Complex households, a fading glory: Household formation during the collective period in the people's Republic of China

Journal of Family History

Volumn 25, Issue 4, 2000, Pages 527-544

  Wang, Danyu ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF WASHINGTON   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0034288141     PISSN: 03631990     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/036319900002500405     Document Type: Article

References (83)

1. Yi Zeng, Family Dynamics in China: A Life Table Analysis (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1991), 18-25.
2. Martin K. Whyte, Introduction: Rural Economic Reforms and Chinese Family Patterns (Symposium on Rural Family Change), "China Quarterly 130 (1992): 317-22.
3. Lynn E. Walter, "Who Are They? When Is Then? Comparison in Histories of the Western Family, "Journal of Comparative Family Studies 20 (1989): 159-73.
4. Deborah Davis and Stevan Harrell, "Introduction: The Impact of Post-Mao Reforms on Family Life, "in Chinese Families in the Post-Mao Era, ed. Deborah Davis and Stevan Harrell (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993), 1-24.
5. Maurice Freedman, introduction to Family and Kinship in Chinese Society, ed. Maurice Freedman (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1970); Myron L. Cohen, House United, House Divided: The Chinese Family in Taiwan (Columbia: Columbia University Press, 1976).
6. Maurice Freedman, introduction to Family and Kinship in Chinese Society, ed. Maurice Freedman (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1970); Myron L. Cohen, House United, House Divided: The Chinese Family in Taiwan (Columbia: Columbia University Press, 1976).
7. Edward Tu, Jersey Liang, and Shaomin Li, "Mortality Decline and Chinese Family Structure, "Journal of Gerontology 44 (1989): 157-68; Zeng, Family Dynamics in China, 18-25.
8. Edward Tu, Jersey Liang, and Shaomin Li, "Mortality Decline and Chinese Family Structure, "Journal of Gerontology 44 (1989): 157-68; Zeng, Family Dynamics in China, 18-25.
9. Davis and Harrell, "Introduction, "1-24.
10. Demographic data used in this article were collected from my 1997 survey of 315 couples born after 1930 in the village of Stone Mill (i.e., those age 67 or younger in 1997). The name of the village and informants' names are pseudonyms.
11. One mu = 667 square meters.
12. Stevan Harrell and Thomas W. Pullum, "Marriage, Mortality, and the Developmental Cycle in Three Chinese Village, "Chinese Historical Micro-Demography, ed. Stevan Harrell. (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995), 141-62; James Z. Lee and Jon Gjerde, "Comparative Household Morphology of Stem, Joint and Nuclear Household Systems: Norway, China, and the United States, "Continuity and Change 1, no. 1 (1986): 89-112; James Z. Lee and Cameron Campbell, Fate and Fortune in Rural China: Social Organization and Population Behavior in Liaoning, 1774-1873 (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1997); Arthur P. Wolf, "Family Life Cycle and Life Cycle in Rural China, "in Households, ed. Robert R. Wilk, Robert McC. Netting, and Eric J. Arnold (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1984), 279-98; Arthur P. Wolf and Chieh-shan Huang, Marriage and Adoption in China, 1845-1945 (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1980).
13. Stevan Harrell and Thomas W. Pullum, "Marriage, Mortality, and the Developmental Cycle in Three Chinese Village, "Chinese Historical Micro-Demography, ed. Stevan Harrell. (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995), 141-62; James Z. Lee and Jon Gjerde, "Comparative Household Morphology of Stem, Joint and Nuclear Household Systems: Norway, China, and the United States, "Continuity and Change 1, no. 1 (1986): 89-112; James Z. Lee and Cameron Campbell, Fate and Fortune in Rural China: Social Organization and Population Behavior in Liaoning, 1774-1873 (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1997); Arthur P. Wolf, "Family Life Cycle and Life Cycle in Rural China, "in Households, ed. Robert R. Wilk, Robert McC. Netting, and Eric J. Arnold (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1984), 279-98; Arthur P. Wolf and Chieh-shan Huang, Marriage and Adoption in China, 1845-1945 (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1980).
