The disease of the self: Representing consumption, 1700-1830

Bulletin of the History of Medicine

Volumn 74, Issue 3, 2000, Pages 458-494

  Lawlor, Clark ^a   Suzuki, Akihito ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ARTICLE; ATTITUDE TO HEALTH; CULTURAL ANTHROPOLOGY; EUROPE; FEMALE; HISTORY; HUMAN; LITERATURE; LUNG TUBERCULOSIS; MALE; PSYCHOLOGICAL ASPECT;

ATTITUDE TO HEALTH; CULTURE; EUROPE; FEMALE; HISTORY, 18TH CENTURY; HISTORY, 19TH CENTURY; HUMANS; LITERATURE, MODERN; MALE; MEDICINE IN LITERATURE; TUBERCULOSIS, PULMONARY;

EID: 0034267813     PISSN: 00075140     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1353/bhm.2000.0130     Document Type: Review

References (206)

1. Susan Sontag, Illness as Metaphor (New York: Vintage Books, 1979), p. 66.
2. The question of the separation of the Other is investigated by Michel Foucault in his early work, Histoire de la folie à l'âge classique, 2d ed. (Paris: Gallimard, 1972), while the problem of the Self is examined in his later work: notably in The History of Sexuality 2: The Use of Pleasure, trans. Robert Hurley (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1988), and The History of Sexuality 3: The Care of the Self, trans. Robert Hurley (London: Penguin, 1990). For a recent overview of the history of the self, see Roy Porter, ed., Rewriting the Self: Histories from the Renaissance to the Present (London: Routledge, 1997), pp. 2-12.
3. The question of the separation of the Other is investigated by Michel Foucault in his early work, Histoire de la folie à l'âge classique, 2d ed. (Paris: Gallimard, 1972), while the problem of the Self is examined in his later work: notably in The History of Sexuality 2: The Use of Pleasure, trans. Robert Hurley (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1988), and The History of Sexuality 3: The Care of the Self, trans. Robert Hurley (London: Penguin, 1990). For a recent overview of the history of the self, see Roy Porter, ed., Rewriting the Self: Histories from the Renaissance to the Present (London: Routledge, 1997), pp. 2-12.
4. The question of the separation of the Other is investigated by Michel Foucault in his early work, Histoire de la folie à l'âge classique, 2d ed. (Paris: Gallimard, 1972), while the problem of the Self is examined in his later work: notably in The History of Sexuality 2: The Use of Pleasure, trans. Robert Hurley (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1988), and The History of Sexuality 3: The Care of the Self, trans. Robert Hurley (London: Penguin, 1990). For a recent overview of the history of the self, see Roy Porter, ed., Rewriting the Self: Histories from the Renaissance to the Present (London: Routledge, 1997), pp. 2-12.
5. The question of the separation of the Other is investigated by Michel Foucault in his early work, Histoire de la folie à l'âge classique, 2d ed. (Paris: Gallimard, 1972), while the problem of the Self is examined in his later work: notably in The History of Sexuality 2: The Use of Pleasure, trans. Robert Hurley (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1988), and The History of Sexuality 3: The Care of the Self, trans. Robert Hurley (London: Penguin, 1990). For a recent overview of the history of the self, see Roy Porter, ed., Rewriting the Self: Histories from the Renaissance to the Present (London: Routledge, 1997), pp. 2-12.
6. Sander L. Gilman, Disease and Representation: Images of Illness from Madness to AIDS (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1988); idem, Difference and Pathology: Stereotypes of Sexuality, Race, and Madness (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1985).
7. Sander L. Gilman, Disease and Representation: Images of Illness from Madness to AIDS (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1988); idem, Difference and Pathology: Stereotypes of Sexuality, Race, and Madness (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1985).
8. Classic and recent studies of these diseases include Colin Jones, "Plague and Its Metaphors in Early Modern France," Representations, 1996, 53: 97-127; Charles E. Rosenberg, The Cholera Years: The United States in 1832, 1849, and 1866 (Chicago: Chicago University Press, 1987); Paul Slack, The Impact of Plague in Tudor and Stuart England (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1985).
9. Classic and recent studies of these diseases include Colin Jones, "Plague and Its Metaphors in Early Modern France," Representations, 1996, 53: 97-127; Charles E. Rosenberg, The Cholera Years: The United States in 1832, 1849, and 1866 (Chicago: Chicago University Press, 1987); Paul Slack, The Impact of Plague in Tudor and Stuart England (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1985).
10. Classic and recent studies of these diseases include Colin Jones, "Plague and Its Metaphors in Early Modern France," Representations, 1996, 53: 97-127; Charles E. Rosenberg, The Cholera Years: The United States in 1832, 1849, and 1866 (Chicago: Chicago University Press, 1987); Paul Slack, The Impact of Plague in Tudor and Stuart England (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1985).
11. See George Cheyne, The English Malady: Or, a Treatise of Nervous Diseases of All Kinds (London: G. Strahan, 1733; rept. with introduction by Roy Porter, London: Tavistock/ Routledge, 1991). For the gout, see Roy Porter and G. S. Rousseau, Gout: The Patrician Malady (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1998); Lawrence Rothfield, "'Gout as Metaphor,'" in idem, Art, History, and Antiquity of Rheumatic Diseases (Brussels: Elsevier and the Erasmus Foundation, 1987), pp. 68-71.
12. See George Cheyne, The English Malady: Or, a Treatise of Nervous Diseases of All Kinds (London: G. Strahan, 1733; rept. with introduction by Roy Porter, London: Tavistock/ Routledge, 1991). For the gout, see Roy Porter and G. S. Rousseau, Gout: The Patrician Malady (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1998); Lawrence Rothfield, "'Gout as Metaphor,'" in idem, Art, History, and Antiquity of Rheumatic Diseases (Brussels: Elsevier and the Erasmus Foundation, 1987), pp. 68-71.
13. See George Cheyne, The English Malady: Or, a Treatise of Nervous Diseases of All Kinds (London: G. Strahan, 1733; rept. with introduction by Roy Porter, London: Tavistock/ Routledge, 1991). For the gout, see Roy Porter and G. S. Rousseau, Gout: The Patrician Malady (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1998); Lawrence Rothfield, "'Gout as Metaphor,'" in idem, Art, History, and Antiquity of Rheumatic Diseases (Brussels: Elsevier and the Erasmus Foundation, 1987), pp. 68-71.
14. René Dubos and Jean Dubos, The White Plague: Tuberculosis, Man, and Society (New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press, 1987).
15. This expression was commonly used to refer to consumption in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries.
16. See, for instance, Sontag, Illness as Metaphor (n. 1), pp. 11-16.
17. In this paper, our primary concern is with cultural perceptions of consumption: hence we will not be concentrating on the actual incidence of the disease, although there is much to be said on this interesting subject.
18. Claudine Herzlich and Janine Pierret, Illness and Self in Society, trans. Elborg Forster (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1987), p. 24.
19. Consumption was not one specific disease, but a number of conditions, any one of which could result in wasting of the lungs: hence one has titles of studies such as Sir Richard Blackmore's A Treatise of Consumptions and Other Distempers Belonging to the Breast and Lungs, 2d ed., corrected (London: John Pemberton, 1725)-not a singular treatise on consumption. Blackmore points out that although consumption is used to denote any wasting condition in its popular sense, for medical practitioners in the past it must signify the lungs in particular. A typical nineteenth-century view of the progress of the study of consumption is expressed in Edward Smith, Consumption: Its Early and Remediable Stages (London: Walton and Maberly, 1862), p. 4. For good summaries of medical theories from classical medicine, see Lester S. King, "Consumption: The Story of a Disease," in idem, Medical Thinking: A Historical Preface (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1982), pp. 16-69 ; Walter Pagel, "Humoral Pathology: A Lingering Anachronism in the History of Tuberculosis," Bull. Hist. Med., 1955, 29:299-308.
