Four African-American proprietary medical colleges: 1888-1923

Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences

Volumn 55, Issue 3, 2000, Pages 203-255

  Savitt, Todd L ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

AFRICAN AMERICAN; ARTICLE; HISTORY; HUMAN; MEDICAL SCHOOL; UNITED STATES;

AFRICAN AMERICANS; HISTORY, 19TH CENTURY; HISTORY, 20TH CENTURY; HUMANS; KENTUCKY; SCHOOLS, MEDICAL; TENNESSEE; UNITED STATES;

EID: 0034218970     PISSN: 00225045     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1093/jhmas/55.3.203     Document Type: Review

References (362)

1. These schools included Yale, University of Pennsylvania, Harvard, Women's Medical College of Pennsylvania, Western Reserve University, Northwestern University, Detroit Medical College, Bennett Medical College, Illinois Medical College, Medical College of Indiana, and Long Island College Hospital. According to The Health and Physique of the Negro American, ed. W.E. B. Du Bois (Atlanta, Ga.: Atlanta University Press, 1906), p. 99, there were at least 213 graduates of northern medical schools practicing in 1906. See also Daryl Keith Daniels, "African-Americans at the Yale University School of Medicine: 1810-1960," (M.D. thesis, Yale University, 1991), pp. 51, 109; [W. Montague Cobb], "Nathan Francis Mossell, M.D., 1856-1946," J. Natl. Med. Assoc., 1954, 46, 118-30, p. 122.
2. These schools included Yale, University of Pennsylvania, Harvard, Women's Medical College of Pennsylvania, Western Reserve University, Northwestern University, Detroit Medical College, Bennett Medical College, Illinois Medical College, Medical College of Indiana, and Long Island College Hospital. According to The Health and Physique of the Negro American, ed. W.E. B. Du Bois (Atlanta, Ga.: Atlanta University Press, 1906), p. 99, there were at least 213 graduates of northern medical schools practicing in 1906. See also Daryl Keith Daniels, "African-Americans at the Yale University School of Medicine: 1810-1960," (M.D. thesis, Yale University, 1991), pp. 51, 109; [W. Montague Cobb], "Nathan Francis Mossell, M.D., 1856-1946," J. Natl. Med. Assoc., 1954, 46, 118-30, p. 122.
3. These schools included Yale, University of Pennsylvania, Harvard, Women's Medical College of Pennsylvania, Western Reserve University, Northwestern University, Detroit Medical College, Bennett Medical College, Illinois Medical College, Medical College of Indiana, and Long Island College Hospital. According to The Health and Physique of the Negro American, ed. W.E. B. Du Bois (Atlanta, Ga.: Atlanta University Press, 1906), p. 99, there were at least 213 graduates of northern medical schools practicing in 1906. See also Daryl Keith Daniels, "African-Americans at the Yale University School of Medicine: 1810-1960," (M.D. thesis, Yale University, 1991), pp. 51, 109; [W. Montague Cobb], "Nathan Francis Mossell, M.D., 1856-1946," J. Natl. Med. Assoc., 1954, 46, 118-30, p. 122.
4. See, for instance, Henry Allen Bullock, A History of Negro Education in the South from 1619 to the Present (New York: Praeger, 1967); James M. McPherson, The Abolitionist Legacy from Reconstruction to the NAACP (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1975); James D. Anderson, The Education of Blacks in the South, 1860-193; (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1988); and the articles reprinted in Donald G. Nieman, ed., African Americans and Education in the South, 1865-1900 (New York: Garland Publishing, Inc., 1994).
5. See, for instance, Henry Allen Bullock, A History of Negro Education in the South from 1619 to the Present (New York: Praeger, 1967); James M. McPherson, The Abolitionist Legacy from Reconstruction to the NAACP (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1975); James D. Anderson, The Education of Blacks in the South, 1860-193; (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1988); and the articles reprinted in Donald G. Nieman, ed., African Americans and Education in the South, 1865-1900 (New York: Garland Publishing, Inc., 1994).
