Enlightenment science in Portugal: The estrangeirados and their communication networks

Social Studies of Science

Volumn 30, Issue 4, 2000, Pages 591-619

  Carneiro, Ana ^a   Simões, Ana ^b   Diogo, Maria Paula ^a  

^a UNIVERSIDADE NOVA DE LISBOA   (Portugal)

^b UNIVERSITY OF LISBON   (Portugal)

Author keywords

'Europeanized' intellectuals; 18th century scientific culture; Centres; Modernization; Peripheries

Indexed keywords

EID: 0034239228     PISSN: 03063127     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/030631200030004004     Document Type: Article

References (129)

1. Ana Simões, Ana Carneiro and Maria Paula Diogo, 'Constructing Knowledge: Eighteenth-Century Portugal and the New Sciences', Archimedes, Vol. 2 (1999), 1-40. The word 'estrangeirados' has been literally translated by Kenneth Maxwell as 'foreignizers' in his book, Pombal: Paradox of the Enlightenment (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995). We prefer the translation 'Europeanized' intellectuals to stress their intellectual affinities with those advocating new scientific trends in Europe (which for them did not include Spain, a country perceived to be as retrograde as their own).
2. Ana Simões, Ana Carneiro and Maria Paula Diogo, 'Constructing Knowledge: Eighteenth-Century Portugal and the New Sciences', Archimedes, Vol. 2 (1999), 1-40. The word 'estrangeirados' has been literally translated by Kenneth Maxwell as 'foreignizers' in his book, Pombal: Paradox of the Enlightenment (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995). We prefer the translation 'Europeanized' intellectuals to stress their intellectual affinities with those advocating new scientific trends in Europe (which for them did not include Spain, a country perceived to be as retrograde as their own).
3. António Sérgio, historian and essay-writer, is one of the central characters of 20th-century Portuguese culture, not only as an intellectual but as a citizen. He launched the journal Seara Nova, one of the strongest pillars of the Portuguese intellectuals who opposed the dictatorship of Salazar.
4. Jaime Cortesão, a historian whose works were of paramount importance for Portuguese historiography, not only in terms of the subjects he researched (especially linked to the Portuguese discoveries) but also, and particularly, at the methodological and epistemological levels. He linked history to sociology and anthropology and to the Annales' School. Belonging to António Sérgio's generation, he saw the exercise of citizenship as one of the fundamental conditions of being a man of culture. See Jaime Cortesão, Alexandre de Gusmão e o Tratado de Madrid (Rio de Janeiro: Instituto RioBranco, 1952).
5. Borges de Macedo is a contemporary historian, whose work has been mainly devoted to the reign of King José I and to the life of Sebastião José de Carvalho e Melo, Marquis of Pombal.
6. Derek de Solla Price, Little Science, Big Science (New York: Columbia University Press, 1963); Diane Crane, 'Social Structure in a Group of Scientists: A Test of the Invisible College Hypothesis', American Sociological Review, Vol. 34 (1969), 335-52; Belver C. Griffith and Nicholas C. Mullins, 'Coherent Social Groups in Scientific Change', Science, Vol. 177 (15 September 1972), 959-64; H.M. Collins, 'The Place of the "Core-Set" in Modern Science: Social Contingency with Methodological Propriety in Science', History of Science, Vol. 19 (March 1981), 6-19; David Edge and Michael Mulkay, Astronomy Transformed: The Emergence of Radio Astronomy in Britain (New York & London: Wiley Interscience, 1976); Margaret Stacey, Tradition and Change: A Study of Banbury (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1960).
7. Derek de Solla Price, Little Science, Big Science (New York: Columbia University Press, 1963); Diane Crane, 'Social Structure in a Group of Scientists: A Test of the Invisible College Hypothesis', American Sociological Review, Vol. 34 (1969), 335-52; Belver C. Griffith and Nicholas C. Mullins, 'Coherent Social Groups in Scientific Change', Science, Vol. 177 (15 September 1972), 959-64; H.M. Collins, 'The Place of the "Core-Set" in Modern Science: Social Contingency with Methodological Propriety in Science', History of Science, Vol. 19 (March 1981), 6-19; David Edge and Michael Mulkay, Astronomy Transformed: The Emergence of Radio Astronomy in Britain (New York & London: Wiley Interscience, 1976); Margaret Stacey, Tradition and Change: A Study of Banbury (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1960).
8. Derek de Solla Price, Little Science, Big Science (New York: Columbia University Press, 1963); Diane Crane, 'Social Structure in a Group of Scientists: A Test of the Invisible College Hypothesis', American Sociological Review, Vol. 34 (1969), 335-52; Belver C. Griffith and Nicholas C. Mullins, 'Coherent Social Groups in Scientific Change', Science, Vol. 177 (15 September 1972), 959-64; H.M. Collins, 'The Place of the "Core-Set" in Modern Science: Social Contingency with Methodological Propriety in Science', History of Science, Vol. 19 (March 1981), 6-19; David Edge and Michael Mulkay, Astronomy Transformed: The Emergence of Radio Astronomy in Britain (New York & London: Wiley Interscience, 1976); Margaret Stacey, Tradition and Change: A Study of Banbury (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1960).
9. Derek de Solla Price, Little Science, Big Science (New York: Columbia University Press, 1963); Diane Crane, 'Social Structure in a Group of Scientists: A Test of the Invisible College Hypothesis', American Sociological Review, Vol. 34 (1969), 335-52; Belver C. Griffith and Nicholas C. Mullins, 'Coherent Social Groups in Scientific Change', Science, Vol. 177 (15 September 1972), 959-64; H.M. Collins, 'The Place of the "Core-Set" in Modern Science: Social Contingency with Methodological Propriety in Science', History of Science, Vol. 19 (March 1981), 6-19; David Edge and Michael Mulkay, Astronomy Transformed: The Emergence of Radio Astronomy in Britain (New York & London: Wiley Interscience, 1976); Margaret Stacey, Tradition and Change: A Study of Banbury (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1960).