20. Consumption was not one specific disease, but a number of conditions, any one of which could result in wasting of the lungs: hence one has titles of studies such as Sir Richard Blackmore's A Treatise of Consumptions and Other Distempers Belonging to the Breast and Lungs, 2d ed., corrected (London: John Pemberton, 1725)-not a singular treatise on consumption. Blackmore points out that although consumption is used to denote any wasting condition in its popular sense, for medical practitioners in the past it must signify the lungs in particular. A typical nineteenth-century view of the progress of the study of consumption is expressed in Edward Smith, Consumption: Its Early and Remediable Stages (London: Walton and Maberly, 1862), p. 4. For good summaries of medical theories from classical medicine, see Lester S. King, "Consumption: The Story of a Disease," in idem, Medical Thinking: A Historical Preface (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1982), pp. 16-69 ; Walter Pagel, "Humoral Pathology: A Lingering Anachronism in the History of Tuberculosis," Bull. Hist. Med., 1955, 29:299-308.
21. Consumption was not one specific disease, but a number of conditions, any one of which could result in wasting of the lungs: hence one has titles of studies such as Sir Richard Blackmore's A Treatise of Consumptions and Other Distempers Belonging to the Breast and Lungs, 2d ed., corrected (London: John Pemberton, 1725)-not a singular treatise on consumption. Blackmore points out that although consumption is used to denote any wasting condition in its popular sense, for medical practitioners in the past it must signify the lungs in particular. A typical nineteenth-century view of the progress of the study of consumption is expressed in Edward Smith, Consumption: Its Early and Remediable Stages (London: Walton and Maberly, 1862), p. 4. For good summaries of medical theories from classical medicine, see Lester S. King, "Consumption: The Story of a Disease," in idem, Medical Thinking: A Historical Preface (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1982), pp. 16-69 ; Walter Pagel, "Humoral Pathology: A Lingering Anachronism in the History of Tuberculosis," Bull. Hist. Med., 1955, 29:299-308.
22. Consumption was not one specific disease, but a number of conditions, any one of which could result in wasting of the lungs: hence one has titles of studies such as Sir Richard Blackmore's A Treatise of Consumptions and Other Distempers Belonging to the Breast and Lungs, 2d ed., corrected (London: John Pemberton, 1725)-not a singular treatise on consumption. Blackmore points out that although consumption is used to denote any wasting condition in its popular sense, for medical practitioners in the past it must signify the lungs in particular. A typical nineteenth-century view of the progress of the study of consumption is expressed in Edward Smith, Consumption: Its Early and Remediable Stages (London: Walton and Maberly, 1862), p. 4. For good summaries of medical theories from classical medicine, see Lester S. King, "Consumption: The Story of a Disease," in idem, Medical Thinking: A Historical Preface (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1982), pp. 16-69 ; Walter Pagel, "Humoral Pathology: A Lingering Anachronism in the History of Tuberculosis," Bull. Hist. Med., 1955, 29:299-308.
23. Gerard van Swieten, Commentaries upon Boerhaave's Aphorisms concerning the Knowledge and Cure of Diseases, 18 vols. (Edinburgh: Charles Eliot, 1776), 12: 1.
24. Gianbattista Morgagni, The Seats and Causes of Diseases, Investigated by Anatomy, 3 vols., trans. Benjamin Alexander (London: A. Millar et al., 1769), 1: 652. See also Matthew Baillie, The Morbid Anatomy of Some of the Most Important Parts of the Human Body (London: J. Johnson, 1793), pp. 48-49.
25. Gianbattista Morgagni, The Seats and Causes of Diseases, Investigated by Anatomy, 3 vols., trans. Benjamin Alexander (London: A. Millar et al., 1769), 1: 652. See also Matthew Baillie, The Morbid Anatomy of Some of the Most Important Parts of the Human Body (London: J. Johnson, 1793), pp. 48-49.
26. Christopher Bennet, Theatrum tabidorum (1656), cited in van Swieten, Commentaries (n. 12), 12:131.
27. Ibid., p. 130.
28. Ibid., p. 131; Morgagni, Seats and Causes of Diseases (n. 13), 1: 646.
29. Ibid., p. 131; Morgagni, Seats and Causes of Diseases (n. 13), 1: 646.
30. The same images continued to be employed well into the nineteenth century. The odor of consumption and its echo with venereal diseases still lingered in Dr. Burney Yeo's remark: "Sir William Gull has said that he can smell syphilis. I think I can smell phthisis. There is a peculiar nauseating odour in the breath" (Burney I. Yeo, "On the Results of Recent Researches in the Treatment of Phthisis," Brit. Med. J., 1877, 1: 159-60, 195-97, quotation on p. 196). See also G. L. Bayle, Researches on Pulmonary Phthisis, trans. William Barrow (Liverpool: Longman, Hurst, Orme, and Brown, 1815), p. 125.
31. The same images continued to be employed well into the nineteenth century. The odor of consumption and its echo with venereal diseases still lingered in Dr. Burney Yeo's remark: "Sir William Gull has said that he can smell syphilis. I think I can smell phthisis. There is a peculiar nauseating odour in the breath" (Burney I. Yeo, "On the Results of Recent Researches in the Treatment of Phthisis," Brit. Med. J., 1877, 1: 159-60, 195-97, quotation on p. 196). See also G. L. Bayle, Researches on Pulmonary Phthisis, trans. William Barrow (Liverpool: Longman, Hurst, Orme, and Brown, 1815), p. 125.
32. Van Swieten, Commentaries (n. 12), 12: 36.
33. Ibid., p. 91.
34. The formative account of the development of civic humanism is J. G. A. Pocock, The Machiavellian Moment: Florentine Political Thought and the Atlantic Republican Tradition (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1975). But see Ronald Paulson's critique of this as the dominant discourse of the eighteenth century, in The Beautiful, Navel, and Strange: Aesthetics and Heterodoxy (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996), esp. the preface.
35. The formative account of the development of civic humanism is J. G. A. Pocock, The Machiavellian Moment: Florentine Political Thought and the Atlantic Republican Tradition (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1975). But see Ronald Paulson's critique of this as the dominant discourse of the eighteenth century, in The Beautiful, Navel, and Strange: Aesthetics and Heterodoxy (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996), esp. the preface.
36. Philippe Ariès, The Hour of Our Death, trans. H. Weaver (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1983); John McManners, Death and the Enlightenment: Changing Attitudes to Death among Christians and Unbelievers in Eighteenth-Century France (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1981); Dorothy Porter and Roy Porter, Patient's Progress: Doctors and Doctoring in Eighteenth-Century England (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1989), pp. 147-52.
37. Philippe Ariès, The Hour of Our Death, trans. H. Weaver (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1983); John McManners, Death and the Enlightenment: Changing Attitudes to Death among Christians and Unbelievers in Eighteenth-Century France (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1981); Dorothy Porter and Roy Porter, Patient's Progress: Doctors and Doctoring in Eighteenth-Century England (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1989), pp. 147-52.
38. Philippe Ariès, The Hour of Our Death, trans. H. Weaver (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1983); John McManners, Death and the Enlightenment: Changing Attitudes to Death among Christians and Unbelievers in Eighteenth-Century France (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1981); Dorothy Porter and Roy Porter, Patient's Progress: Doctors and Doctoring in Eighteenth-Century England (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1989), pp. 147-52.
39. The contrast between epidemics (diseases of the ancien régime) and consumption (the disease of the nineteenth century) is forcibly made in Herzlich and Pierret, Illness and Self in Society (n. 10), pp. 3-37.
40. From Thomas Fuller, "Sermon-Life out of Death," cited in Robert Southey, Southey's Common Place Book, 4 vols. (London: Longman, Brown, Green and Longmans, 1850), 4: 353. For Southey's role as one of the key figures who created the myth of the consumptive poet, see below.
41. Sir Thomas Browne, "A Letter to a Friend, upon the occasion of the Death of his Intimate Friend," in Religio Medici, and Other Works, ed. Leonard C. Martin (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1964), pp. 177-96, cited in Katherine Ott, Fevered Lives: Tuberculosis in American Culture since 1870 (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1996), p.15.