6. See, for instance, Henry Allen Bullock, A History of Negro Education in the South from 1619 to the Present (New York: Praeger, 1967); James M. McPherson, The Abolitionist Legacy from Reconstruction to the NAACP (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1975); James D. Anderson, The Education of Blacks in the South, 1860-193; (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1988); and the articles reprinted in Donald G. Nieman, ed., African Americans and Education in the South, 1865-1900 (New York: Garland Publishing, Inc., 1994).
7. See, for instance, Henry Allen Bullock, A History of Negro Education in the South from 1619 to the Present (New York: Praeger, 1967); James M. McPherson, The Abolitionist Legacy from Reconstruction to the NAACP (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1975); James D. Anderson, The Education of Blacks in the South, 1860-193; (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1988); and the articles reprinted in Donald G. Nieman, ed., African Americans and Education in the South, 1865-1900 (New York: Garland Publishing, Inc., 1994).
8. For information on African-American medical schools before 1920, see Herbert M. Morais, The History of the Negro in Medicine (New York: Publishers Co., 1967), pp. 40-67; Todd L. Savitt, "The education of black physicians at Shaw University, 1882-1918," in Jeffrey J. Crow and Flora J. Hatley, eds., Black Americans in North Carolina and the South (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1984), pp. 160-88; Todd L. Savitt, "Training the 'consecrated, skillful, Christian physician': Documents illustrating student life at Leonard Medical School, 1882-1918," N.C. Hist. Rev., 1998, 75, 250-76; Darlene Clark Hine, "The anatomy of failure: Medical education reform and the Leonard Medical School of Shaw University, 1882-1920," J. Negro Ed., 1985, 54, 512-25; Daniel Smith Lamb, comp. and ed., Howard University Medical Department, A Historical Biographical and Statistical Souvenir (Freeport, N.Y.: Books For Libraries Press, 1971; reprint of volume published Washington, D.C.: Beresford, 1900); D. B. Nichols, "The genesis of Howard University," Twenty-Fifth Anniversary of the Organization of Howard University (Washington, D.C.: Howard University Press, 1895); Walter Dyson, "Founding of the School of Medicine of Howard University, 1868-1873," Howard Univ. Studies Hist., November 1929, 10; Walter Dyson, Howard University, The Capstone of Negro Education; A History: 1867-1940 (Washington, D.C.: Howard University, 1941); Gloria Moldow, Women Doctors in Gilded-Age Washington: Race, Gender, and Professionalization (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1987); Todd L. Savitt, "Lincoln University Medical Department: A forgotten black medical school," J. Hist. Med. Allied Sci., 1985, 40, 42-65; Todd L. Savitt, "Abraham Flexner and the black medical schools," in Barbara M. Barzansky and Norman Gevitz, eds., Flexner and the 1990s: Medical Education in the 20th Century (New York: Greenwood Press, 1992), pp. 65-81; James Summerville, Educating Black Doctors: A History of Meharry Medical College (University, Ala.: University of Alabama Press, 1983); Charles Victor Roman, Meharry Medical College: A History (Nashville, Tenn.: Sunday School Publishing Board of the National Baptist Convention, 1934); Darlene Clark Hine, "The pursuit of professional equality: Meharry Medical College, 1921-1938, a case study," in Vincent P. Franklin and James D. Anderson, eds., New Perspectives on Black Educational History (Boston: G.K. Hall, 1978), pp. 173-92; Leslie A. Falk, "Meharry Medical College: a century of service," Southern Exposure, Summer 1978, 6, 14-17; Leslie A. Falk and N. A. Quaynor-Malm, "Early Afro-American medical education in the United States: The origins of Meharry Medical College in the nineteenth century," Prof. 23rd Congr. Hist. Med., London, 2-9 September 1972 (London: Wellcome Institute of the History of Medicine, 1974), pp. 346-56; Todd L. Savitt, "Straight University Medical Department: The short life of a black medical school in Reconstruction New Orleans," Louisiana Hist., 2000, 41, 175-201.