10. Derek de Solla Price, Little Science, Big Science (New York: Columbia University Press, 1963); Diane Crane, 'Social Structure in a Group of Scientists: A Test of the Invisible College Hypothesis', American Sociological Review, Vol. 34 (1969), 335-52; Belver C. Griffith and Nicholas C. Mullins, 'Coherent Social Groups in Scientific Change', Science, Vol. 177 (15 September 1972), 959-64; H.M. Collins, 'The Place of the "Core-Set" in Modern Science: Social Contingency with Methodological Propriety in Science', History of Science, Vol. 19 (March 1981), 6-19; David Edge and Michael Mulkay, Astronomy Transformed: The Emergence of Radio Astronomy in Britain (New York & London: Wiley Interscience, 1976); Margaret Stacey, Tradition and Change: A Study of Banbury (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1960).
11. Derek de Solla Price, Little Science, Big Science (New York: Columbia University Press, 1963); Diane Crane, 'Social Structure in a Group of Scientists: A Test of the Invisible College Hypothesis', American Sociological Review, Vol. 34 (1969), 335-52; Belver C. Griffith and Nicholas C. Mullins, 'Coherent Social Groups in Scientific Change', Science, Vol. 177 (15 September 1972), 959-64; H.M. Collins, 'The Place of the "Core-Set" in Modern Science: Social Contingency with Methodological Propriety in Science', History of Science, Vol. 19 (March 1981), 6-19; David Edge and Michael Mulkay, Astronomy Transformed: The Emergence of Radio Astronomy in Britain (New York & London: Wiley Interscience, 1976); Margaret Stacey, Tradition and Change: A Study of Banbury (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1960).
12. Ian Inkster, 'The Social Context of an Educational Movement: A Revisonist Approach to the English Mechanics Institutes', Oxford Review of Education, Vol. 2 (1976), 277-307, at 299; Arnold Thackray, 'Natural Knowledge in Cultural Context: The Manchester Model', The American Historical Review, Vol. 79 (1974), 672-709.
13. Ian Inkster, 'The Social Context of an Educational Movement: A Revisonist Approach to the English Mechanics Institutes', Oxford Review of Education, Vol. 2 (1976), 277-307, at 299; Arnold Thackray, 'Natural Knowledge in Cultural Context: The Manchester Model', The American Historical Review, Vol. 79 (1974), 672-709.
14. The Jesuits arrived in Portugal in 1540 with the purpose of evangelizing the Portuguese territories in India. Their activities were so highly praised that they finally established themselves in mainland Portugal. From the mid-16th century onwards, they opened various schools so as to provide young people with a Christian education. They had an effective monopoly of the teaching system until the intervention of King José I in 1759.
15. Matt Goldish, 'Newtonian, Converso, and Deist: The Lives of Jacob (Henrique) de Castro Sarmento', Science in Context, Vol. 10, No. 4 (1997), 651-75; J.P. Sousa Dias, A Água de Inglaterra no Portugal das Luzes (Lisboa: unpublished MSc dissertation, Faculdade de Farmácia, Universidade de Lisboa, 1986).
16. Matt Goldish, 'Newtonian, Converso, and Deist: The Lives of Jacob (Henrique) de Castro Sarmento', Science in Context, Vol. 10, No. 4 (1997), 651-75; J.P. Sousa Dias, A Água de Inglaterra no Portugal das Luzes (Lisboa: unpublished MSc dissertation, Faculdade de Farmácia, Universidade de Lisboa, 1986).
17. David Willemse, António Nunes Ribeiro Sanches, Elève de Boerhaave, et son Importance pour la Russie (Leiden, 1966); Maximiano Lemos, Ribeiro Sanches: A sua Vida e a sua Obra (Porto: Eduardo Tavares Martins, 1911).
18. David Willemse, António Nunes Ribeiro Sanches, Elève de Boerhaave, et son Importance pour la Russie (Leiden, 1966); Maximiano Lemos, Ribeiro Sanches: A sua Vida e a sua Obra (Porto: Eduardo Tavares Martins, 1911).
19. A. Gonçalves Rodrigues, 'A Correspondência Científica do Dr Sachetti Barbosa com Emmanuel Mendes da Costa, Secretário da Sociedade Real de Londres', Biblos,Vol. 14 (1938), 346-408; M. Lemos, 'Amigos de Ribeiro Sanches', Arquivo Histórico Português, Vol. 8 (1910), 288-95.
20. A. Gonçalves Rodrigues, 'A Correspondência Científica do Dr Sachetti Barbosa com Emmanuel Mendes da Costa, Secretário da Sociedade Real de Londres', Biblos,Vol. 14 (1938), 346-408; M. Lemos, 'Amigos de Ribeiro Sanches', Arquivo Histórico Português, Vol. 8 (1910), 288-95.
21. Innocencio F. Silva, Diccionario Bibliographico Portuguez, Vol. 7 (Lisboa, 1860), 42-43; D. Barbosa de Machado, Bibliotheca Lusitana (Lisboa, 1741).
22. Innocencio F. Silva, Diccionario Bibliographico Portuguez, Vol. 7 (Lisboa, 1860), 42-43; D. Barbosa de Machado, Bibliotheca Lusitana (Lisboa, 1741).
23. The Congregation of the Oratory was a religious order whose activities came to be of paramount importance in the context of 18th-century Portuguese culture, especially by opposing the control of the educational system by the Jesuits and by advocating the new sciences, and specifically the importance of observation and experiment. It was founded in 1564, in Rome, by St Philip of Nery. However, only in the mid-17th century did the establishment of the Oratorians in Portugal take place, thanks to the efforts of Father Bartolomeu de Quental (1626-98).
24. Rómulo de Carvalho, A Astronomia em Portugal no séc. XVIII (Lisboa: Instituto de Cultura e Lingua Portuguesa, 1985).
25. Luís Ferrand de Almeida, A Propósito do Testamento Político de D. Luís da Cunha (Coimbra: Universidade de Coimbra, 1948).
26. King João V supported many activities that took place at the Jesuit observatory and at the Portuguese Royal Observatory, both in Lisbon, as well as those of many foreign astronomers. Bianchini paid tribute to King João V's patronage by naming one of the spots he observed on Venus's surface the 'Mar Régio de D. João V' ('Royal Sea of King João V'): see T. de Almeida, Recreação Filosófica, Vol. 6 (Lisboa, 1762), 141-42. Bianchini also named other spots on Venus after various Portuguese personalities such as Prince Henry and King Manuel I.