14. Stevan Harrell and Thomas W. Pullum, "Marriage, Mortality, and the Developmental Cycle in Three Chinese Village, "Chinese Historical Micro-Demography, ed. Stevan Harrell. (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995), 141-62; James Z. Lee and Jon Gjerde, "Comparative Household Morphology of Stem, Joint and Nuclear Household Systems: Norway, China, and the United States, "Continuity and Change 1, no. 1 (1986): 89-112; James Z. Lee and Cameron Campbell, Fate and Fortune in Rural China: Social Organization and Population Behavior in Liaoning, 1774-1873 (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1997); Arthur P. Wolf, "Family Life Cycle and Life Cycle in Rural China, "in Households, ed. Robert R. Wilk, Robert McC. Netting, and Eric J. Arnold (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1984), 279-98; Arthur P. Wolf and Chieh-shan Huang, Marriage and Adoption in China, 1845-1945 (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1980).
15. Stevan Harrell and Thomas W. Pullum, "Marriage, Mortality, and the Developmental Cycle in Three Chinese Village, "Chinese Historical Micro-Demography, ed. Stevan Harrell. (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995), 141-62; James Z. Lee and Jon Gjerde, "Comparative Household Morphology of Stem, Joint and Nuclear Household Systems: Norway, China, and the United States, "Continuity and Change 1, no. 1 (1986): 89-112; James Z. Lee and Cameron Campbell, Fate and Fortune in Rural China: Social Organization and Population Behavior in Liaoning, 1774-1873 (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1997); Arthur P. Wolf, "Family Life Cycle and Life Cycle in Rural China, "in Households, ed. Robert R. Wilk, Robert McC. Netting, and Eric J. Arnold (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1984), 279-98; Arthur P. Wolf and Chieh-shan Huang, Marriage and Adoption in China, 1845-1945 (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1980).
16. Stevan Harrell and Thomas W. Pullum, "Marriage, Mortality, and the Developmental Cycle in Three Chinese Village, "Chinese Historical Micro-Demography, ed. Stevan Harrell. (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995), 141-62; James Z. Lee and Jon Gjerde, "Comparative Household Morphology of Stem, Joint and Nuclear Household Systems: Norway, China, and the United States, "Continuity and Change 1, no. 1 (1986): 89-112; James Z. Lee and Cameron Campbell, Fate and Fortune in Rural China: Social Organization and Population Behavior in Liaoning, 1774-1873 (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1997); Arthur P. Wolf, "Family Life Cycle and Life Cycle in Rural China, "in Households, ed. Robert R. Wilk, Robert McC. Netting, and Eric J. Arnold (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1984), 279-98; Arthur P. Wolf and Chieh-shan Huang, Marriage and Adoption in China, 1845-1945 (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1980).
17. Harrell and Pullum, "Marriage, Mortality, "141; Wolf, "Family Life Cycle."
18. Harrell and Pullum, "Marriage, Mortality, "141; Wolf, "Family Life Cycle."
19. Fuxian Xaingtu Zhi [Fu County Folk History], reserved in Wafangdian archival library.
20. Danyu Wang, "Flying from the Nest: The Household Formation in a Village in Northeastern China" (Ph.D. diss., Brown University, 1999), chap. 3.
21. Studies have discussed factors influencing the maintenance of a large complex household. For the impact of family status, see Xiaotong Fei, Peasant Life in China (London: Routledge and Kagan Paul, 1939), and Marion Levy, The Family Revolution in Modern China (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1949); for the impact of household economic activities, see Cohen, House United, House Divided, and Burton Pasternak, Kinship and Community in Two Chinese Villages (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1972); for the impact of family politics and conflicts, see Cohen, House United, House Divided; Maurice Freedman, Chinese Lineage and Society: Fukien and Kwangtung (London: Athlone, 1966); and Margery Wolf, The House of Lim (New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1968). For the impact of the social norm, see Emily Martin Ahern, The Cult of the Dead in a Chinese Village (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1973).
22. Studies have discussed factors influencing the maintenance of a large complex household. For the impact of family status, see Xiaotong Fei, Peasant Life in China (London: Routledge and Kagan Paul, 1939), and Marion Levy, The Family Revolution in Modern China (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1949); for the impact of household economic activities, see Cohen, House United, House Divided, and Burton Pasternak, Kinship and Community in Two Chinese Villages (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1972); for the impact of family politics and conflicts, see Cohen, House United, House Divided; Maurice Freedman, Chinese Lineage and Society: Fukien and Kwangtung (London: Athlone, 1966); and Margery Wolf, The House of Lim (New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1968). For the impact of the social norm, see Emily Martin Ahern, The Cult of the Dead in a Chinese Village (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1973).