42. Sir Thomas Browne, "A Letter to a Friend, upon the occasion of the Death of his Intimate Friend," in Religio Medici, and Other Works, ed. Leonard C. Martin (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1964), pp. 177-96, cited in Katherine Ott, Fevered Lives: Tuberculosis in American Culture since 1870 (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1996), p.15.
43. William Matthews, ed., The Diary of Dudley Ryder, 1715-1716 (London: Methuen, 1939).
44. For Ryder's concern about his health and frequent visits to medical practitioners (both qualified and quack), see particularly Diary of Dudley Ryder (n. 25), pp. 276-78, 295-98. For the history of the patient in the long eighteenth century, see Dorothy Porter and Roy Porter, In Sickness and in Health: The British Experience, 1650-1850 (London: Fourth Estate, 1988); idem, Patient's Progress (n. 21).
45. For Ryder's concern about his health and frequent visits to medical practitioners (both qualified and quack), see particularly Diary of Dudley Ryder (n. 25), pp. 276-78, 295-98. For the history of the patient in the long eighteenth century, see Dorothy Porter and Roy Porter, In Sickness and in Health: The British Experience, 1650-1850 (London: Fourth Estate, 1988); idem, Patient's Progress (n. 21).
46. For Ryder's concern about his health and frequent visits to medical practitioners (both qualified and quack), see particularly Diary of Dudley Ryder (n. 25), pp. 276-78, 295-98. For the history of the patient in the long eighteenth century, see Dorothy Porter and Roy Porter, In Sickness and in Health: The British Experience, 1650-1850 (London: Fourth Estate, 1988); idem, Patient's Progress (n. 21).
47. Diary of Dudley Ryder (n. 25), p. 209.
48. Ibid., p. 263. For Rycler's fluctuating philosophy of death (expressed on observing the execution of a Jacobite rebel, and the deaths of his friend and grandmother), see ibid., pp. 188, 291, 294, 339. Perhaps alarmed by this incident of youthful death, when Ryder's father learned about his son's ill-health, lie was caught with the fear that Dudley might have consumption, and he promised to pay the cost of a new horse for horse-riding exercise and a course of physic: ibid., p. 269.
49. Ibid., p. 263. For Rycler's fluctuating philosophy of death (expressed on observing the execution of a Jacobite rebel, and the deaths of his friend and grandmother), see ibid., pp. 188, 291, 294, 339. Perhaps alarmed by this incident of youthful death, when Ryder's father learned about his son's ill-health, lie was caught with the fear that Dudley might have consumption, and he promised to pay the cost of a new horse for horse-riding exercise and a course of physic: ibid., p. 269.
50. Ibid., p. 263. For Rycler's fluctuating philosophy of death (expressed on observing the execution of a Jacobite rebel, and the deaths of his friend and grandmother), see ibid., pp. 188, 291, 294, 339. Perhaps alarmed by this incident of youthful death, when Ryder's father learned about his son's ill-health, lie was caught with the fear that Dudley might have consumption, and he promised to pay the cost of a new horse for horse-riding exercise and a course of physic: ibid., p. 269.
51. Ibid., p. 234.
52. Ibid., p. 345. The fear of sudden death, depriving the dying of the chance to prepare for one's end, was Widespread in European society. See Ariès, Hour of Our Death (n. 21), pp. 10-13; Pat Jalland, Death in the Victorian Family (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996), pp. 65-69.
53. Ibid., p. 345. The fear of sudden death, depriving the dying of the chance to prepare for one's end, was Widespread in European society. See Ariès, Hour of Our Death (n. 21), pp. 10-13; Pat Jalland, Death in the Victorian Family (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996), pp. 65-69.
54. Ibid., p. 345. The fear of sudden death, depriving the dying of the chance to prepare for one's end, was Widespread in European society. See Ariès, Hour of Our Death (n. 21), pp. 10-13; Pat Jalland, Death in the Victorian Family (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996), pp. 65-69.
55. Robert Tofte, Alba: The Months Minde of A Melancholy Lover (London, 1598), 3 (Poem Section), p. 277.
56. Robert Tofte, Alba: The Months Minde of A Melancholy Lover (London, 1598), 3 (Poem Section), p. 277.
57. Ibid., p. 139.
58. Diary of Dudley Ryder (n. 25), p. 281.
59. William Shakespeare, Much Ado about Nothing, act 5 scene 4.
60. Roy Porter, "Introduction," in Cheyne, English Malady (n. 5), pp. ix-li; Akihito Suzuki, "Anli-Lockean Enlightenment? Mind anil Body in Early Eighteenth-Century English Medicine," in Medicine in the Enlightenment, ed. Roy Porter (Amsterdam: Rodopi, 1995), pp. 335-59.
61. Roy Porter, "Introduction," in Cheyne, English Malady (n. 5), pp. ix-li; Akihito Suzuki, "Anli-Lockean Enlightenment? Mind anil Body in Early Eighteenth-Century English Medicine," in Medicine in the Enlightenment, ed. Roy Porter (Amsterdam: Rodopi, 1995), pp. 335-59.
62. Thomas Beddoes, Essay on the Causes, Early Signs, and Prevention of Pulmonary Consumption for the Use of Parents and Preceptors (Bristol: Biggs and Cottle, 1799), p. 6. For Beddoes on consumption, see Roy Porter, "Consumption: Disease of the Consumer Society?" in Consumption and the World of Goods, ed. John Brewer and Roy Porter (London: Routledge, 1993), pp. 58-81 ; Roy Porter, Doctor of Society: Thomas Beddoes and the Sick Trade in Late-Enlightenment England (London: Routledge, 1992). As late as 1882, the Lancet still delivered essentially the same message that consumption is in reality not a romantic disease; see Jalland, Death in the Victorian Family (n. 30), p. 40.
63. Thomas Beddoes, Essay on the Causes, Early Signs, and Prevention of Pulmonary Consumption for the Use of Parents and Preceptors (Bristol: Biggs and Cottle, 1799), p. 6. For Beddoes on consumption, see Roy Porter, "Consumption: Disease of the Consumer Society?" in Consumption and the World of Goods, ed. John Brewer and Roy Porter (London: Routledge, 1993), pp. 58-81 ; Roy Porter, Doctor of Society: Thomas Beddoes and the Sick Trade in Late-Enlightenment England (London: Routledge, 1992). As late as 1882, the Lancet still delivered essentially the same message that consumption is in reality not a romantic disease; see Jalland, Death in the Victorian Family (n. 30), p. 40.
64. Thomas Beddoes, Essay on the Causes, Early Signs, and Prevention of Pulmonary Consumption for the Use of Parents and Preceptors (Bristol: Biggs and Cottle, 1799), p. 6. For Beddoes on consumption, see Roy Porter, "Consumption: Disease of the Consumer Society?" in Consumption and the World of Goods, ed. John Brewer and Roy Porter (London: Routledge, 1993), pp. 58-81 ; Roy Porter, Doctor of Society: Thomas Beddoes and the Sick Trade in Late-Enlightenment England (London: Routledge, 1992). As late as 1882, the Lancet still delivered essentially the same message that consumption is in reality not a romantic disease; see Jalland, Death in the Victorian Family (n. 30), p. 40.
65. Thomas Beddoes, Essay on the Causes, Early Signs, and Prevention of Pulmonary Consumption for the Use of Parents and Preceptors (Bristol: Biggs and Cottle, 1799), p. 6. For Beddoes on consumption, see Roy Porter, "Consumption: Disease of the Consumer Society?" in Consumption and the World of Goods, ed. John Brewer and Roy Porter (London: Routledge, 1993), pp. 58-81 ; Roy Porter, Doctor of Society: Thomas Beddoes and the Sick Trade in Late-Enlightenment England (London: Routledge, 1992). As late as 1882, the Lancet still delivered essentially the same message that consumption is in reality not a romantic disease; see Jalland, Death in the Victorian Family (n. 30), p. 40.
66. Cecil Price, ed., The letters of Richard Brinsley Sheridan, 3 vols. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1960), 1: 247.