27. Ofélia Milheiro Caldas, D. Francisco Xavier de Menezes, 4° Conde de Ericeira. O Homem e a sua Época (Coimbra: unpublished PhD dissertation, Departamento de Românicas, Universidade de Coimbra, 1958).
28. Rafael Bluteau, Vocabulário Portuguez e Latino . . . , 8 Vols (Coimbra, 1712-21).
29. Rafael Bluteau, Prosas Portuguesas, 2 Vols (Lisboa, 1728).
30. Jacob de Castro Sarmento, Theorica Verdadeira Das Mares, conforme à Philosophia do incomparável cavalhero Isaac Newton (London, 1737).
31. António Alberto Banha de Andrade, 'Manuel de Azevedo Fortes, primeiro sequaz, por escrito, das teses fundamentais cartesianas em Portugal', in Contributos para a história da mentalidade pedagógica portuguesa (Lisboa: Imprensa Nacional-Casa de Moeda, 1982), 119-26; Amândio Augusto Coxito, O Compéndio de lógica de M. Azevedo Fortes e as suas fontes doutrinais (Coimbra: Centro de História de Sociedade e da Cultura da Universidade de Coimbra, 1981).
32. António Alberto Banha de Andrade, 'Manuel de Azevedo Fortes, primeiro sequaz, por escrito, das teses fundamentais cartesianas em Portugal', in Contributos para a história da mentalidade pedagógica portuguesa (Lisboa: Imprensa Nacional-Casa de Moeda, 1982), 119-26; Amândio Augusto Coxito, O Compéndio de lógica de M. Azevedo Fortes e as suas fontes doutrinais (Coimbra: Centro de História de Sociedade e da Cultura da Universidade de Coimbra, 1981).
33. Manuel Azevedo Fortes, O Engenheiro Portuguez (Lisboa, 1728).
34. Manuel Azevedo Fortes, Logica Racional, Geometrica e Analitica (Lisboa, 1744).
35. Innocencio F. da Silva, Diccionario Bibliographico Portuguez, Vol. 5 (Lisboa, 1860), 370. The Fortification and Military Architecture Class was created by Luís Serrão Pimentel, Head Cosmographer and military engineer. Its purpose was to train army officers in engineering by granting them the title of military engineer'. This Class had an important rôle because it fostered the creation of a professional nucleus of engineers, which was completed, in 1790, with the foundation of the Royal Academy of Fortification, a first step towards the creation of the Army School.
36. Jorge Borges de Macedo, 'Marquês de Pombal', in Joel Serrão (ed.), Dicionário de História de Portugal, Vol. 3 (Lisboa: Iniciativas Editoriais, 1971), 415-23, and Problemas de História da Indústria Portuguesa no Séc. XVIII (Lisboa: Querco, 2nd edn, 1982); Maxwell, op. cit. note 1. António Alberto de Andrade, Verney e a cultura do seu tempo (Coimbra: Universidade de Coimbra, 1966); de Andrade, 'Luís António Verney, crítico e primeiro historiador português da filosofia', Brotéria, Vol. 38 (1944), 426.
37. Jorge Borges de Macedo, 'Marquês de Pombal', in Joel Serrão (ed.), Dicionário de História de Portugal, Vol. 3 (Lisboa: Iniciativas Editoriais, 1971), 415-23, and Problemas de História da Indústria Portuguesa no Séc. XVIII (Lisboa: Querco, 2nd edn, 1982); Maxwell, op. cit. note 1. António Alberto de Andrade, Verney e a cultura do seu tempo (Coimbra: Universidade de Coimbra, 1966); de Andrade, 'Luís António Verney, crítico e primeiro historiador português da filosofia', Brotéria, Vol. 38 (1944), 426.
38. Jorge Borges de Macedo, 'Marquês de Pombal', in Joel Serrão (ed.), Dicionário de História de Portugal, Vol. 3 (Lisboa: Iniciativas Editoriais, 1971), 415-23, and Problemas de História da Indústria Portuguesa no Séc. XVIII (Lisboa: Querco, 2nd edn, 1982); Maxwell, op. cit. note 1. António Alberto de Andrade, Verney e a cultura do seu tempo (Coimbra: Universidade de Coimbra, 1966); de Andrade, 'Luís António Verney, crítico e primeiro historiador português da filosofia', Brotéria, Vol. 38 (1944), 426.
39. Jorge Borges de Macedo, 'Marquês de Pombal', in Joel Serrão (ed.), Dicionário de História de Portugal, Vol. 3 (Lisboa: Iniciativas Editoriais, 1971), 415-23, and Problemas de História da Indústria Portuguesa no Séc. XVIII (Lisboa: Querco, 2nd edn, 1982); Maxwell, op. cit. note 1. António Alberto de Andrade, Verney e a cultura do seu tempo (Coimbra: Universidade de Coimbra, 1966); de Andrade, 'Luís António Verney, crítico e primeiro historiador português da filosofia', Brotéria, Vol. 38 (1944), 426.
40. Jorge Borges de Macedo, 'Marquês de Pombal', in Joel Serrão (ed.), Dicionário de História de Portugal, Vol. 3 (Lisboa: Iniciativas Editoriais, 1971), 415-23, and Problemas de História da Indústria Portuguesa no Séc. XVIII (Lisboa: Querco, 2nd edn, 1982); Maxwell, op. cit. note 1. António Alberto de Andrade, Verney e a cultura do seu tempo (Coimbra: Universidade de Coimbra, 1966); de Andrade, 'Luís António Verney, crítico e primeiro historiador português da filosofia', Brotéria, Vol. 38 (1944), 426.
41. Isabel Malaquias and Manuel Fernandes Thomaz, 'Scientific Communication in the 18th Century: The Case of John Hyacinth de Magellan', Physis, Vol. 31 (1994), 817-34; Stephen F. Mason, 'Jean Hyacinthe de Magellan, FRS, and the Chemical Revolution of the 18th Century', Notes and Records of the Royal Society of London, Vol. 45 (1991), 155-64.