23. Studies have discussed factors influencing the maintenance of a large complex household. For the impact of family status, see Xiaotong Fei, Peasant Life in China (London: Routledge and Kagan Paul, 1939), and Marion Levy, The Family Revolution in Modern China (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1949); for the impact of household economic activities, see Cohen, House United, House Divided, and Burton Pasternak, Kinship and Community in Two Chinese Villages (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1972); for the impact of family politics and conflicts, see Cohen, House United, House Divided; Maurice Freedman, Chinese Lineage and Society: Fukien and Kwangtung (London: Athlone, 1966); and Margery Wolf, The House of Lim (New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1968). For the impact of the social norm, see Emily Martin Ahern, The Cult of the Dead in a Chinese Village (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1973).
24. Studies have discussed factors influencing the maintenance of a large complex household. For the impact of family status, see Xiaotong Fei, Peasant Life in China (London: Routledge and Kagan Paul, 1939), and Marion Levy, The Family Revolution in Modern China (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1949); for the impact of household economic activities, see Cohen, House United, House Divided, and Burton Pasternak, Kinship and Community in Two Chinese Villages (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1972); for the impact of family politics and conflicts, see Cohen, House United, House Divided; Maurice Freedman, Chinese Lineage and Society: Fukien and Kwangtung (London: Athlone, 1966); and Margery Wolf, The House of Lim (New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1968). For the impact of the social norm, see Emily Martin Ahern, The Cult of the Dead in a Chinese Village (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1973).
25. Studies have discussed factors influencing the maintenance of a large complex household. For the impact of family status, see Xiaotong Fei, Peasant Life in China (London: Routledge and Kagan Paul, 1939), and Marion Levy, The Family Revolution in Modern China (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1949); for the impact of household economic activities, see Cohen, House United, House Divided, and Burton Pasternak, Kinship and Community in Two Chinese Villages (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1972); for the impact of family politics and conflicts, see Cohen, House United, House Divided; Maurice Freedman, Chinese Lineage and Society: Fukien and Kwangtung (London: Athlone, 1966); and Margery Wolf, The House of Lim (New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1968). For the impact of the social norm, see Emily Martin Ahern, The Cult of the Dead in a Chinese Village (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1973).
26. Studies have discussed factors influencing the maintenance of a large complex household. For the impact of family status, see Xiaotong Fei, Peasant Life in China (London: Routledge and Kagan Paul, 1939), and Marion Levy, The Family Revolution in Modern China (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1949); for the impact of household economic activities, see Cohen, House United, House Divided, and Burton Pasternak, Kinship and Community in Two Chinese Villages (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1972); for the impact of family politics and conflicts, see Cohen, House United, House Divided; Maurice Freedman, Chinese Lineage and Society: Fukien and Kwangtung (London: Athlone, 1966); and Margery Wolf, The House of Lim (New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1968). For the impact of the social norm, see Emily Martin Ahern, The Cult of the Dead in a Chinese Village (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1973).
27. Studies have discussed factors influencing the maintenance of a large complex household. For the impact of family status, see Xiaotong Fei, Peasant Life in China (London: Routledge and Kagan Paul, 1939), and Marion Levy, The Family Revolution in Modern China (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1949); for the impact of household economic activities, see Cohen, House United, House Divided, and Burton Pasternak, Kinship and Community in Two Chinese Villages (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1972); for the impact of family politics and conflicts, see Cohen, House United, House Divided; Maurice Freedman, Chinese Lineage and Society: Fukien and Kwangtung (London: Athlone, 1966); and Margery Wolf, The House of Lim (New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1968). For the impact of the social norm, see Emily Martin Ahern, The Cult of the Dead in a Chinese Village (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1973).
28. Studies have discussed factors influencing the maintenance of a large complex household. For the impact of family status, see Xiaotong Fei, Peasant Life in China (London: Routledge and Kagan Paul, 1939), and Marion Levy, The Family Revolution in Modern China (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1949); for the impact of household economic activities, see Cohen, House United, House Divided, and Burton Pasternak, Kinship and Community in Two Chinese Villages (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1972); for the impact of family politics and conflicts, see Cohen, House United, House Divided; Maurice Freedman, Chinese Lineage and Society: Fukien and Kwangtung (London: Athlone, 1966); and Margery Wolf, The House of Lim (New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1968). For the impact of the social norm, see Emily Martin Ahern, The Cult of the Dead in a Chinese Village (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1973).