67. Ibid.
68. Wilfred S. Dowden, ed., The Journal of Thomas Moore, vol. 3, 1826-39 (University of Delaware Press, 1986), pp. 1119-20, entry dated 19 February [Tuesday] 1828.
69. For a "diagnosis" of Byron's strict diet, see Walter Vandereycken and Ron van Deth, From Fasting Saints to Anorexic Girls (London: Athlone Press, 1994), pp. 227-28.
70. . Of course there were cases in which suffering from consumption was perceived negatively, by both the patient and his or her friends: see Wilmarth Sheldon Lewis, ed., The Yale Edition of Horace Walpole's Correspondence, 48 vols. (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1937-83), 21: 451; Horace Bleackley, The Story of a Beautiful Duchess: Being an Account of the Life and Times of Elizabeth Gunning, Duchess of Hamilton and Argyle (London: A. Constable, 1907), pp. 239-40.
71. . Of course there were cases in which suffering from consumption was perceived negatively, by both the patient and his or her friends: see Wilmarth Sheldon Lewis, ed., The Yale Edition of Horace Walpole's Correspondence, 48 vols. (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1937-83), 21: 451; Horace Bleackley, The Story of a Beautiful Duchess: Being an Account of the Life and Times of Elizabeth Gunning, Duchess of Hamilton and Argyle (London: A. Constable, 1907), pp. 239-40.
72. N. D. Jewson, "Medical Knowledge and the Patronage System in Eighteenth-Century England," Sociology, 1974, 8:369-85.
73. Charles E. Rosenberg, The Therapeutic Revolution: Medicine, Meaning, and Social Change in Nineteenth-Century America," in idem, Explaining Epidemics and Other Studies in the History of Medicine (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992), pp. 9-31.
74. Roy Porter, "Consumption: Disease of die Consumer Society?" in Consumption and the World of Goods, ed. John Brewer and Roy Porter (London: Routledge, 1993) While staying at Bristol with his wife, Sheridan wrote about young Dr. Bain, "who latterly settled here and . . . came here himself in consumption is reckond very skillful in these cases" letters of Richard Britney Sheridan [n. 37], 1: 244). See also Tobias Smollett, The Expedition of Humphry Clinker, ed. Thomas R. Preston (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1990),p. 15. As for Penzance, see a remark by John Forbes in R. T. H. Laënnec, A Treatise on the Disease of the Chest and on Mediate Auscultation, trans. John Forbes, 4th ed. (London: Henry Renshaw, 1834), p. 335.
75. Roy Porter, "Consumption: Disease of die Consumer Society?" in Consumption and the World of Goods, ed. John Brewer and Roy Porter (London: Routledge, 1993) While staying at Bristol with his wife, Sheridan wrote about young Dr. Bain, "who latterly settled here and . . . came here himself in consumption is reckond very skillful in these cases" letters of Richard Britney Sheridan [n. 37], 1: 244). See also Tobias Smollett, The Expedition of Humphry Clinker, ed. Thomas R. Preston (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1990),p. 15. As for Penzance, see a remark by John Forbes in R. T. H. Laënnec, A Treatise on the Disease of the Chest and on Mediate Auscultation, trans. John Forbes, 4th ed. (London: Henry Renshaw, 1834), p. 335.
76. Roy Porter, "Consumption: Disease of die Consumer Society?" in Consumption and the World of Goods, ed. John Brewer and Roy Porter (London: Routledge, 1993) While staying at Bristol with his wife, Sheridan wrote about young Dr. Bain, "who latterly settled here and . . . came here himself in consumption is reckond very skillful in these cases" letters of Richard Britney Sheridan [n. 37], 1: 244). See also Tobias Smollett, The Expedition of Humphry Clinker, ed. Thomas R. Preston (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1990),p. 15. As for Penzance, see a remark by John Forbes in R. T. H. Laënnec, A Treatise on the Disease of the Chest and on Mediate Auscultation, trans. John Forbes, 4th ed. (London: Henry Renshaw, 1834), p. 335.
77. Roy Porter, "Consumption: Disease of die Consumer Society?" in Consumption and the World of Goods, ed. John Brewer and Roy Porter (London: Routledge, 1993) While staying at Bristol with his wife, Sheridan wrote about young Dr. Bain, "who latterly settled here and . . . came here himself in consumption is reckond very skillful in these cases" letters of Richard Britney Sheridan [n. 37], 1: 244). See also Tobias Smollett, The Expedition of Humphry Clinker, ed. Thomas R. Preston (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1990),p. 15. As for Penzance, see a remark by John Forbes in R. T. H. Laënnec, A Treatise on the Disease of the Chest and on Mediate Auscultation, trans. John Forbes, 4th ed. (London: Henry Renshaw, 1834), p. 335.
78. James Makittrick Adair, Medical Cautions, for the Consideration of Invalids (London: J. Dodsley and C. Dilly, 1786), p. 95; An Historical Sketch of the Island of Madeira (London: F. S. Hopkins, 1819), p. 48; James Bulwer, Rambles in Madeira, and in Portugal, in the Early Part of MDCCCXXVI (London: C. & J. Rivington, 1827); Edwin Lee, Notes on Italy and Rhenish Germany: With Professional Notices of the Climates of Nice, Pisa, Florence, Rome, and Naples (Edinburgh: laining & Forbes, 1835).
79. James Makittrick Adair, Medical Cautions, for the Consideration of Invalids (London: J. Dodsley and C. Dilly, 1786), p. 95; An Historical Sketch of the Island of Madeira (London: F. S. Hopkins, 1819), p. 48; James Bulwer, Rambles in Madeira, and in Portugal, in the Early Part of MDCCCXXVI (London: C. & J. Rivington, 1827); Edwin Lee, Notes on Italy and Rhenish Germany: With Professional Notices of the Climates of Nice, Pisa, Florence, Rome, and Naples (Edinburgh: laining & Forbes, 1835).
80. James Makittrick Adair, Medical Cautions, for the Consideration of Invalids (London: J. Dodsley and C. Dilly, 1786), p. 95; An Historical Sketch of the Island of Madeira (London: F. S. Hopkins, 1819), p. 48; James Bulwer, Rambles in Madeira, and in Portugal, in the Early Part of MDCCCXXVI (London: C. & J. Rivington, 1827); Edwin Lee, Notes on Italy and Rhenish Germany: With Professional Notices of the Climates of Nice, Pisa, Florence, Rome, and Naples (Edinburgh: laining & Forbes, 1835).
81. James Makittrick Adair, Medical Cautions, for the Consideration of Invalids (London: J. Dodsley and C. Dilly, 1786), p. 95; An Historical Sketch of the Island of Madeira (London: F. S. Hopkins, 1819), p. 48; James Bulwer, Rambles in Madeira, and in Portugal, in the Early Part of MDCCCXXVI (London: C. & J. Rivington, 1827); Edwin Lee, Notes on Italy and Rhenish Germany: With Professional Notices of the Climates of Nice, Pisa, Florence, Rome, and Naples (Edinburgh: laining & Forbes, 1835).
82. For shrewd satire of the heated promotion of English domestic health resorts, see Jane Austen's unfinished novel, Sanditon, in R. W. Chapman, ed., The Works of Jane Austen, 6 vols. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1923-54), 6: 363-430.
83. For shrewd satire of the heated promotion of English domestic health resorts, see Jane Austen's unfinished novel, Sanditon, in R. W. Chapman, ed., The Works of Jane Austen, 6 vols. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1923-54), 6: 363-430.
84. Richard Mead, The Medical Works of Richard Mead (London: C. Hitch et al., 1762), pp. 478-79; Bleackley, Beautiful Duchess (n. 41), pp. 240-41; Robert Halsband, ed., The Complete Letters of Lady Mary Worthy Montagu, 3 vols. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1965-67), 2:278, 296; 3: 212; Lewis, Horace Walpole's Correspondence (n. 41), 20: 536.
