press, 1989).
35. Educational Statistics Yearbook of China, 1997 (Beijing: People's Education Press, 1998), p. 6.
36. While this article uses official education data, readers are cautioned that there are widely recognized problems of data accuracy and meaning in national educational statistics in China, and the data cited may represent an overestimate of participation rates. Since the allocation of school resources is linked to enrollment, there is an incentive for school principals to inflate enrollment counts. Among other things, students are sometimes considered enrolled for the year even if they only attend a few days of class.
37. Xia Yue, "Pengbo fazhan xinxin xiangrong" (Development and prosperity), Zhonggou jiaoyu boo, (China education daily), August 18, 1997, p. 1.
38. G. Postiglione, "The Implications of Modernization for the Education of China's National Minorities," in his Education and Modernization: The Chinese Experience (London: Pergamon Press, 1992).
39. Yang.
40. Chapman and Postiglione (n. 7 above).
41. Ibid.
42. Ibid.; G. Fairbrother. "Qualily Education in 1996: Selections from China Education Daily," Chinese Education and Society 30, no. 6 (1996).
43. Ibid.; G. Fairbrother. "Qualily Education in 1996: Selections from China Education Daily," Chinese Education and Society 30, no. 6 (1996).
44. Fuller, "What School Factors," and "What Investments Raise Achievement" (both in n. 10 above); Chapman and Snyder, "Teachers' Beliefs about Effective Teaching" (n. 1 above). In China it is commonly accepted that student achievement is the responsibility of the student. Working hard is considered more relevant than intelligence. For example, in Guizhou Province, 86 percent of the teachers surveyed assigned more importance to hard work than to intelligence in accounting for student learning (Postiglione et al., 1998).
45. Fuller, "What School Factors," and "What Investments Raise Achievement" (both in n. 10 above); Chapman and Snyder, "Teachers' Beliefs about Effective Teaching" (n. 1 above). In China it is commonly accepted that student achievement is the responsibility of the student. Working hard is considered more relevant than intelligence. For example, in Guizhou Province, 86 percent of the teachers surveyed assigned more importance to hard work than to intelligence in accounting for student learning (Postiglione et al., 1998).
46. B. Fuller, D. Holsinger et al., Secondary Education in Developing Countries (Washington, D.C.: World Bank, 1993).
47. Wang, Haertel, and Walberg (n. 6 above); Fuller, "What School Factors," and "What Investments in Achievement."
48. See M. Bray, The Shadow Education System: Private Tutoring and Its Implications for Planners (Paris: International Institute for Educational Planning, 1999).
49. Ibid.
50. D. W. Chapman, C. W. Snyder, Jr., and S. Burchfield, "Teacher Incentives in the Third World," Teacher and Teacher Education 9, no. 3 (1993): 301-16.
51. Chapman and Postiglione.
52. R. Fuller, C. W. Snyder, Jr., D. W. Chapman, and H. Hua, "Explaining Variation in Teaching Practices: Effects of State Policy, Teacher Background, and Curricula in Southern Africa," Teaching and Teacher Education 10, no. 2 (1994): 141-56); Chapman, Snyder, and Burchfield; Anderson, Ryan, and Shapiro (n. 8 above).
53. R. Fuller, C. W. Snyder, Jr., D. W. Chapman, and H. Hua, "Explaining Variation in Teaching Practices: Effects of State Policy, Teacher Background, and Curricula in Southern Africa," Teaching and Teacher Education 10, no. 2 (1994): 141-56); Chapman, Snyder, and Burchfield; Anderson, Ryan, and Shapiro (n. 8 above).
54. Anderson, Ryan, and Shapiro.
55. Short-cycle normal training programs are run by nondegree-granting institutions called jiaoyu xueyuan (education institutes). These institutes are under the education department and usually have a variety of part-time teacher education courses for practicing teachers who want to upgrade their qualifications. A school teacher who never had any teacher training but had attained the academic standard necessary to teach in primary or secondary school would attend these education institutes.
56. Snyder (n. 12 above); Chapman and Snyder, "Teachers' Beliefs about Effective Teaching" (n. 1 above).
57. D. W. Chapman, "Improving Instructional Practice: The Teachers' Dilemma." chap. 14 in School Effectiveness and Learning Achievement at Primary Stage, ed. National Council of Research and Training (New Delhi: National Council of Research and Training, 1995), pp. 325-44.
58. P. D. Perry, D. W. Chapman, and C. W. Snyder, Jr., "Quality of Teacher Worklife and Classroom Practice in Botswana," International Journal of Educational Development 15, no. 2 (1995): 115-25; Fuller et al.
59. C. W. Snyder, Jr., and D. W. Chapman, "Strategic Planning in a Mess," working paper (Harvard Institute for International Development, Cambridge, Mass., 1999).
60. R. J. Shavelson, "Review of Research on Teachers' Pedagogical Judgments, Decisions, and Behavior," Elementary School Journal 83, no. 4 (1983): 392-413; R. J. Shavelson and P. Stern, "Research on Teachers' Pedagogical Thoughts, Judgments, Decisions, and Behavior," Review of Educational Research 51 (1981): 455-98; C. M. Clark and R. J. Yinger, "Teachers' Thinking," in Research on Teaching: Concepts, Findings, and Implications, ed. P. Peterson and H. J. Walberg (Berkeley, Calif.: McCutchan, 1979), pp. 231-63.
61. R. J. Shavelson, "Review of Research on Teachers' Pedagogical Judgments, Decisions, and Behavior," Elementary School Journal 83, no. 4 (1983): 392-413; R. J. Shavelson and P. Stern, "Research on Teachers' Pedagogical Thoughts, Judgments, Decisions, and Behavior," Review of Educational Research 51 (1981): 455-98; C. M. Clark and R. J. Yinger, "Teachers' Thinking," in Research on Teaching: Concepts, Findings, and Implications, ed. P. Peterson and H. J. Walberg (Berkeley, Calif.: McCutchan, 1979), pp. 231-63.
62. R. J. Shavelson, "Review of Research on Teachers' Pedagogical Judgments, Decisions, and Behavior," Elementary School Journal 83, no. 4 (1983): 392-413; R. J. Shavelson and P. Stern, "Research on Teachers' Pedagogical Thoughts, Judgments, Decisions, and Behavior," Review of Educational Research 51 (1981): 455-98; C. M. Clark and R. J. Yinger, "Teachers' Thinking," in Research on Teaching: Concepts, Findings, and Implications, ed. P. Peterson and H. J. Walberg (Berkeley, Calif.: McCutchan, 1979), pp. 231-63.