42. Isabel Malaquias and Manuel Fernandes Thomaz, 'Scientific Communication in the 18th Century: The Case of John Hyacinth de Magellan', Physis, Vol. 31 (1994), 817-34; Stephen F. Mason, 'Jean Hyacinthe de Magellan, FRS, and the Chemical Revolution of the 18th Century', Notes and Records of the Royal Society of London, Vol. 45 (1991), 155-64.
43. Francisco Contente Domingues, Ilustração e Catolicismo: Teodora de Almeida (Lisboa: Colibri, 1994).
44. Francisco Gama Caeiro, Frei Manuel do Cenáculo: Aspectos da sua Actuação Filosófica (Lisboa: Instituto de Alta Cultura, 1959); Jacques Marcadé, 'D. Fr Manuel do Cenáculo Vilas-Boas, provincial des réguliers du Tiers Ordre Franciscain', in Arquivos do Centro Cultural Português, Vol. 3 (Paris: Fundação Calouste Gulbenkian, 1971), 431-58.
45. Francisco Gama Caeiro, Frei Manuel do Cenáculo: Aspectos da sua Actuação Filosófica (Lisboa: Instituto de Alta Cultura, 1959); Jacques Marcadé, 'D. Fr Manuel do Cenáculo Vilas-Boas, provincial des réguliers du Tiers Ordre Franciscain', in Arquivos do Centro Cultural Português, Vol. 3 (Paris: Fundação Calouste Gulbenkian, 1971), 431-58.
46. Francisco Miranda da Costa Lobo, 'Doutor Monteiro da Rocha', Revista da Faculdade de Ciências da Universidade de Coimbra, Vol. 4 (1934), 192-202; J. Tiago de Oliveira, 'As Matemáticas em Portugal - Da Restauração ao Liberalismo', Publicaçães do II Centenário da Academia das Ciências de Lisboa, Vol. 2 (1986), 81-110; J. Pereira Osório, 'Sobre a História e Desenvolvimento da Astronomia em Portugal', ibid., 111-42; de Carvalho, op. cit. note 14.
47. Francisco Miranda da Costa Lobo, 'Doutor Monteiro da Rocha', Revista da Faculdade de Ciências da Universidade de Coimbra, Vol. 4 (1934), 192-202; J. Tiago de Oliveira, 'As Matemáticas em Portugal - Da Restauração ao Liberalismo', Publicaçães do II Centenário da Academia das Ciências de Lisboa, Vol. 2 (1986), 81-110; J. Pereira Osório, 'Sobre a História e Desenvolvimento da Astronomia em Portugal', ibid., 111-42; de Carvalho, op. cit. note 14.
48. Francisco Miranda da Costa Lobo, 'Doutor Monteiro da Rocha', Revista da Faculdade de Ciências da Universidade de Coimbra, Vol. 4 (1934), 192-202; J. Tiago de Oliveira, 'As Matemáticas em Portugal - Da Restauração ao Liberalismo', Publicaçães do II Centenário da Academia das Ciências de Lisboa, Vol. 2 (1986), 81-110; J. Pereira Osório, 'Sobre a História e Desenvolvimento da Astronomia em Portugal', ibid., 111-42; de Carvalho, op. cit. note 14.
49. Francisco Miranda da Costa Lobo, 'Doutor Monteiro da Rocha', Revista da Faculdade de Ciências da Universidade de Coimbra, Vol. 4 (1934), 192-202; J. Tiago de Oliveira, 'As Matemáticas em Portugal - Da Restauração ao Liberalismo', Publicaçães do II Centenário da Academia das Ciências de Lisboa, Vol. 2 (1986), 81-110; J. Pereira Osório, 'Sobre a História e Desenvolvimento da Astronomia em Portugal', ibid., 111-42; de Carvalho, op. cit. note 14.
50. Fernando Reis, A Divulgação Científica em Periódicos Enciclopédicos Portugueses, 1779-1820 (Lisboa: unpublished MA thesis, Secção de História e Filosofia da Ciência, Universidade Nova de Lisboa, 1998), 33, note 51, and 37-38.
51. J.F. Queiró, 'J.A. da Cunha: a Forgotten Forerunner', The Mathematical Intelligencer (1988), 38-43; A.J. Franco de Oliveira, 'Anastácio da Cunha and the Concept of Converging Series', Archives for History of Exact Sciences, Vol. 39 (1988), 1-12.
52. J.F. Queiró, 'J.A. da Cunha: a Forgotten Forerunner', The Mathematical Intelligencer (1988), 38-43; A.J. Franco de Oliveira, 'Anastácio da Cunha and the Concept of Converging Series', Archives for History of Exact Sciences, Vol. 39 (1988), 1-12.
53. José da Silva Mendes Leal Júnior, Elogio Histórico de D. João Carlos de Bragança, Duque de Lafões (Lisboa, 1859).
54. António Marinho Amorin da Costa, 'Chemical Practice and Theory in Portugal in the 18th Century', in William R. Shea (ed.), Revolutions in Science: Their Meaning and Relevance (Canton, MA: Science History, 1988), 239-65; Amorim da Costa, Primórdios da Ciência Química em Portugal (Lisboa: Instituto de Cultura e Língua Portugesa, 1984); Giovanni Constanze, 'Fisici Italiani in Portogallo', in Federzoni Luigi (ed.), Relazioni Storichi fra l'Italia e il Portogallo (Roma: Real Academia d'Italia-Memori e Documenti, 1940), 375-86.
55. António Marinho Amorin da Costa, 'Chemical Practice and Theory in Portugal in the 18th Century', in William R. Shea (ed.), Revolutions in Science: Their Meaning and Relevance (Canton, MA: Science History, 1988), 239-65; Amorim da Costa, Primórdios da Ciência Química em Portugal (Lisboa: Instituto de Cultura e Língua Portugesa, 1984); Giovanni Constanze, 'Fisici Italiani in Portogallo', in Federzoni Luigi (ed.), Relazioni Storichi fra l'Italia e il Portogallo (Roma: Real Academia d'Italia-Memori e Documenti, 1940), 375-86.