29. Wang, "Flying from the Nest, "chap. 3.
30. Women were physically and culturally excluded from being able to participate in agricultural production due to the foot-binding practice as well as the gender division of labor that confined women to inside work or housework.
31. William L. Parish and Martin K. Whyte, Village and Family in Contemporary China (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1978); William R. Lavely and Xinhua Ren, "Patrilocality and Early Marital Co-residence in Rural China: 1955-85, "China Quarterly 130 (1992): 378-91.
32. William L. Parish and Martin K. Whyte, Village and Family in Contemporary China (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1978); William R. Lavely and Xinhua Ren, "Patrilocality and Early Marital Co-residence in Rural China: 1955-85, "China Quarterly 130 (1992): 378-91.
33. Among 302 valid cases for household division variables (among 315 couples surveyed), 35 couples never coresided, due to the absence of parents-in-law at the time of their marriage (e.g., parents-in-law did not live in the village or were deceased at the time of their marriage); 10 couples never divided the household; and 12 couples had not divided the household yet. Given that there were only 12 censored cases (i.e., 12 couples had not divided the household at the time the survey was conducted), statistics on the duration of coresidence do not include these 12 cases. Those who never coresided are also not included in the statistics on the duration of coresidence.
34. This gradual transition provided villagers familial adaptation and acceptance to early household division such that early household division had promptly become a widespread customary arrangement as Stone Mill entered the era of rural reform in the 1980s (see Figure 1). See Wang, "Flying from the Nest."
35. Zeng, Family Dynamics in China, 18-25.
36. See Yunxiang Yan, The Flow of Gift (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1996); Myron L. Cohen, "Family Management and Family Division in Contemporary Rural China, "China Quarterly 130 (1992): 357-77; Ellen R. Judd, Gender and Power in Rural China (Stan" ford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1994); Kay Ann Johnson, Women, the Family, and Peasant Revolution in China (Chicago: Chicago University Press, 1983); Parish and Whyte, Village and Family in Contemporary China; and Sulamith Heins Potter and Jack M. Potter, China's Peasants: The Anthropology of a Revolution (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1990).
37. See Yunxiang Yan, The Flow of Gift (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1996); Myron L. Cohen, "Family Management and Family Division in Contemporary Rural China, "China Quarterly 130 (1992): 357-77; Ellen R. Judd, Gender and Power in Rural China (Stan" ford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1994); Kay Ann Johnson, Women, the Family, and Peasant Revolution in China (Chicago: Chicago University Press, 1983); Parish and Whyte, Village and Family in Contemporary China; and Sulamith Heins Potter and Jack M. Potter, China's Peasants: The Anthropology of a Revolution (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1990).
38. See Yunxiang Yan, The Flow of Gift (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1996); Myron L. Cohen, "Family Management and Family Division in Contemporary Rural China, "China Quarterly 130 (1992): 357-77; Ellen R. Judd, Gender and Power in Rural China (Stan" ford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1994); Kay Ann Johnson, Women, the Family, and Peasant Revolution in China (Chicago: Chicago University Press, 1983); Parish and Whyte, Village and Family in Contemporary China; and Sulamith Heins Potter and Jack M. Potter, China's Peasants: The Anthropology of a Revolution (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1990).
39. See Yunxiang Yan, The Flow of Gift (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1996); Myron L. Cohen, "Family Management and Family Division in Contemporary Rural China, "China Quarterly 130 (1992): 357-77; Ellen R. Judd, Gender and Power in Rural China (Stan" ford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1994); Kay Ann Johnson, Women, the Family, and Peasant Revolution in China (Chicago: Chicago University Press, 1983); Parish and Whyte, Village and Family in Contemporary China; and Sulamith Heins Potter and Jack M. Potter, China's Peasants: The Anthropology of a Revolution (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1990).
40. See Yunxiang Yan, The Flow of Gift (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1996); Myron L. Cohen, "Family Management and Family Division in Contemporary Rural China, "China Quarterly 130 (1992): 357-77; Ellen R. Judd, Gender and Power in Rural China (Stan" ford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1994); Kay Ann Johnson, Women, the Family, and Peasant Revolution in China (Chicago: Chicago University Press, 1983); Parish and Whyte, Village and Family in Contemporary China; and Sulamith Heins Potter and Jack M. Potter, China's Peasants: The Anthropology of a Revolution (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1990).