9. For information on African-American medical schools before 1920, see Herbert M. Morais, The History of the Negro in Medicine (New York: Publishers Co., 1967), pp. 40-67; Todd L. Savitt, "The education of black physicians at Shaw University, 1882-1918," in Jeffrey J. Crow and Flora J. Hatley, eds., Black Americans in North Carolina and the South (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1984), pp. 160-88; Todd L. Savitt, "Training the 'consecrated, skillful, Christian physician': Documents illustrating student life at Leonard Medical School, 1882-1918," N.C. Hist. Rev., 1998, 75, 250-76; Darlene Clark Hine, "The anatomy of failure: Medical education reform and the Leonard Medical School of Shaw University, 1882-1920," J. Negro Ed., 1985, 54, 512-25; Daniel Smith Lamb, comp. and ed., Howard University Medical Department, A Historical Biographical and Statistical Souvenir (Freeport, N.Y.: Books For Libraries Press, 1971; reprint of volume published Washington, D.C.: Beresford, 1900); D. B. Nichols, "The genesis of Howard University," Twenty-Fifth Anniversary of the Organization of Howard University (Washington, D.C.: Howard University Press, 1895); Walter Dyson, "Founding of the School of Medicine of Howard University, 1868-1873," Howard Univ. Studies Hist., November 1929, 10; Walter Dyson, Howard University, The Capstone of Negro Education; A History: 1867-1940 (Washington, D.C.: Howard University, 1941); Gloria Moldow, Women Doctors in Gilded-Age Washington: Race, Gender, and Professionalization (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1987); Todd L. Savitt, "Lincoln University Medical Department: A forgotten black medical school," J. Hist. Med. Allied Sci., 1985, 40, 42-65; Todd L. Savitt, "Abraham Flexner and the black medical schools," in Barbara M. Barzansky and Norman Gevitz, eds., Flexner and the 1990s: Medical Education in the 20th Century (New York: Greenwood Press, 1992), pp. 65-81; James Summerville, Educating Black Doctors: A History of Meharry Medical College (University, Ala.: University of Alabama Press, 1983); Charles Victor Roman, Meharry Medical College: A History (Nashville, Tenn.: Sunday School Publishing Board of the National Baptist Convention, 1934); Darlene Clark Hine, "The pursuit of professional equality: Meharry Medical College, 1921-1938, a case study," in Vincent P. Franklin and James D. Anderson, eds., New Perspectives on Black Educational History (Boston: G.K. Hall, 1978), pp. 173-92; Leslie A. Falk, "Meharry Medical College: a century of service," Southern Exposure, Summer 1978, 6, 14-17; Leslie A. Falk and N. A. Quaynor-Malm, "Early Afro-American medical education in the United States: The origins of Meharry Medical College in the nineteenth century," Prof. 23rd Congr. Hist. Med., London, 2-9 September 1972 (London: Wellcome Institute of the History of Medicine, 1974), pp. 346-56; Todd L. Savitt, "Straight University Medical Department: The short life of a black medical school in Reconstruction New Orleans," Louisiana Hist., 2000, 41, 175-201.
10. For information on African-American medical schools before 1920, see Herbert M. Morais, The History of the Negro in Medicine (New York: Publishers Co., 1967), pp. 40-67; Todd L. Savitt, "The education of black physicians at Shaw University, 1882-1918," in Jeffrey J. Crow and Flora J. Hatley, eds., Black Americans in North Carolina and the South (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1984), pp. 160-88; Todd L. Savitt, "Training the 'consecrated, skillful, Christian physician': Documents illustrating student life at Leonard Medical School, 1882-1918," N.C. Hist. Rev., 1998, 75, 250-76; Darlene Clark Hine, "The anatomy of failure: Medical education reform and the Leonard Medical School of Shaw University, 1882-1920," J. Negro Ed., 1985, 54, 512-25; Daniel Smith Lamb, comp. and ed., Howard University Medical Department, A Historical Biographical and Statistical Souvenir (Freeport, N.Y.: Books For Libraries Press, 1971; reprint of volume published Washington, D.C.: Beresford, 1900); D. B. Nichols, "The genesis of Howard University," Twenty-Fifth Anniversary of the Organization of Howard University (Washington, D.C.: Howard University Press, 1895); Walter Dyson, "Founding of the School of Medicine of Howard University, 1868-1873," Howard Univ. Studies Hist., November 1929, 10; Walter Dyson, Howard University, The Capstone of Negro Education; A History: 1867-1940 (Washington, D.C.: Howard University, 1941); Gloria Moldow, Women Doctors in Gilded-Age Washington: Race, Gender, and Professionalization (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1987); Todd L. Savitt, "Lincoln University Medical Department: A forgotten black medical school," J. Hist. Med. Allied Sci., 1985, 40, 42-65; Todd L. Savitt, "Abraham Flexner and the black medical schools," in Barbara M. Barzansky and Norman Gevitz, eds., Flexner and the 1990s: Medical Education in the 20th Century (New York: Greenwood Press, 1992), pp. 65-81; James Summerville, Educating Black Doctors: A History of Meharry Medical College (University, Ala.: University of Alabama Press, 1983); Charles Victor Roman, Meharry Medical College: A History (Nashville, Tenn.: Sunday School Publishing Board of the National Baptist Convention, 1934); Darlene Clark Hine, "The pursuit of professional equality: Meharry Medical College, 1921-1938, a case study," in Vincent P. Franklin and James D. Anderson, eds., New Perspectives on Black Educational History (Boston: G.K. Hall, 1978), pp. 173-92; Leslie A. Falk, "Meharry Medical College: a century of service," Southern Exposure, Summer 1978, 6, 14-17; Leslie A. Falk and N. A. Quaynor-Malm, "Early Afro-American medical education in the United States: The origins of Meharry Medical College in the nineteenth century," Prof. 23rd Congr. Hist. Med., London, 2-9 September 1972 (London: Wellcome Institute of the History of Medicine, 1974), pp. 346-56; Todd L. Savitt, "Straight University Medical Department: The short life of a black medical school in Reconstruction New Orleans," Louisiana Hist., 2000, 41, 175-201.
11. For information on African-American medical schools before 1920, see Herbert M. Morais, The History of the Negro in Medicine (New York: Publishers Co., 1967), pp. 40-67; Todd L. Savitt, "The education of black physicians at Shaw University, 1882-1918," in Jeffrey J. Crow and Flora J. Hatley, eds., Black Americans in North Carolina and the South (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1984), pp. 160-88; Todd L. Savitt, "Training the 'consecrated, skillful, Christian physician': Documents illustrating student life at Leonard Medical School, 1882-1918," N.C. Hist. Rev., 1998, 75, 250-76; Darlene Clark Hine, "The anatomy of failure: Medical education reform and the Leonard Medical School of Shaw University, 1882-1920," J. Negro Ed., 1985, 54, 512-25; Daniel Smith Lamb, comp. and ed., Howard University Medical Department, A Historical Biographical and Statistical Souvenir (Freeport, N.Y.: Books For Libraries Press, 1971; reprint of volume published Washington, D.C.: Beresford, 1900); D. B. Nichols, "The genesis of Howard University," Twenty-Fifth Anniversary of the Organization of Howard University (Washington, D.C.: Howard University Press, 1895); Walter Dyson, "Founding of the School of Medicine of Howard University, 1868-1873," Howard Univ. Studies Hist., November 1929, 10; Walter Dyson, Howard University, The Capstone of Negro Education; A History: 1867-1940 (Washington, D.C.: Howard University, 1941); Gloria Moldow, Women Doctors in Gilded-Age Washington: Race, Gender, and Professionalization (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1987); Todd L. Savitt, "Lincoln University Medical Department: A forgotten black medical school," J. Hist. Med. Allied Sci., 1985, 40, 42-65; Todd L. Savitt, "Abraham Flexner and the black medical schools," in Barbara M. Barzansky and Norman Gevitz, eds., Flexner and the 1990s: Medical Education in the 20th Century (New York: Greenwood Press, 1992), pp. 65-81; James Summerville, Educating Black Doctors: A History of Meharry Medical College (University, Ala.: University of Alabama Press, 1983); Charles Victor Roman, Meharry Medical College: A History (Nashville, Tenn.: Sunday School Publishing Board of the National Baptist Convention, 1934); Darlene Clark Hine, "The pursuit of professional equality: Meharry Medical College, 1921-1938, a case study," in Vincent P. Franklin and James D. Anderson, eds., New Perspectives on Black Educational History (Boston: G.K. Hall, 1978), pp. 173-92; Leslie A. Falk, "Meharry Medical College: a century of service," Southern Exposure, Summer 1978, 6, 14-17; Leslie A. Falk and N. A. Quaynor-Malm, "Early Afro-American medical education in the United States: The origins of Meharry Medical College in the nineteenth century," Prof. 23rd Congr. Hist. Med., London, 2-9 September 1972 (London: Wellcome Institute of the History of Medicine, 1974), pp. 346-56; Todd L. Savitt, "Straight University Medical Department: The short life of a black medical school in Reconstruction New Orleans," Louisiana Hist., 2000, 41, 175-201.