85. Richard Mead, The Medical Works of Richard Mead (London: C. Hitch et al., 1762), pp. 478-79; Bleackley, Beautiful Duchess (n. 41), pp. 240-41; Robert Halsband, ed., The Complete Letters of Lady Mary Worthy Montagu, 3 vols. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1965-67), 2:278, 296; 3: 212; Lewis, Horace Walpole's Correspondence (n. 41), 20: 536.
86. Richard Mead, The Medical Works of Richard Mead (London: C. Hitch et al., 1762), pp. 478-79; Bleackley, Beautiful Duchess (n. 41), pp. 240-41; Robert Halsband, ed., The Complete Letters of Lady Mary Worthy Montagu, 3 vols. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1965-67), 2:278, 296; 3: 212; Lewis, Horace Walpole's Correspondence (n. 41), 20: 536.
87. Richard Mead, The Medical Works of Richard Mead (London: C. Hitch et al., 1762), pp. 478-79; Bleackley, Beautiful Duchess (n. 41), pp. 240-41; Robert Halsband, ed., The Complete Letters of Lady Mary Worthy Montagu, 3 vols. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1965-67), 2:278, 296; 3: 212; Lewis, Horace Walpole's Correspondence (n. 41), 20: 536.
88. Richard Mead, The Medical Works of Richard Mead (London: C. Hitch et al., 1762), pp. 478-79; Bleackley, Beautiful Duchess (n. 41), pp. 240-41; Robert Halsband, ed., The Complete Letters of Lady Mary Worthy Montagu, 3 vols. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1965-67), 2:278, 296; 3: 212; Lewis, Horace Walpole's Correspondence (n. 41), 20: 536.
89. Tobias Smollett, Travels though France and Italy, ed. Frank Felsenstein (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1979); James Clark, Medical Notes on Climate, Diseases, Hospitals and Medical Schools, in France, Italy, and Switzerland (London: T. & G. Underwood et al., 1820), p. 5.
90. Tobias Smollett, Travels though France and Italy, ed. Frank Felsenstein (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1979); James Clark, Medical Notes on Climate, Diseases, Hospitals and Medical Schools, in France, Italy, and Switzerland (London: T. & G. Underwood et al., 1820), p. 5.
91. Thomas Beddoes, Manual of Health, Or, The Invalid Conducted Safely through the Seasons (London: J. Johnson, 1806), p. 318.
92. Going to Nice, rather than Bristol, for one's health was an obvious sign of wealth - James Adair in effect stated that Bristol was the poor man's Nice: "But as many invalids are unable to incur the expense of such excursions [to a southern part of the continent], there is no other alternative, if their circumstances will permit, than to change their residence in this country" (Adair, Medical Cautions [n. 45], p. 95).
93. James Johnson, Change of Air (London, 1838), pp. 84-85 ; the passage is also cited in William Beattie, Switzerland Illustrated in a Series of Views Taken on the Spot and Expressively for This Work (London: Longman, Rees, Orme, Brown & Green, 1834), p. 61. For a similar exclamation on a passage to Italy, see Thomas Burgess, "Inutility of Resorting to the Italian Climate for the Cure of Pulmonary Consumption," Lancet, 1850, 1: 591-94; 2: 10-12, 525-27, 700-703, esp. p. 526.
94. James Johnson, Change of Air (London, 1838), pp. 84-85 ; the passage is also cited in William Beattie, Switzerland Illustrated in a Series of Views Taken on the Spot and Expressively for This Work (London: Longman, Rees, Orme, Brown & Green, 1834), p. 61. For a similar exclamation on a passage to Italy, see Thomas Burgess, "Inutility of Resorting to the Italian Climate for the Cure of Pulmonary Consumption," Lancet, 1850, 1: 591-94; 2: 10-12, 525-27, 700-703, esp. p. 526.
95. James Johnson, Change of Air (London, 1838), pp. 84-85 ; the passage is also cited in William Beattie, Switzerland Illustrated in a Series of Views Taken on the Spot and Expressively for This Work (London: Longman, Rees, Orme, Brown & Green, 1834), p. 61. For a similar exclamation on a passage to Italy, see Thomas Burgess, "Inutility of Resorting to the Italian Climate for the Cure of Pulmonary Consumption," Lancet, 1850, 1: 591-94; 2: 10-12, 525-27, 700-703, esp. p. 526.
96. James Johnson, Change of Air (London, 1838), pp. 84-85 ; the passage is also cited in William Beattie, Switzerland Illustrated in a Series of Views Taken on the Spot and Expressively for This Work (London: Longman, Rees, Orme, Brown & Green, 1834), p. 61. For a similar exclamation on a passage to Italy, see Thomas Burgess, "Inutility of Resorting to the Italian Climate for the Cure of Pulmonary Consumption," Lancet, 1850, 1: 591-94; 2: 10-12, 525-27, 700-703, esp. p. 526.
97. Smollett, Travels (n. 48), p. 121.
98. James Clark, A Treatise on Pulmonary Consumption (London: Sherwood, Gilbert, and Piper, 1835), p. 333.
99. Clark, Medical Notes on Climate (n. 48), p. 20. Breathing in the air from plants and vegetables was widely regarded as an effective treatment for consumption: see van Swieten, Commentaries (n. 12), 12: 175-76; Roger Kervran, Laënnec: His Life and Times, trans. D. C. Abrahams-Cruiel (Oxford: Pergamon Press, 1960), p. 177.
100. Clark, Medical Notes on Climate (n. 48), p. 20. Breathing in the air from plants and vegetables was widely regarded as an effective treatment for consumption: see van Swieten, Commentaries (n. 12), 12: 175-76; Roger Kervran, Laënnec: His Life and Times, trans. D. C. Abrahams-Cruiel (Oxford: Pergamon Press, 1960), p. 177.
101. Clark, Medical Notes on Climate (n. 48), p. 20. Breathing in the air from plants and vegetables was widely regarded as an effective treatment for consumption: see van Swieten, Commentaries (n. 12), 12: 175-76; Roger Kervran, Laënnec: His Life and Times, trans. D. C. Abrahams-Cruiel (Oxford: Pergamon Press, 1960), p. 177.
102. Alain Corbin, The Foul and the Fragrant: Odor and the French Social Imagination, trans. Miriam L. Kochan (Leamington Spa, U.K.: Picador, 1994), pp. 71-85, 170-99.
103. Edwin Lee, Nice and Its Climate, with Notices of the Coast from Marseilles to Genoa (London: Hope, 1854), p. 39.
104. Ibid., comments in margins of the copy in King's College Special Collections, University of Aberdeen, pp. 21-22, 26-27. Lee's work itself exhibits some aspirations to culture: its prose is occasionally lyrical, and Lee quotes Jacques Delille's poem, "Les Jardins" (1782) and Ariosto's "Enchanted Garden," to reinforce the sensual pleasure of the place's lavender, thyme, perfuming citrus, evergreen olive, and azure sea ( ibid., pp. vii, 37).
105. Ibid., comments in margins of the copy in King's College Special Collections, University of Aberdeen, pp. 21-22, 26-27. Lee's work itself exhibits some aspirations to culture: its prose is occasionally lyrical, and Lee quotes Jacques Delille's poem, "Les Jardins" (1782) and Ariosto's "Enchanted Garden," to reinforce the sensual pleasure of the place's lavender, thyme, perfuming citrus, evergreen olive, and azure sea ( ibid., pp. vii, 37).
106. Henry Matthews, The Diary of an Invalid: Being the Journal of a Tour in Pursuit of Health in Portugal, Italy, Switzerland and France in the Years 1817, 1819 and 1819, 2d ed. (London: John Murray, 1820), p. 386.
107. Ibid., pp. 1-2, 36.
108. See James C. Riley, The Eighteenth-Century Campaign to Avoid Disease (London: Macmillan, 1987); Ludmilla J. Jordanova, "Earth Science and Environmental Medicine: The Synthesis of the Late Enlightenment," in Images of the Earth: Essays in the History of the Environmental Sciences, ed. L. J. Jordanova and Roy Porter (Chalfont St. Giles: British Society for the History of Science, 1979), pp. 119-46.