41. See Yunxiang Yan, The Flow of Gift (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1996); Myron L. Cohen, "Family Management and Family Division in Contemporary Rural China, "China Quarterly 130 (1992): 357-77; Ellen R. Judd, Gender and Power in Rural China (Stan" ford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1994); Kay Ann Johnson, Women, the Family, and Peasant Revolution in China (Chicago: Chicago University Press, 1983); Parish and Whyte, Village and Family in Contemporary China; and Sulamith Heins Potter and Jack M. Potter, China's Peasants: The Anthropology of a Revolution (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1990).
42. The term serial division was first used by Cohen in "Family Management."
43. Except for a few marrying-in sons-in-law (shangmen nuxu), patrilineal, patrilocal marriage is the predominant marriage form in the village and therefore the subject of this article. In this article, unless otherwise noted, parents refers to the husband's parents, parental household refers to the husband's parents' household, and so on.
44. The low standard (di biao zhun) is the local phrase for the famine of 1959-1961. In that period, each person was allocated only 3 liang (150 grams) of grain per day.
45. Computed from statistics on the number of rural households by year. Fu County Statistical Bureau (Wafangdian Statistical Bureau; hereafter, WSB), Fu Xian Guominjingji Tongjiziliao, 1949-79 [Fu County Economics Statistics, 1949-79] (Wafangdian: WSB, 1981); WSB, Wafangdian Guominjingji he Shehuifazhan Tongjiziliao, 1980-85 [Wafangdian Economic and Social Development Statistics, 1980-85] (Wafangdian: WSB, 1987); WSB, Wafangdian Guominjingji he Shehuifazhan Tongjiziliao, 1986-90 [Wafangdian Economics and Social Development Statistics, 1986-90] (Wafangdian: WSB, 1991). WSB, Wafangdian Guominjingji he Shehuifazhan Tongjiziliao, 1991-95 [Wafangdian Economics and Social Development Statistics, 1991-95] (Wafangdian: WSB, 1996).
46. Computed from statistics on the number of rural households by year. Fu County Statistical Bureau (Wafangdian Statistical Bureau; hereafter, WSB), Fu Xian Guominjingji Tongjiziliao, 1949-79 [Fu County Economics Statistics, 1949-79] (Wafangdian: WSB, 1981); WSB, Wafangdian Guominjingji he Shehuifazhan Tongjiziliao, 1980-85 [Wafangdian Economic and Social Development Statistics, 1980-85] (Wafangdian: WSB, 1987); WSB, Wafangdian Guominjingji he Shehuifazhan Tongjiziliao, 1986-90 [Wafangdian Economics and Social Development Statistics, 1986-90] (Wafangdian: WSB, 1991). WSB, Wafangdian Guominjingji he Shehuifazhan Tongjiziliao, 1991-95 [Wafangdian Economics and Social Development Statistics, 1991-95] (Wafangdian: WSB, 1996).
47. Computed from statistics on the number of rural households by year. Fu County Statistical Bureau (Wafangdian Statistical Bureau; hereafter, WSB), Fu Xian Guominjingji Tongjiziliao, 1949-79 [Fu County Economics Statistics, 1949-79] (Wafangdian: WSB, 1981); WSB, Wafangdian Guominjingji he Shehuifazhan Tongjiziliao, 1980-85 [Wafangdian Economic and Social Development Statistics, 1980-85] (Wafangdian: WSB, 1987); WSB, Wafangdian Guominjingji he Shehuifazhan Tongjiziliao, 1986-90 [Wafangdian Economics and Social Development Statistics, 1986-90] (Wafangdian: WSB, 1991). WSB, Wafangdian Guominjingji he Shehuifazhan Tongjiziliao, 1991-95 [Wafangdian Economics and Social Development Statistics, 1991-95] (Wafangdian: WSB, 1996).
48. Computed from statistics on the number of rural households by year. Fu County Statistical Bureau (Wafangdian Statistical Bureau; hereafter, WSB), Fu Xian Guominjingji Tongjiziliao, 1949-79 [Fu County Economics Statistics, 1949-79] (Wafangdian: WSB, 1981); WSB, Wafangdian Guominjingji he Shehuifazhan Tongjiziliao, 1980-85 [Wafangdian Economic and Social Development Statistics, 1980-85] (Wafangdian: WSB, 1987); WSB, Wafangdian Guominjingji he Shehuifazhan Tongjiziliao, 1986-90 [Wafangdian Economics and Social Development Statistics, 1986-90] (Wafangdian: WSB, 1991). WSB, Wafangdian Guominjingji he Shehuifazhan Tongjiziliao, 1991-95 [Wafangdian Economics and Social Development Statistics, 1991-95] (Wafangdian: WSB, 1996).