12. For information on African-American medical schools before 1920, see Herbert M. Morais, The History of the Negro in Medicine (New York: Publishers Co., 1967), pp. 40-67; Todd L. Savitt, "The education of black physicians at Shaw University, 1882-1918," in Jeffrey J. Crow and Flora J. Hatley, eds., Black Americans in North Carolina and the South (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1984), pp. 160-88; Todd L. Savitt, "Training the 'consecrated, skillful, Christian physician': Documents illustrating student life at Leonard Medical School, 1882-1918," N.C. Hist. Rev., 1998, 75, 250-76; Darlene Clark Hine, "The anatomy of failure: Medical education reform and the Leonard Medical School of Shaw University, 1882-1920," J. Negro Ed., 1985, 54, 512-25; Daniel Smith Lamb, comp. and ed., Howard University Medical Department, A Historical Biographical and Statistical Souvenir (Freeport, N.Y.: Books For Libraries Press, 1971; reprint of volume published Washington, D.C.: Beresford, 1900); D. B. Nichols, "The genesis of Howard University," Twenty-Fifth Anniversary of the Organization of Howard University (Washington, D.C.: Howard University Press, 1895); Walter Dyson, "Founding of the School of Medicine of Howard University, 1868-1873," Howard Univ. Studies Hist., November 1929, 10; Walter Dyson, Howard University, The Capstone of Negro Education; A History: 1867-1940 (Washington, D.C.: Howard University, 1941); Gloria Moldow, Women Doctors in Gilded-Age Washington: Race, Gender, and Professionalization (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1987); Todd L. Savitt, "Lincoln University Medical Department: A forgotten black medical school," J. Hist. Med. Allied Sci., 1985, 40, 42-65; Todd L. Savitt, "Abraham Flexner and the black medical schools," in Barbara M. Barzansky and Norman Gevitz, eds., Flexner and the 1990s: Medical Education in the 20th Century (New York: Greenwood Press, 1992), pp. 65-81; James Summerville, Educating Black Doctors: A History of Meharry Medical College (University, Ala.: University of Alabama Press, 1983); Charles Victor Roman, Meharry Medical College: A History (Nashville, Tenn.: Sunday School Publishing Board of the National Baptist Convention, 1934); Darlene Clark Hine, "The pursuit of professional equality: Meharry Medical College, 1921-1938, a case study," in Vincent P. Franklin and James D. Anderson, eds., New Perspectives on Black Educational History (Boston: G.K. Hall, 1978), pp. 173-92; Leslie A. Falk, "Meharry Medical College: a century of service," Southern Exposure, Summer 1978, 6, 14-17; Leslie A. Falk and N. A. Quaynor-Malm, "Early Afro-American medical education in the United States: The origins of Meharry Medical College in the nineteenth century," Prof. 23rd Congr. Hist. Med., London, 2-9 September 1972 (London: Wellcome Institute of the History of Medicine, 1974), pp. 346-56; Todd L. Savitt, "Straight University Medical Department: The short life of a black medical school in Reconstruction New Orleans," Louisiana Hist., 2000, 41, 175-201.