56. António Marinho Amorin da Costa, 'Chemical Practice and Theory in Portugal in the 18th Century', in William R. Shea (ed.), Revolutions in Science: Their Meaning and Relevance (Canton, MA: Science History, 1988), 239-65; Amorim da Costa, Primórdios da Ciência Química em Portugal (Lisboa: Instituto de Cultura e Língua Portugesa, 1984); Giovanni Constanze, 'Fisici Italiani in Portogallo', in Federzoni Luigi (ed.), Relazioni Storichi fra l'Italia e il Portogallo (Roma: Real Academia d'Italia-Memori e Documenti, 1940), 375-86.
57. Rómulo de Carvalho, História do Gabinete de Física da Universidade de Coimbra (1772-1790) (Coimbra: Imprensa da Universidade de Coimbra, 1978); de Carvalho, A Física Experimental em Portugal no século XVIII (Lisboa: Instituto da Cultura e Língua Portuguesa, 1982); de Carvalho, 'A pretensa descoberta da lei das acções magnéticas por Dalla-Bella em 1781 na Universidade de Coimbra', Revista Filosófica, Vol. 11 (1954), 103-38; de Carvalho, 'A Física na Reforma Pombalina', in História e Desenvolvimento da Ciência em Portugal-I Colóquio-até ao século XX (Lisboa: Academia das Ciências de Lisboa, 1986).
58. Rómulo de Carvalho, História do Gabinete de Física da Universidade de Coimbra (1772-1790) (Coimbra: Imprensa da Universidade de Coimbra, 1978); de Carvalho, A Física Experimental em Portugal no século XVIII (Lisboa: Instituto da Cultura e Língua Portuguesa, 1982); de Carvalho, 'A pretensa descoberta da lei das acções magnéticas por Dalla-Bella em 1781 na Universidade de Coimbra', Revista Filosófica, Vol. 11 (1954), 103-38; de Carvalho, 'A Física na Reforma Pombalina', in História e Desenvolvimento da Ciência em Portugal-I Colóquio-até ao século XX (Lisboa: Academia das Ciências de Lisboa, 1986).
59. Rómulo de Carvalho, História do Gabinete de Física da Universidade de Coimbra (1772-1790) (Coimbra: Imprensa da Universidade de Coimbra, 1978); de Carvalho, A Física Experimental em Portugal no século XVIII (Lisboa: Instituto da Cultura e Língua Portuguesa, 1982); de Carvalho, 'A pretensa descoberta da lei das acções magnéticas por Dalla-Bella em 1781 na Universidade de Coimbra', Revista Filosófica, Vol. 11 (1954), 103-38; de Carvalho, 'A Física na Reforma Pombalina', in História e Desenvolvimento da Ciência em Portugal-I Colóquio-até ao século XX (Lisboa: Academia das Ciências de Lisboa, 1986).
60. Rómulo de Carvalho, História do Gabinete de Física da Universidade de Coimbra (1772-1790) (Coimbra: Imprensa da Universidade de Coimbra, 1978); de Carvalho, A Física Experimental em Portugal no século XVIII (Lisboa: Instituto da Cultura e Língua Portuguesa, 1982); de Carvalho, 'A pretensa descoberta da lei das acções magnéticas por Dalla-Bella em 1781 na Universidade de Coimbra', Revista Filosófica, Vol. 11 (1954), 103-38; de Carvalho, 'A Física na Reforma Pombalina', in História e Desenvolvimento da Ciência em Portugal-I Colóquio-até ao século XX (Lisboa: Academia das Ciências de Lisboa, 1986).
61. Luís António Verney, O Verdadeiro Método de Estudar (Naples, 1746), 2 Volumes. Verney published in France a summary of this book, entitled Essai sur les Moyens de Rétablir les Sciences et les Lettres en Portugal (1762), under the name of Antoine Teixeira Gamboa.
62. Luís António Verney, O Verdadeiro Método de Estudar (Naples, 1746), 2 Volumes. Verney published in France a summary of this book, entitled Essai sur les Moyens de Rétablir les Sciences et les Lettres en Portugal (1762), under the name of Antoine Teixeira Gamboa.
63. Manuel do Cenáculo, Conclusiones Philosophicas Critico-Rationales De Historia Logic . . . in Da História da Lógica, text established, translated and annotated by João Pereira Gomes (Lisboa: Edico̧ões Broteria, 1958).
64. Ribeiro Sanches, Cartas sobre a Educação da Mocidade (Coimbra, 1922). The front page of the first edition states erroneously that the book was published in Cologne.
65. João Pereira Gomes, Os Começos da Historiografia Filosófica em Portugal (Lisboa: Centro de Estudos Escolásticos, 1956), 11-15.
66. Caeiro, op. cit. note 28, 24.
67. About the Royal Censorship Committee, see M.A. Salvador Marques, A Real Mesa Censória e a Cultura Nacional: Aspectos da Geografia Cultural Portuguesa no Séc. XVIII (Coimbra: Coimbra Editora, 1963).
68. Quoted in Jacques Marcadé, 'D. Frei Manuel do Cenàculo Vilas Boas: Quelques Notes sur sa Pédagogie', in Arquivos do Centro Cultural Português, Vol. 8 (Paris: Fundação Calouste Gulbenkian, 1974), 606.
69. To the Junta do Subsídio Literário (Literary Fund Committee) was allocated the money coming from a tax paid by wine, spirits and vinegar merchants. This tax, which was launched on 10 November 1772, was intended to fund primary and secondary education.
70. About the reform of Primary and Secondary Education in Portugal during this period and its tribulations, see Rómulo de Carvalho, História do Ensino em Portugal, desde a Fundação da Nacionalidade até ao Fim do Regime Salazar Caetano (Lisboa: Fundação Calouste Gulbenkian, 1986), 453-57.
71. P. Aries, 'La France et les Français', in Encyclopédie de la Pléiade (Paris: Gallimard, 1972), 825.
72. Rómulo de Carvalho, História da Fundação do Real Colégio dos Nobres, 1761-1772 (Coimbra: Atlântida, 1959), and Joaquim Gomes Ferreira, O Marquês de Pombal e as Reformas do Ensino (Coimbra: Coimbra Editora, 1989).