109. See James C. Riley, The Eighteenth-Century Campaign to Avoid Disease (London: Macmillan, 1987); Ludmilla J. Jordanova, "Earth Science and Environmental Medicine: The Synthesis of the Late Enlightenment," in Images of the Earth: Essays in the History of the Environmental Sciences, ed. L. J. Jordanova and Roy Porter (Chalfont St. Giles: British Society for the History of Science, 1979), pp. 119-46.
110. The OED's earliest example of "decline" in the sense of a wasting condition is in 1783; Samuel A. Johnson's Dictionary of the English Language (London: Knapton, 1755) does not have a definition of decline in the sense of consumption.
111. See Corbin, Foul and the Fragrant (n. 55), pp. 71-85.
112. The social and cultural meanings of Beddoes's treatment of consumption, cowsheds and all, are elaborated in Porter, Doctor of Society (n. 36), pp. 106-7.
113. William Buchan cited causes of consumption as "violent passions, exertions, or affections of the mind; as grief, disappointment, anxiety, or close application to the study of abstruse arts or sciences" (William Buchan, Domestic Medicine [Edinburgh, 1804], p. 119).
114. Ariès, Hour of Our Death (n. 21), p. 473; Elizabeth Bronfen, Over Her Dead Body: Death, Femininity and the Aesthetic (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1992), pp. 60-62.
115. Ariès, Hour of Our Death (n. 21), p. 473; Elizabeth Bronfen, Over Her Dead Body: Death, Femininity and the Aesthetic (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1992), pp. 60-62.
116. Julian and his unnamed betrothed appear in Henry Fielding, Journey from This World to the Next, eel. Claude Rawson (London: Dent, 1973), p. 105.
117. Daniel Defoe, The Fortunes and Misfortunes of the Famous Moll Flanders, ed. G. A. Starr (London: Oxford University Press, 1971), p. 42.
118. John Stephens, Practical Treatise on Consumptions (London: W. Owen and J. Gretton, 1761), p. 202.
119. Smollett, Travels (n. 48), p. 266.
120. See, for example, the skeletal Lismahago in Smollett's Humphry Clinker, originally published in 1771 (n. 44), p. 331.
121. Samuel Richardson, Clarissa, Or, the History of a Young Lady, 7 vols. (London, 1747-48), "Epilogue," 7: 419.
122. Tobias Smollett, The Adventures of Ferdinand, Count Fathom, ed. Damian Grant (London: Oxford University Press, 1971), pp. 235-42, 320-27.
123. For the medicine of the nerves in the eighteenth century, see G. S. Rousseau, "Nerves, Spirits, and Fibres: Towards Defining the Origins of Sensibility," in Studies in the Eighteenth Century, ed. R. F. Brissenden and John Christopher Eade (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1976), pp. 137-57.
124. E. V. Lucas, A Swan and Her Friends (London: Methuen, 1907), pp. 30-31; originally in Sir Walter Scott, ed., The Poetical Works of Anna Seward, 3 vols. (Edinburgh: John Ballantyne, 1810), 1:cxvii.
125. E. V. Lucas, A Swan and Her Friends (London: Methuen, 1907), pp. 30-31; originally in Sir Walter Scott, ed., The Poetical Works of Anna Seward, 3 vols. (Edinburgh: John Ballantyne, 1810), 1:cxvii.
126. Lewis Perry Curtis, ed., letters of Laurence Sterne (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1935), p. 224 . For more on Sterne's relation to his own consumptive condition, see Clark Lawlor, "Consuming Time: Narrative and Disease in Tristram Shandy," Yrbk. Engl. Stud., 2000, 30: 46-59; idem, "Sterne, Edward Baynard, and the History of Cold Bathing: Medical Shandeism," Notes & Queries, 1999, 244 [n.s., 46]: 22-25.
127. Lewis Perry Curtis, ed., letters of Laurence Sterne (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1935), p. 224 . For more on Sterne's relation to his own consumptive condition, see Clark Lawlor, "Consuming Time: Narrative and Disease in Tristram Shandy," Yrbk. Engl. Stud., 2000, 30: 46-59; idem, "Sterne, Edward Baynard, and the History of Cold Bathing: Medical Shandeism," Notes & Queries, 1999, 244 [n.s., 46]: 22-25.
128. Lewis Perry Curtis, ed., letters of Laurence Sterne (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1935), p. 224 . For more on Sterne's relation to his own consumptive condition, see Clark Lawlor, "Consuming Time: Narrative and Disease in Tristram Shandy," Yrbk. Engl. Stud., 2000, 30: 46-59; idem, "Sterne, Edward Baynard, and the History of Cold Bathing: Medical Shandeism," Notes & Queries, 1999, 244 [n.s., 46]: 22-25.
129. For further analysis of representations of women at this time, see Bronfen, Over Her Dead Body (n. 65).
130. For discourses of the good and beautiful death, see Ariès, Hour of Our Death (n. 21), pp. 409-74; Jalland, Death in the Victorian Family (n. 30), pp. 1-189.
131. For discourses of the good and beautiful death, see Ariès, Hour of Our Death (n. 21), pp. 409-74; Jalland, Death in the Victorian Family (n. 30), pp. 1-189.
132. Beddoes, Essay (n. 36), p. 12-1.
133. Lucas, Swan and Her Friends (n. 74), pp. 107-9. See also Anna Seward, Memoirs of the Life of Dr Darvin (London, 1804), pp. 110-14.
134. Lucas, Swan and Her Friends (n. 74), pp. 107-9. See also Anna Seward, Memoirs of the Life of Dr Darvin (London, 1804), pp. 110-14.
135. Edmund Burke, A Philosophical Enquiry into the Origin of Our Ideas of the Sublime and Beautiful, ed. Adam Phillips (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1990), sects. 14-16.
136. John Gregory, A Father's Legacy to His Daughters, 4th ed. (London: p. Stralian, 1774), p. 31.
137. Seward, Memoirs of the Life of Dr Darwin (n. 79), pp. 110-14.
138. Reprinted as The Works of Washington Irving, vol. 2 (London: Bell, 1876).
139. See Douglas E. Branch, The Sentimental Yean, 1836-60 (New York: Appleton-Century, 1934), p. 173; Herbert R. Brown, The Sentimental Novelin America, 1789-1860 (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1940), pp. 113, 125-30.
140. See Douglas E. Branch, The Sentimental Yean, 1836-60 (New York: Appleton-Century, 1934), p. 173; Herbert R. Brown, The Sentimental Novelin America, 1789-1860 (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1940), pp. 113, 125-30.
141. Washington Irving, "The Broken Heart," in Works (n. 83), 2: 48-52, quotation on p. 50; henceforth "BH." 86. Washington Irving, "The Pride of the Village," in ibid., 2: 239-46, quotation on p. 2-43; henceforth "PV." 87. "BH," p. 49 .
142. Washington Irving, "The Broken Heart," in Works (n. 83), 2: 48-52, quotation on p. 50; henceforth "BH." 86. Washington Irving, "The Pride of the Village," in ibid., 2: 239-46, quotation on p. 2-43; henceforth "PV." 87. "BH," p. 49 .
143. For different gender perspectives on the entrenchment of Victorian separate spheres, see Sandra Gilbert and Susan Gubar, The Madwoman in the Attic (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1984); G. J. Barker-Benfield, "The Spermatic Economy: A Nineteenth-Century View of Sexuality," in The American Family in Social-Historical Perspective, ed. Michael Gordon (New York: St. Martin's, 1973), pp. 374-402. Irving himself wrote: "Man is the creature of interest and ambition. His nature leads him forth into the struggle and bustle of the world. Love is but the embellishment of his early life. . . . But a woman's whole life is a history of the affections. The heart is her world: it is there her ambition strives for empire" ("BH," p. 48).