13. For information on African-American medical schools before 1920, see Herbert M. Morais, The History of the Negro in Medicine (New York: Publishers Co., 1967), pp. 40-67; Todd L. Savitt, "The education of black physicians at Shaw University, 1882-1918," in Jeffrey J. Crow and Flora J. Hatley, eds., Black Americans in North Carolina and the South (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1984), pp. 160-88; Todd L. Savitt, "Training the 'consecrated, skillful, Christian physician': Documents illustrating student life at Leonard Medical School, 1882-1918," N.C. Hist. Rev., 1998, 75, 250-76; Darlene Clark Hine, "The anatomy of failure: Medical education reform and the Leonard Medical School of Shaw University, 1882-1920," J. Negro Ed., 1985, 54, 512-25; Daniel Smith Lamb, comp. and ed., Howard University Medical Department, A Historical Biographical and Statistical Souvenir (Freeport, N.Y.: Books For Libraries Press, 1971; reprint of volume published Washington, D.C.: Beresford, 1900); D. B. Nichols, "The genesis of Howard University," Twenty-Fifth Anniversary of the Organization of Howard University (Washington, D.C.: Howard University Press, 1895); Walter Dyson, "Founding of the School of Medicine of Howard University, 1868-1873," Howard Univ. Studies Hist., November 1929, 10; Walter Dyson, Howard University, The Capstone of Negro Education; A History: 1867-1940 (Washington, D.C.: Howard University, 1941); Gloria Moldow, Women Doctors in Gilded-Age Washington: Race, Gender, and Professionalization (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1987); Todd L. Savitt, "Lincoln University Medical Department: A forgotten black medical school," J. Hist. Med. Allied Sci., 1985, 40, 42-65; Todd L. Savitt, "Abraham Flexner and the black medical schools," in Barbara M. Barzansky and Norman Gevitz, eds., Flexner and the 1990s: Medical Education in the 20th Century (New York: Greenwood Press, 1992), pp. 65-81; James Summerville, Educating Black Doctors: A History of Meharry Medical College (University, Ala.: University of Alabama Press, 1983); Charles Victor Roman, Meharry Medical College: A History (Nashville, Tenn.: Sunday School Publishing Board of the National Baptist Convention, 1934); Darlene Clark Hine, "The pursuit of professional equality: Meharry Medical College, 1921-1938, a case study," in Vincent P. Franklin and James D. Anderson, eds., New Perspectives on Black Educational History (Boston: G.K. Hall, 1978), pp. 173-92; Leslie A. Falk, "Meharry Medical College: a century of service," Southern Exposure, Summer 1978, 6, 14-17; Leslie A. Falk and N. A. Quaynor-Malm, "Early Afro-American medical education in the United States: The origins of Meharry Medical College in the nineteenth century," Prof. 23rd Congr. Hist. Med., London, 2-9 September 1972 (London: Wellcome Institute of the History of Medicine, 1974), pp. 346-56; Todd L. Savitt, "Straight University Medical Department: The short life of a black medical school in Reconstruction New Orleans," Louisiana Hist., 2000, 41, 175-201.
14. For information on African-American medical schools before 1920, see Herbert M. Morais, The History of the Negro in Medicine (New York: Publishers Co., 1967), pp. 40-67; Todd L. Savitt, "The education of black physicians at Shaw University, 1882-1918," in Jeffrey J. Crow and Flora J. Hatley, eds., Black Americans in North Carolina and the South (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1984), pp. 160-88; Todd L. Savitt, "Training the 'consecrated, skillful, Christian physician': Documents illustrating student life at Leonard Medical School, 1882-1918," N.C. Hist. Rev., 1998, 75, 250-76; Darlene Clark Hine, "The anatomy of failure: Medical education reform and the Leonard Medical School of Shaw University, 1882-1920," J. Negro Ed., 1985, 54, 512-25; Daniel Smith Lamb, comp. and ed., Howard University Medical Department, A Historical Biographical and Statistical Souvenir (Freeport, N.Y.: Books For Libraries Press, 1971; reprint of volume published Washington, D.C.: Beresford, 1900); D. B. Nichols, "The genesis of Howard University," Twenty-Fifth Anniversary of the Organization of Howard University (Washington, D.C.: Howard University Press, 1895); Walter Dyson, "Founding of the School of Medicine of Howard University, 1868-1873," Howard Univ. Studies Hist., November 1929, 10; Walter Dyson, Howard University, The Capstone of Negro Education; A History: 1867-1940 (Washington, D.C.: Howard University, 1941); Gloria Moldow, Women Doctors in Gilded-Age Washington: Race, Gender, and Professionalization (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1987); Todd L. Savitt, "Lincoln University Medical Department: A forgotten black medical school," J. Hist. Med. Allied Sci., 1985, 40, 42-65; Todd L. Savitt, "Abraham Flexner and the black medical schools," in Barbara M. Barzansky and Norman Gevitz, eds., Flexner and the 1990s: Medical Education in the 20th Century (New York: Greenwood Press, 1992), pp. 65-81; James Summerville, Educating Black Doctors: A History of Meharry Medical College (University, Ala.: University of Alabama Press, 1983); Charles Victor Roman, Meharry Medical College: A History (Nashville, Tenn.: Sunday School Publishing Board of the National Baptist Convention, 1934); Darlene Clark Hine, "The pursuit of professional equality: Meharry Medical College, 1921-1938, a case study," in Vincent P. Franklin and James D. Anderson, eds., New Perspectives on Black Educational History (Boston: G.K. Hall, 1978), pp. 173-92; Leslie A. Falk, "Meharry Medical College: a century of service," Southern Exposure, Summer 1978, 6, 14-17; Leslie A. Falk and N. A. Quaynor-Malm, "Early Afro-American medical education in the United States: The origins of Meharry Medical College in the nineteenth century," Prof. 23rd Congr. Hist. Med., London, 2-9 September 1972 (London: Wellcome Institute of the History of Medicine, 1974), pp. 346-56; Todd L. Savitt, "Straight University Medical Department: The short life of a black medical school in Reconstruction New Orleans," Louisiana Hist., 2000, 41, 175-201.
15. For information on African-American medical schools before 1920, see Herbert M. Morais, The History of the Negro in Medicine (New York: Publishers Co., 1967), pp. 40-67; Todd L. Savitt, "The education of black physicians at Shaw University, 1882-1918," in Jeffrey J. Crow and Flora J. Hatley, eds., Black Americans in North Carolina and the South (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1984), pp. 160-88; Todd L. Savitt, "Training the 'consecrated, skillful, Christian physician': Documents illustrating student life at Leonard Medical School, 1882-1918," N.C. Hist. Rev., 1998, 75, 250-76; Darlene Clark Hine, "The anatomy of failure: Medical education reform and the Leonard Medical School of Shaw University, 1882-1920," J. Negro Ed., 1985, 54, 512-25; Daniel Smith Lamb, comp. and ed., Howard University Medical Department, A Historical Biographical and Statistical Souvenir (Freeport, N.Y.: Books For Libraries Press, 1971; reprint of volume published Washington, D.C.: Beresford, 1900); D. B. Nichols, "The genesis of Howard University," Twenty-Fifth Anniversary of the Organization of Howard University (Washington, D.C.: Howard University Press, 1895); Walter Dyson, "Founding of the School of Medicine of Howard University, 1868-1873," Howard Univ. Studies Hist., November 1929, 10; Walter Dyson, Howard University, The Capstone of Negro Education; A History: 1867-1940 (Washington, D.C.: Howard University, 1941); Gloria Moldow, Women Doctors in Gilded-Age Washington: Race, Gender, and Professionalization (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1987); Todd L. Savitt, "Lincoln University Medical Department: A forgotten black medical school," J. Hist. Med. Allied Sci., 1985, 40, 42-65; Todd L. Savitt, "Abraham Flexner and the black medical schools," in Barbara M. Barzansky and Norman Gevitz, eds., Flexner and the 1990s: Medical Education in the 20th Century (New York: Greenwood Press, 1992), pp. 65-81; James Summerville, Educating Black Doctors: A History of Meharry Medical College (University, Ala.: University of Alabama Press, 1983); Charles Victor Roman, Meharry Medical College: A History (Nashville, Tenn.: Sunday School Publishing Board of the National Baptist Convention, 1934); Darlene Clark Hine, "The pursuit of professional equality: Meharry Medical College, 1921-1938, a case study," in Vincent P. Franklin and James D. Anderson, eds., New Perspectives on Black Educational History (Boston: G.K. Hall, 1978), pp. 173-92; Leslie A. Falk, "Meharry Medical College: a century of service," Southern Exposure, Summer 1978, 6, 14-17; Leslie A. Falk and N. A. Quaynor-Malm, "Early Afro-American medical education in the United States: The origins of Meharry Medical College in the nineteenth century," Prof. 23rd Congr. Hist. Med., London, 2-9 September 1972 (London: Wellcome Institute of the History of Medicine, 1974), pp. 346-56; Todd L. Savitt, "Straight University Medical Department: The short life of a black medical school in Reconstruction New Orleans," Louisiana Hist., 2000, 41, 175-201.