49. Among other factors, migration is a contributor to the yearly change in the number of households. In the collective period, migration contributed to more than 3 percent of the increase or decrease in the number of households in the county. There is a large increase in the number of households in the period 1968-1970; however, in my interviews, this period did not occur to the villagers as a time in which many households divided. This rise in the number of households may be due to the effect of the cultural revolution, in which some city residents were sent (xiafang) to the countryside for reeducation (zaijiayu).
50. Zedong Mao, "Zhongguo Shehui Ge Jieji De Fenxi" [An Analysis of Classes in Chinese Society], in Mao Zedong Xuanji [A Collection of Mao Zedong's Writings] (1926; reprint, Beijing: People's Press, 1964), 3-11. Zedong Mao, "Zenyang Fenxi Nongcun Jieji" [How to Analyze Rural Classes], in Mao Zedong Xuanji, 113-15.
51. Zedong Mao, "Zhongguo Shehui Ge Jieji De Fenxi" [An Analysis of Classes in Chinese Society], in Mao Zedong Xuanji [A Collection of Mao Zedong's Writings] (1926; reprint, Beijing: People's Press, 1964), 3-11. Zedong Mao, "Zenyang Fenxi Nongcun Jieji" [How to Analyze Rural Classes], in Mao Zedong Xuanji, 113-15.
52. See Edward Friedman, Paul G. Pickowicz, and Mark Selden, with Kay A. Johnson, Chinese Village, Socialist State (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 80-110), and Shu-min Huang, The Spiral Road: Change in a Chinese Village through the Eyes of a Communist Party Leader (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1989), 38-42.
53. See Edward Friedman, Paul G. Pickowicz, and Mark Selden, with Kay A. Johnson, Chinese Village, Socialist State (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 80-110), and Shu-min Huang, The Spiral Road: Change in a Chinese Village through the Eyes of a Communist Party Leader (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1989), 38-42.
54. The criterion for class categorization is the exploitation ratio rather than the absolute amount of household property, particularly land. On the other hand, in the land reform movement, a proportion of landlords and rich peasants equaling 10 percent to 15 percent was expected by the state. Fewer than 10 percent of households in Stone Mill were at the level of the exploitation classes; therefore, households that owned some land and had hired laborers were at risk of being classified by officials into the exploitation classes in order to meet the required class composition.
55. See Anita Chan, Richard Madsen, and Jonathan Unger, Chen Village under Mao and Deng (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992); Friedman et al., Chinese Village, Socialist State; Parish and Whyte, Village and Family in Contemporary China; Potter and Potter, China's Peasants.
56. See Anita Chan, Richard Madsen, and Jonathan Unger, Chen Village under Mao and Deng (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992); Friedman et al., Chinese Village, Socialist State; Parish and Whyte, Village and Family in Contemporary China; Potter and Potter, China's Peasants.
57. See Anita Chan, Richard Madsen, and Jonathan Unger, Chen Village under Mao and Deng (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992); Friedman et al., Chinese Village, Socialist State; Parish and Whyte, Village and Family in Contemporary China; Potter and Potter, China's Peasants.
58. See Anita Chan, Richard Madsen, and Jonathan Unger, Chen Village under Mao and Deng (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992); Friedman et al., Chinese Village, Socialist State; Parish and Whyte, Village and Family in Contemporary China; Potter and Potter, China's Peasants.
59. Friedman et al., Chinese Village, Socialist State, 80-110; Huang, Spiral Road, 42-49.
60. Friedman et al., Chinese Village, Socialist State, 80-110; Huang, Spiral Road, 42-49.
61. In Stone Mill, a man who had only one son and hired laborers after the division of the household was labeled a rich peasant, whereas his other brothers were classified as middle peasants.
62. Hengguo Chen and Jizhen Liu, Wafangdian Xianzhi [Wafangdian Annals] (Dalian: Dalian Press, 1994).
63. See Cohen, House United, House Divided.
64. After the late 1960s, one's class identity became a important factor. Those who were considered to be part of the exploitation classes were usually assigned low-paid tasks and tended to be paid less than others.