73. Rómulo de Carvalho, História da Fundação do Real Colégio dos Nobres, 1761-1772 (Coimbra: Atlântida, 1959), and Joaquim Gomes Ferreira, O Marquês de Pombal e as Reformas do Ensino (Coimbra: Coimbra Editora, 1989).
74. J.J. Magalhães, Description des Octants et Sextants Anglois, ou Quarts de Cercle a Reflection (Paris, 1775).
75. J.J. Magalhães, Essai Sur La Nouvelle Théorie Du Feu Élémentaire, Et De La Chaleur Des Corps Avec La Description Des Nouveaux Thermometres, Destinés Particulièrement Aux Observations Sur Ce Sujet (London, 1780).
76. In particular, by Correia da Serra and Friedrich Heinrich Link.
77. This collection comprised about 580 items, and was considered one of the best in Europe. This was Link's opinion: see F.H. Link, Voyage au Portugal depuis 1793 jusqu'en 1799, 2 Vols (Paris, 1803/05).
78. José dos Santos Pinto and Adérito Tavares, Pina Manique, um homem entre duas épocas (Lisboa: Casa Pia de Lisboa, 1990).
79. Christovam Ayres, Para a História da Academia das Sciencias de Lisboa (Coimbra: Imprensa da Universidade de Coimbra, 1927).
80. F.A. Portugal, Notice sur la vie et les travaux de M. Corrêa da Serra (Paris, 1824); Júlio Henriques, 'José Francisco Correia da Serra', Boletim da Sociedade Broteriana, Vol. 1 (1922), 85-125; Joseph E. Agan, 'Corrêa da Serra', ibid.,Vol. 4 (1926), 9-43; Maria Paula Diogo, Ana Carneiro and Ana Simões, "The Portuguese Naturalist Correia da Serra (1750-1823) and his Impact on Early Nineteenth-Century Botany', submitted for publication.
81. F.A. Portugal, Notice sur la vie et les travaux de M. Corrêa da Serra (Paris, 1824); Júlio Henriques, 'José Francisco Correia da Serra', Boletim da Sociedade Broteriana, Vol. 1 (1922), 85-125; Joseph E. Agan, 'Corrêa da Serra', ibid.,Vol. 4 (1926), 9-43; Maria Paula Diogo, Ana Carneiro and Ana Simões, "The Portuguese Naturalist Correia da Serra (1750-1823) and his Impact on Early Nineteenth-Century Botany', submitted for publication.
82. F.A. Portugal, Notice sur la vie et les travaux de M. Corrêa da Serra (Paris, 1824); Júlio Henriques, 'José Francisco Correia da Serra', Boletim da Sociedade Broteriana, Vol. 1 (1922), 85-125; Joseph E. Agan, 'Corrêa da Serra', ibid.,Vol. 4 (1926), 9-43; Maria Paula Diogo, Ana Carneiro and Ana Simões, "The Portuguese Naturalist Correia da Serra (1750-1823) and his Impact on Early Nineteenth-Century Botany', submitted for publication.
83. F.A. Portugal, Notice sur la vie et les travaux de M. Corrêa da Serra (Paris, 1824); Júlio Henriques, 'José Francisco Correia da Serra', Boletim da Sociedade Broteriana, Vol. 1 (1922), 85-125; Joseph E. Agan, 'Corrêa da Serra', ibid.,Vol. 4 (1926), 9-43; Maria Paula Diogo, Ana Carneiro and Ana Simões, "The Portuguese Naturalist Correia da Serra (1750-1823) and his Impact on Early Nineteenth-Century Botany', submitted for publication.
84. Teodoro de Almeida, 'Oração de Abertura da Academia das Sciencias em 1 de Julho de 1780', in Ayres, op. cit. note 51, 98.
85. José Hermano Saraiva, Discurso da Sessão Inaugural das Comemoraçães do Bicentenário da Casa Pia de Lisboa (Lisboa: Casa Pia de Lisboa, 1980).
86. Maria Leonor Machada Sousa, A Abertura de Portugal à Cultura Europeia: Os Bolseiros de Pina Manique (Lisboa: Instituto Português de Ensino à Distância, 1993).
87. Júlio Henriques, 'Felix Avellar Brotero', O Instituto, Vol. 37 (1889), 360-79, esp. 367; Abilio Fernandes, 'Felix Avellar Brotero e a sua obra', Boletim da Sociedade Broteriana [2], Vol. 19 (1944), 53-76.
88. Júlio Henriques, 'Felix Avellar Brotero', O Instituto, Vol. 37 (1889), 360-79, esp. 367; Abilio Fernandes, 'Felix Avellar Brotero e a sua obra', Boletim da Sociedade Broteriana [2], Vol. 19 (1944), 53-76.
89. Carlos A.L. Filgueiras, 'Vicente de Seabra Telles (1764-1804), the First Brazilian Chemist', NTM: Internationale Zeitschrift für Geschichte und Ethik der Naturwissenschaft, Technik und Medizin, Vol. 27 (1990), 27-44; Amorin da Costa, op. cit. note 33.
90. Carlos A.L. Filgueiras, 'Vicente de Seabra Telles (1764-1804), the First Brazilian Chemist', NTM: Internationale Zeitschrift für Geschichte und Ethik der Naturwissenschaft, Technik und Medizin, Vol. 27 (1990), 27-44; Amorin da Costa, op. cit. note 33.
91. Edgard de Cerqueira Falcão (ed.), Obras Científicas, Políticas e Sociais de José Bonifácio de Andrada e Silva (São Paulo, Brazil: Empresa Gráfica da Revista dos Tribunais, 1965), 3 Vols; Octávio Tarquínio de Sousa, José Bonifácio (Belo Horizonte: Itatiaia, 1988). His full name was José Bonifácio de Andrada e Silva, but he is best known as José Bonifácio.