144. For different gender perspectives on the entrenchment of Victorian separate spheres, see Sandra Gilbert and Susan Gubar, The Madwoman in the Attic (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1984); G. J. Barker-Benfield, "The Spermatic Economy: A Nineteenth-Century View of Sexuality," in The American Family in Social-Historical Perspective, ed. Michael Gordon (New York: St. Martin's, 1973), pp. 374-402. Irving himself wrote: "Man is the creature of interest and ambition. His nature leads him forth into the struggle and bustle of the world. Love is but the embellishment of his early life. . . . But a woman's whole life is a history of the affections. The heart is her world: it is there her ambition strives for empire" ("BH," p. 48).
145. For example, Benjamin Rush maintained that while the masculine and active lifestyle of the Indians (whose occupations consisted of war, fishing, and hunting) and the first settlers made them immune to consumption, women, who sat more than men, and whose work was connected with less exertion, were most subject to consumption: Benjamin Rush, Medical Inquiries and Observations, 4th ed., 4 vols. (1815; rept., New York: Arno Press, 1972), 2: 38-39.
146. Quoted in Joy S. Kasson, "The Growth of a Romantic Writer," in The Old and New World Romanticism of Washington living, ed. Stanley Brodwin (London: Greenwood Press, 1986), pp. 27-34.
147. "PV," pp. 244-45.
148. Ibid., p. 269.
149. William Craig (later Lord Craig), "Reflections on Genius Unnoticed and Unknown; Anecdotes of Michael Brace," in The Mirror: A Periodical Paper published at Edinburgh in the Years 1779 and 1780, 11th ed. (London, 1801), p. 266 (first published in Minor, 29 May 1779, 36).
150. William Craig (later Lord Craig), "Reflections on Genius Unnoticed and Unknown; Anecdotes of Michael Brace," in The Mirror: A Periodical Paper published at Edinburgh in the Years 1779 and 1780, 11th ed. (London, 1801), p. 266 (first published in Minor, 29 May 1779, 36).
151. Ibid., p. 268.
152. Ibid., p. 269.
153. John Outline Barnet, Life and Complete Works of Michael Bruce, Poet of Loch Leven: The Collage Edition (London: Thynne and Jarvis, 1927), p. 108.
154. See W. and R. Chambers, Chambers Cyclopaedia of English Literature, 3d ed., 2 vols. (London: W. and R. Chambers, 1876), 1: 687.
155. James Mackenzie, Life of Michael Bruce, Poet of Loch Leven (London: J. M. Dent, 1905), p. 63.
156. Ibid., p. 17.
157. Nathan Drake, Literary Hours (London: T. Cadell, 1798), pp. 352-53.
158. Ibid., p. 352.
159. Alexander B. Grosart, ed., The Works of Michael Bruce (London: Hamilton, Adams, 1865), p. 35.
160. Coleridge linked the death of Chatterton with consumption by metaphoric association in his poem On Observing a Blossom on the First of February 1796," in which he asks whether he should compare the flower To some sweet girl of too too rapid growth / Nipp'd by consumption mid untimely charms? / Or to Bristowa's bard, the wondrous boy!" (The Complete Poetical Works of Samuel Taylor Coleridge, ed. Ernest Hartley Coleridge, 2 vols. [Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1912], 1: 149). Even Katherine Ott's excellent Fevered Lives makes the mistake of attributing a diagnosis of tuberculosis to Chatterton: Ott, Fevered Lives (n. 24), p. 14.
161. Coleridge linked the death of Chatterton with consumption by metaphoric association in his poem On Observing a Blossom on the First of February 1796," in which he asks whether he should compare the flower To some sweet girl of too too rapid growth / Nipp'd by consumption mid untimely charms? / Or to Bristowa's bard, the wondrous boy!" (The Complete Poetical Works of Samuel Taylor Coleridge, ed. Ernest Hartley Coleridge, 2 vols. [Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1912], 1: 149). Even Katherine Ott's excellent Fevered Lives makes the mistake of attributing a diagnosis of tuberculosis to Chatterton: Ott, Fevered Lives (n. 24), p. 14.
162. The classic exposition of the qualities of the romantic genius is in M.
163. Thomas Young, A Practical and Historical Treatise on Consumptive Diseases (London: Thomas Underwood, 1815), pp. 43-44.
164. For the development of Romantic medicine, and especially its relation to vitalism and literature, see W. F. Bynum and Roy Porter, eds., Brunonianism in Britain and Europe (London: Wellcome Institute for the History of Medicine, 1988); Hermione de Almeida, Romantic Medicine and John Keats (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991); BarkerBenfield, "Spermatic Economy" (n. 88); Herbert Sussman, Victorian Masculinities: Manhood and Masculine Poetics in Early Victorian Literature and Art (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995), p. 10.
165. For the development of Romantic medicine, and especially its relation to vitalism and literature, see W. F. Bynum and Roy Porter, eds., Brunonianism in Britain and Europe (London: Wellcome Institute for the History of Medicine, 1988); Hermione de Almeida, Romantic Medicine and John Keats (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991); BarkerBenfield, "Spermatic Economy" (n. 88); Herbert Sussman, Victorian Masculinities: Manhood and Masculine Poetics in Early Victorian Literature and Art (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995), p. 10.
166. For the development of Romantic medicine, and especially its relation to vitalism and literature, see W. F. Bynum and Roy Porter, eds., Brunonianism in Britain and Europe (London: Wellcome Institute for the History of Medicine, 1988); Hermione de Almeida, Romantic Medicine and John Keats (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991); BarkerBenfield, "Spermatic Economy" (n. 88); Herbert Sussman, Victorian Masculinities: Manhood and Masculine Poetics in Early Victorian Literature and Art (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995), p. 10.
167. For the development of Romantic medicine, and especially its relation to vitalism and literature, see W. F. Bynum and Roy Porter, eds., Brunonianism in Britain and Europe (London: Wellcome Institute for the History of Medicine, 1988); Hermione de Almeida, Romantic Medicine and John Keats (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991); BarkerBenfield, "Spermatic Economy" (n. 88); Herbert Sussman, Victorian Masculinities: Manhood and Masculine Poetics in Early Victorian Literature and Art (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995), p. 10.
168. Percy Bysshe Shelley, "Essay on the Vegetable System of Diet," in Shelley's Prose, Or, The Trumpet of a Prophecy, ed. David Lee Clark (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1966), pp. 91-96; quotation on p. 93. (The date of composition is unknown.)
169. See Percy Bysslie Shelley, Alastor; or, The Spirit of Solitude (London, 1816), p. 44, lines 242 ff., for a typical example of the wasting Romantic lover-poet.
170. Frederick L. Jones, ed., The letters of Percy Bysshe Shelley, 2 vols. (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1964), 2: 220-21, 27 July 1820.
171. See Hyder E. Rollins, ed., The Letters of John Keats, 1814-1821, 2 vols. (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1958); for the major biography, see Walter Jackson Bate, John Keats (London: Oxford University Press, 1963).
172. See Hyder E. Rollins, ed., The Letters of John Keats, 1814-1821, 2 vols. (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1958); for the major biography, see Walter Jackson Bate, John Keats (London: Oxford University Press, 1963).
173. Carlyle's Life of Schiller of 1825, first published in the London Magazine 1823-24 as "Schiller's Life and Writings," and his famous essay on Novalis in the Foreign Review, July 1829, provided a further elaboration of the myth of tuberculosis. See useful reprints of these pieces: Thomas Carlyle, The Life of Friedrich Schiller (1825; reprt. with 1872 Supplement, London: Chapman and Holt, 1873); idem, "Novalis," in Critical and Miscellaneous Essays, 7 vols. (London: Chapman Hall, 1872), 2: 183-229.
174. Carlyle's Life of Schiller of 1825, first published in the London Magazine 1823-24 as "Schiller's Life and Writings," and his famous essay on Novalis in the Foreign Review, July 1829, provided a further elaboration of the myth of tuberculosis. See useful reprints of these pieces: Thomas Carlyle, The Life of Friedrich Schiller (1825; reprt. with 1872 Supplement, London: Chapman and Holt, 1873); idem, "Novalis," in Critical and Miscellaneous Essays, 7 vols. (London: Chapman Hall, 1872), 2: 183-229.