65. See Wang, "Flying from the Nest, "chaps. 3 and 4.
66. See Basil Ashton, Kenneth Hill, Alan Piazza, and Robin Zeitz, "Famine in China, 1958-61, "Population and Development Review 10, no. 4 (1984): 613-45, and Penny Kane, Famine in China, 1959: Demographic and Social Implications (New York: St. Martin's, 1988).
67. See Basil Ashton, Kenneth Hill, Alan Piazza, and Robin Zeitz, "Famine in China, 1958-61, "Population and Development Review 10, no. 4 (1984): 613-45, and Penny Kane, Famine in China, 1959: Demographic and Social Implications (New York: St. Martin's, 1988).
68. See Philip C. C. Huang, The Peasant Family and Rural Development in the Yangzi Delta, 1350-1988 (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1990), and Louis Putterman, Continuity and Change in China's Rural Development: Collective and Reform Eras in Perspective (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993).
69. See Philip C. C. Huang, The Peasant Family and Rural Development in the Yangzi Delta, 1350-1988 (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1990), and Louis Putterman, Continuity and Change in China's Rural Development: Collective and Reform Eras in Perspective (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993).
70. In the local tradition, visiting the jia (kanjia) (i.e., seeing the young man's family) is a part of the engagement process, which allows a woman and her family (nufang, the woman's side) to learn about the man's (nanfang, the man's side) family economic condition, the family's preparation for his marriage, and relationships between family members (jiating guanxi). In the period of the People's Republic of China, a woman is accompanied by her family members (e.g., parents, brothers, sisters-in-law, aunts) when visiting the man's family.
71. See The Marriage Law of the People's Republic of China with Explanatory Materials [1950] (Beijing: Foreign Languages Press, 1982); The Marriage Law of the People's Republic of China with Explanatory Materials [1980] (Beijing: Foreign Languages Press, 1982).
72. See The Marriage Law of the People's Republic of China with Explanatory Materials [1950] (Beijing: Foreign Languages Press, 1982); The Marriage Law of the People's Republic of China with Explanatory Materials [1980] (Beijing: Foreign Languages Press, 1982).
73. Arlene Skolnick, "Changes of Heart: Family Dynamics in Historical Perspective" in Family, Self, and Society: Toward a New Agenda for Family Research, ed. D. F. Philip, A. Cowan, Donald A. Hansen, Arlene Skolnick, and Guy E. Swanson (Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum, 1993), 43-68.
74. See Freedman, Chinese Lineage and Society; Judd, Gender and Power in Rural China; Wolf, House of Lim; Haiou Yang and David Chandler, "Intergenerational Relations: Grievances of the Elderly in Rural China, "Journal of Comparative Family Studies 23, no. 3 (1992): 431-54.
75. See Freedman, Chinese Lineage and Society; Judd, Gender and Power in Rural China; Wolf, House of Lim; Haiou Yang and David Chandler, "Intergenerational Relations: Grievances of the Elderly in Rural China, "Journal of Comparative Family Studies 23, no. 3 (1992): 431-54.
76. See Freedman, Chinese Lineage and Society; Judd, Gender and Power in Rural China; Wolf, House of Lim; Haiou Yang and David Chandler, "Intergenerational Relations: Grievances of the Elderly in Rural China, "Journal of Comparative Family Studies 23, no. 3 (1992): 431-54.
77. See Freedman, Chinese Lineage and Society; Judd, Gender and Power in Rural China; Wolf, House of Lim; Haiou Yang and David Chandler, "Intergenerational Relations: Grievances of the Elderly in Rural China, "Journal of Comparative Family Studies 23, no. 3 (1992): 431-54.
78. An old folk saying features a daughter-in-law's aspiration for her own household: Standing by my stove, Getting hold of my cooking scoop. Even if I am poor, and even if I have to drink cold water, I still feel good.
79. Parish and Whyte, Village and Family in Contemporary China, 131-38.
80. See Cohen, "Family Management"; Potter and Potter, China's Peasants, 219; Van, Flow of Gift, 196.
81. See Cohen, "Family Management"; Potter and Potter, China's Peasants, 219; Van, Flow of Gift, 196.
82. See Cohen, "Family Management"; Potter and Potter, China's Peasants, 219; Yan, Flow of Gift, 196.
83. Wang, "Flying from the Nest."