92. Edgard de Cerqueira Falcão (ed.), Obras Científicas, Políticas e Sociais de José Bonifácio de Andrada e Silva (São Paulo, Brazil: Empresa Gráfica da Revista dos Tribunais, 1965), 3 Vols; Octávio Tarquínio de Sousa, José Bonifácio (Belo Horizonte: Itatiaia, 1988). His full name was José Bonifácio de Andrada e Silva, but he is best known as José Bonifácio.
93. José Anastácio da Cunha (ed. José Vitorino Damasio and Diogo Kopke), Carta Fisico-Mathematica sobre Theorica da Polvora em geral e a Determinação do melhor comprimento das peças em particular (Porto, 1838).
94. The printing of Principles Mathematicos began around 1781, and Cunha may have corrected the galley-proofs before dying in 1787: 'Apresentação' in Principios Mathematicos, facsimile reprint (Coimbra: Departamento de Matemática, Faculdade de Ciências e Tecnologia, Universidade de Coimbra, 1987).
95. Traditionally, in the history of mathematics, the first criterion of convergence is attributed to Cauchy (1821), often ignoring the prior work of Bolzano (1817) and that of Cunha: see A.P. Youskevitch, 'J.A. da Cunha et les Fondements de l'Analyse Infinitésimale', Revue d'Histoire des Sciences et de leurs Applications, Vol. 26 (1973), 3-22, and Youskevitch, 'C.F. Gauss et J.A. da Cunha', ibid., Vol. 31 (1978), 327-32.
96. Traditionally, in the history of mathematics, the first criterion of convergence is attributed to Cauchy (1821), often ignoring the prior work of Bolzano (1817) and that of Cunha: see A.P. Youskevitch, 'J.A. da Cunha et les Fondements de l'Analyse Infinitésimale', Revue d'Histoire des Sciences et de leurs Applications, Vol. 26 (1973), 3-22, and Youskevitch, 'C.F. Gauss et J.A. da Cunha', ibid., Vol. 31 (1978), 327-32.
97. In 1811, the book Principios Mathematicos was published in Bordeaux. Its translation into French was carried out by João Manuel de Abreu, a former pupil and friend of José Anastácio da Cunha: Joseph-Anastase da Cunha, Principes Mathématiques (traduits littéralement du Portugais par J.M. Abreu) (Bordeaux: Imprimerie d'André Racle, 1811). The same book was republished in Paris in 1816 (Paris: M.me Ve. Courgier, Impr.-Lib. pour les Mathématiques, les Sciences et les Arts, 1816). At least two reviews of Cunha's book published by foreigners are known: one was published anonymously in the Gotingsche gelehrte Anzeigen in 1811, and the other was written by John Playfair for the Edinburgh Review in 1812.
98. In 1811, the book Principios Mathematicos was published in Bordeaux. Its translation into French was carried out by João Manuel de Abreu, a former pupil and friend of José Anastácio da Cunha: Joseph-Anastase da Cunha, Principes Mathématiques (traduits littéralement du Portugais par J.M. Abreu) (Bordeaux: Imprimerie d'André Racle, 1811). The same book was republished in Paris in 1816 (Paris: M.me Ve. Courgier, Impr.-Lib. pour les Mathématiques, les Sciences et les Arts, 1816). At least two reviews of Cunha's book published by foreigners are known: one was published anonymously in the Gotingsche gelehrte Anzeigen in 1811, and the other was written by John Playfair for the Edinburgh Review in 1812.
99. In 1811, the book Principios Mathematicos was published in Bordeaux. Its translation into French was carried out by João Manuel de Abreu, a former pupil and friend of José Anastácio da Cunha: Joseph-Anastase da Cunha, Principes Mathématiques (traduits littéralement du Portugais par J.M. Abreu) (Bordeaux: Imprimerie d'André Racle, 1811). The same book was republished in Paris in 1816 (Paris: M.me Ve. Courgier, Impr.-Lib. pour les Mathématiques, les Sciences et les Arts, 1816). At least two reviews of Cunha's book published by foreigners are known: one was published anonymously in the Gotingsche gelehrte Anzeigen in 1811, and the other was written by John Playfair for the Edinburgh Review in 1812.
100. Filinto Elísio was a Portuguese poet who belonged to a national literary movement known as 'Lusitanian Arcadia'. Various renowned Portuguese writers of the 18th century, such as the Marchioness of Alorna, were associated with it. The Oratorians and even the Marquis of Pombal took part in the activities of this literary society. The Lusitanian Arcadia advocated the adoption of classical forms in literature. António José Saraiva and Óscar Lopes, História da Literatura Portuguesa (Porto: Porto Editora, 1975).
101. Felix Avellar Brotero, Compendia de Botanica (Paris, 1787), 2 Volumes.
102. Link, op. cit. note 49, Vol. 1, 391-92.
103. F.A. Brotero, Principios de Agricultura Philosophica (Coimbra, 1793).
104. F.A. Brotero, Flora Lusitanica (Lisboa, 1804).
105. F.A. Brotero, Phytographia Lusitaniae Selectior (Lisboa, Vol. 1, 1816; Vol. 2, 1827).
106. F.A. Brotero, Phytographia Lusitaniae Selectior (Lisboa, Vol. 1, 1816; Vol. 2, 1827).
107. A.P. de Candolle, Théorie Elémentaire de la Botanique (Paris, 1813).
108. René J. Haüy, Traité de Minéralogie, Vol. 4 (Paris, 1822), 427.
109. José Bonifácio, 'Mémoire sur les diamants du Brésil', Annales de Chimie, Vol. 15 (1792), 82-88. This memoir was also published in English, as 'An account of the diamonds of Brazil', Journal of Natural Philosophy, Chemistry and the Arts, Vol. 1 (1797), 24-26.
110. José Bonifácio, 'Mémoire sur les diamants du Brésil', Annales de Chimie, Vol. 15 (1792), 82-88. This memoir was also published in English, as 'An account of the diamonds of Brazil', Journal of Natural Philosophy, Chemistry and the Arts, Vol. 1 (1797), 24-26.