175. Carlyle's Life of Schiller of 1825, first published in the London Magazine 1823-24 as "Schiller's Life and Writings," and his famous essay on Novalis in the Foreign Review, July 1829, provided a further elaboration of the myth of tuberculosis. See useful reprints of these pieces: Thomas Carlyle, The Life of Friedrich Schiller (1825; reprt. with 1872 Supplement, London: Chapman and Holt, 1873); idem, "Novalis," in Critical and Miscellaneous Essays, 7 vols. (London: Chapman Hall, 1872), 2: 183-229.
176. Carlyle's Life of Schiller of 1825, first published in the London Magazine 1823-24 as "Schiller's Life and Writings," and his famous essay on Novalis in the Foreign Review, July 1829, provided a further elaboration of the myth of tuberculosis. See useful reprints of these pieces: Thomas Carlyle, The Life of Friedrich Schiller (1825; reprt. with 1872 Supplement, London: Chapman and Holt, 1873); idem, "Novalis," in Critical and Miscellaneous Essays, 7 vols. (London: Chapman Hall, 1872), 2: 183-229.
177. George Gilfillan, ed., The Poetical and Prose Works of Henry Kirke White: With Life by Robert Southey (Edinburgh, 1840), p. xli.
178. Ernest Hartley Coleridge, ed., The Works of Lord Byron, 7 vols. (London: John Murray, Charles Scribner's Sons, 1898), 4: 364.
179. Ibid.
180. John T. Godfrey and James Ward, The Homes and Haunts of Henry Kirke White (London: Simpkin, Marshall, Hamilton, Kent, 1908), p. 212. Byron wrote to Thomas Moore in 1821.
181. Edgar Allan Poe, "Biography and Poetical Remains of the Late Margaret Miller Davidson. By Washington Irving," in The Complete Works of Edgar Allan Poe, ed. James A. Harrison, 17 vols. (New York: T. Y. Crowell, 1902), 10: 174-78 ("Literary Criticism," originally in Graham's Magazine, August 1841).
182. Edgar Allan Poe, "Biography and Poetical Remains of the Late Margaret Miller Davidson. By Washington Irving," in The Complete Works of Edgar Allan Poe, ed. James A. Harrison, 17 vols. (New York: T. Y. Crowell, 1902), 10: 174-78 ("Literary Criticism," originally in Graham's Magazine, August 1841).
183. [Edgar], "Select Biography: Michael Bruce," in Mirror of Literature, Amusement, and Instruction, 26 April 1823, I (26): 403-5; quotation on p. 404.
184. White wrote an unfinished letter that he intended to send to the editor of the Nottingham Journal complaining of consumption's prevalence, which is reproduced in Charles Vernon Fletcher, "The Poems and Letters of Henry Kirke White: A Modern Edition" (Ph.D. diss., University of Nottingham, 1980), 2: 364.
185. Gilfillan, Works of Henry Kirke White (n. 112), p. 155.
186. The Poetical Remains of Henry Kirke White [editor unnamed] (London: Jones, 1824), p. 33.
187. Ibid.
188. The anecdote is from Keats's friend Brown, quoted in Bate, John Keats (n. 110), pp. 635-36.
189. For a negative connection between consumption and genius in this respect, see "Art. III. - Life, Letters, and Literary, Remains of John Keats," North Brit. Rev., November 1848 - February 1849, 70:69-96.
190. Letters of Percy Bysshe Shelley (n. 109), 2: 220-21, 27 July 1820; Dumas quoted in Dubos and Dubos, White Plague (n. 6), p. 58.
191. Letters of Percy Bysshe Shelley (n. 109), 2: 220-21, 27 July 1820; Dumas quoted in Dubos and Dubos, White Plague (n. 6), p. 58.
192. The literature on the death of Keats from a cruel review is extensive, but for a recent and apposite summary, see James Heffernan, "Adonais: Shelley's Consumption of Keats," Stud. Romant., 1984, 23:293-315.
193. For a crucial example of the consumptive angel, see the death of Helen Burns in Jane Eyre: Charlotte Brontë, Jane Eyre, ed. Queenie Dorothy Leavis (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1985), pp. 111-14. For the importance of Victorian evangelicalism on representations of disease, see Miriam Bailin, The Sickroom in Victorian Fiction: The Art of Being Ill (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994); Jalland, Death in the Victorian Family (n. 30), pp. 17-58.
194. For a crucial example of the consumptive angel, see the death of Helen Burns in Jane Eyre: Charlotte Brontë, Jane Eyre, ed. Queenie Dorothy Leavis (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1985), pp. 111-14. For the importance of Victorian evangelicalism on representations of disease, see Miriam Bailin, The Sickroom in Victorian Fiction: The Art of Being Ill (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994); Jalland, Death in the Victorian Family (n. 30), pp. 17-58.
195. For a crucial example of the consumptive angel, see the death of Helen Burns in Jane Eyre: Charlotte Brontë, Jane Eyre, ed. Queenie Dorothy Leavis (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1985), pp. 111-14. For the importance of Victorian evangelicalism on representations of disease, see Miriam Bailin, The Sickroom in Victorian Fiction: The Art of Being Ill (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994); Jalland, Death in the Victorian Family (n. 30), pp. 17-58.
196. See Sidney Colvin, John Keats: His Life and Poetry; His Friends, Critics and After-Fame (London: Macmillan, 1917), p. 531.
197. Ott, in Fevered Lives (n. 24), pp. 76-77, talks usefully about the persistence of this idea in the American context.
198. Ironically, Keats's "friend" Leigh Hunt helped inaugurate this critique through his notorious comments in Leigh Hunt, Lord Byron and Some of His Contemporaries (London: Henry Colburn, 1828), p. 253.
199. For Symonds's role in making Davos fashionable for the British upper-class consumptives, see Karl Baedeker, Switzerland and the Adjacent Portions of Italy, Savoy, and Tyrol: Handbook for Travellers, 25th ed. (London: T. Fisher Unwin, 1913), pp. 453-54. The formative article is John Addington Symonds, "Davos in Winter," Fortn. Rev., 1878,139:74-87.
200. For Symonds's role in making Davos fashionable for the British upper-class consumptives, see Karl Baedeker, Switzerland and the Adjacent Portions of Italy, Savoy, and Tyrol: Handbook for Travellers, 25th ed. (London: T. Fisher Unwin, 1913), pp. 453-54. The formative article is John Addington Symonds, "Davos in Winter," Fortn. Rev., 1878,139:74-87.
201. Herbert M. Schueller and Robert L. Peters, eds., The letters of John Addington Symonds, 3 vols. (Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1967-69), 2: 429.
202. Ibid., p. 369.
203. Tobias Smollett tells the tale of a Mr. Oswald who, on enquiring why his consumptive condition is deteriorating, is informed by the physician that the air of Montpellier is "too sharp for his lungs, which required a softer climate" (Smollett, Travels [n. 48], p. 104).
204. See Thomas Dormandy, The White Death: A History of Tuberculosis (London: Hambledon Press, 1999), p. 152. For asceticism as a means of masculine self-fashioning, see James Eli Adams, Dandies and Desert Saints: Styles of Victorian Masculinity (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1995), pp. 28-32; Sussman, Victorian Masculinities (n. 106), p. 58.
205. See Thomas Dormandy, The White Death: A History of Tuberculosis (London: Hambledon Press, 1999), p. 152. For asceticism as a means of masculine self-fashioning, see James Eli Adams, Dandies and Desert Saints: Styles of Victorian Masculinity (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1995), pp. 28-32; Sussman, Victorian Masculinities (n. 106), p. 58.
206. See Thomas Dormandy, The White Death: A History of Tuberculosis (London: Hambledon Press, 1999), p. 152. For asceticism as a means of masculine self-fashioning, see James Eli Adams, Dandies and Desert Saints: Styles of Victorian Masculinity (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1995), pp. 28-32; Sussman, Victorian Masculinities (n. 106), p. 58.