111. Karl Bruhns, Alexander von Humboldt: Eine wissenschaftliche Biographie, Vol. 1 (Leipzig, 1872), 128.
112. José Bonifácio (Herrn d'Andrada), 'Kurze Angabe der Eigenschaften und Kennzeichen einiger neuen fossilien aus Schweden und Norwegen, nebst einigen chemischen Bemerkungen über dieselben', Allgemeines Journal der Chemie, Vol. 4 (1800), 28-39. This article was translated into English: 'Short notice concerning the properties and external characters of some new fossils from Sweden and Norway; together with some Chemical remarks upon the same', Journal of Natural Philosophy, Chemistry and the Arts, Vol. 5 (1801), 193-213, and in French: 'Exposé succint des caractères et des propriétés de plusieurs nouveaux mineraux de Suède et de Norvège, avec quelques observations chimiques faites sur les mêmes', Journal de Physique, de Chimie, d'Histoire Naturelle et des Arts, Vol. 51 (1800), 239-46.
113. José Bonifácio (Herrn d'Andrada), 'Kurze Angabe der Eigenschaften und Kennzeichen einiger neuen fossilien aus Schweden und Norwegen, nebst einigen chemischen Bemerkungen über dieselben', Allgemeines Journal der Chemie, Vol. 4 (1800), 28-39. This article was translated into English: 'Short notice concerning the properties and external characters of some new fossils from Sweden and Norway; together with some Chemical remarks upon the same', Journal of Natural Philosophy, Chemistry and the Arts, Vol. 5 (1801), 193-213, and in French: 'Exposé succint des caractères et des propriétés de plusieurs nouveaux mineraux de Suède et de Norvège, avec quelques observations chimiques faites sur les mêmes', Journal de Physique, de Chimie, d'Histoire Naturelle et des Arts, Vol. 51 (1800), 239-46.
114. José Bonifácio (Herrn d'Andrada), 'Kurze Angabe der Eigenschaften und Kennzeichen einiger neuen fossilien aus Schweden und Norwegen, nebst einigen chemischen Bemerkungen über dieselben', Allgemeines Journal der Chemie, Vol. 4 (1800), 28-39. This article was translated into English: 'Short notice concerning the properties and external characters of some new fossils from Sweden and Norway; together with some Chemical remarks upon the same', Journal of Natural Philosophy, Chemistry and the Arts, Vol. 5 (1801), 193-213, and in French: 'Exposé succint des caractères et des propriétés de plusieurs nouveaux mineraux de Suède et de Norvège, avec quelques observations chimiques faites sur les mêmes', Journal de Physique, de Chimie, d'Histoire Naturelle et des Arts, Vol. 51 (1800), 239-46.
115. Vicente Coelho de Seabra, Dissertação sobre a Fermentação em Geral e suas espécies (Coimbra, 1787).
116. A. Lavoisier, Méthode de Nomenclature Chimique (Paris, 1787).
117. Vicente Coelho de Seabra, Nomenclatura Chimica Portugueza, Franceza e Latina a que se junta o systema de characteres chimicos adaptados a esta nomenclatura por Hassenfratz e Adet (Lisboa, 1801).
118. V. Coelho de Seabra, Elementos de Chimica (Coimbra, Part I, 1788; Part II, 1790), facsimile reprint (Coimbra: Departamento de Química, Faculdade de Ciências, Universidade de Coimbra, 1985).
119. V. Coelho de Seabra, Elementos de Chimica (Coimbra, Part I, 1788; Part II, 1790), facsimile reprint (Coimbra: Departamento de Química, Faculdade de Ciências, Universidade de Coimbra, 1985).
120. J.A. Scopoli, Fundamenta Chemiae-Praelectionibus . . . (Prague, 1777); J.F.A. Jacquin, Elementa Chemiae . . . (Coimbra, 1807). Seabra's endorsement of Lavoisier's chemistry occurred in 1787, in the same year in which the conversion of Guyton de Morveau, Gaspard Monge, Chaptal and J.B.M. Meusnier took place. Renowned chemists such as T.O. Bergman, Scheele, Kirwan, Henry Cavendish and Priestley continued to resist it.
121. J.A. Scopoli, Fundamenta Chemiae-Praelectionibus . . . (Prague, 1777); J.F.A. Jacquin, Elementa Chemiae . . . (Coimbra, 1807). Seabra's endorsement of Lavoisier's chemistry occurred in 1787, in the same year in which the conversion of Guyton de Morveau, Gaspard Monge, Chaptal and J.B.M. Meusnier took place. Renowned chemists such as T.O. Bergman, Scheele, Kirwan, Henry Cavendish and Priestley continued to resist it.
122. Teodoro de Almeida, Recriação Filosofica (Lisboa, 1751-1800), 10 Volumes.
123. T. de Almeida, Cartas Fysico-Mathematicas (Lisboa, 1784-98), 3 Volumes.
124. Olga Morais Sarmento Silveira, Mulheres Ilustres - A Marquesa de Alorna (Lisboa: Livraria Ferreira, 1907); Hernâni Cidade, Poesias, Marquesa de Alorna (Lisboa: Sá da Costa, 1941).
125. Olga Morais Sarmento Silveira, Mulheres Ilustres - A Marquesa de Alorna (Lisboa: Livraria Ferreira, 1907); Hernâni Cidade, Poesias, Marquesa de Alorna (Lisboa: Sá da Costa, 1941).
126. Marquesa de Alorna, Recreações Botânicas, in Obras Poéticas de D. Leonor de Almeida Portugal e Lencastre (Lisboa, 1844), 6 Vols (Vol. 4).
127. O Jornal Enciclopedico dedicado à Rainha N. Senhora . . . (Lisboa, 1779-93; 1806); Semanario de Instrução, e Recreio (Lisboa, 1812-13); Jornal Encyclopedico de Lisboa (Lisboa, 1820).
128. O Jornal Enciclopedico dedicado à Rainha N. Senhora . . . (Lisboa, 1779-93; 1806); Semanario de Instrução, e Recreio (Lisboa, 1812-13); Jornal Encyclopedico de Lisboa (Lisboa, 1820).
129. O Jornal Enciclopedico dedicado à Rainha N. Senhora . . . (Lisboa, 1779-93; 1806); Semanario de Instrução, e Recreio (Lisboa, 1812-13); Jornal Encyclopedico de Lisboa (Lisboa, 1820).