16. For information on African-American medical schools before 1920, see Herbert M. Morais, The History of the Negro in Medicine (New York: Publishers Co., 1967), pp. 40-67; Todd L. Savitt, "The education of black physicians at Shaw University, 1882-1918," in Jeffrey J. Crow and Flora J. Hatley, eds., Black Americans in North Carolina and the South (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1984), pp. 160-88; Todd L. Savitt, "Training the 'consecrated, skillful, Christian physician': Documents illustrating student life at Leonard Medical School, 1882-1918," N.C. Hist. Rev., 1998, 75, 250-76; Darlene Clark Hine, "The anatomy of failure: Medical education reform and the Leonard Medical School of Shaw University, 1882-1920," J. Negro Ed., 1985, 54, 512-25; Daniel Smith Lamb, comp. and ed., Howard University Medical Department, A Historical Biographical and Statistical Souvenir (Freeport, N.Y.: Books For Libraries Press, 1971; reprint of volume published Washington, D.C.: Beresford, 1900); D. B. Nichols, "The genesis of Howard University," Twenty-Fifth Anniversary of the Organization of Howard University (Washington, D.C.: Howard University Press, 1895); Walter Dyson, "Founding of the School of Medicine of Howard University, 1868-1873," Howard Univ. Studies Hist., November 1929, 10; Walter Dyson, Howard University, The Capstone of Negro Education; A History: 1867-1940 (Washington, D.C.: Howard University, 1941); Gloria Moldow, Women Doctors in Gilded-Age Washington: Race, Gender, and Professionalization (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1987); Todd L. Savitt, "Lincoln University Medical Department: A forgotten black medical school," J. Hist. Med. Allied Sci., 1985, 40, 42-65; Todd L. Savitt, "Abraham Flexner and the black medical schools," in Barbara M. Barzansky and Norman Gevitz, eds., Flexner and the 1990s: Medical Education in the 20th Century (New York: Greenwood Press, 1992), pp. 65-81; James Summerville, Educating Black Doctors: A History of Meharry Medical College (University, Ala.: University of Alabama Press, 1983); Charles Victor Roman, Meharry Medical College: A History (Nashville, Tenn.: Sunday School Publishing Board of the National Baptist Convention, 1934); Darlene Clark Hine, "The pursuit of professional equality: Meharry Medical College, 1921-1938, a case study," in Vincent P. Franklin and James D. Anderson, eds., New Perspectives on Black Educational History (Boston: G.K. Hall, 1978), pp. 173-92; Leslie A. Falk, "Meharry Medical College: a century of service," Southern Exposure, Summer 1978, 6, 14-17; Leslie A. Falk and N. A. Quaynor-Malm, "Early Afro-American medical education in the United States: The origins of Meharry Medical College in the nineteenth century," Prof. 23rd Congr. Hist. Med., London, 2-9 September 1972 (London: Wellcome Institute of the History of Medicine, 1974), pp. 346-56; Todd L. Savitt, "Straight University Medical Department: The short life of a black medical school in Reconstruction New Orleans," Louisiana Hist., 2000, 41, 175-201.
17. For information on African-American medical schools before 1920, see Herbert M. Morais, The History of the Negro in Medicine (New York: Publishers Co., 1967), pp. 40-67; Todd L. Savitt, "The education of black physicians at Shaw University, 1882-1918," in Jeffrey J. Crow and Flora J. Hatley, eds., Black Americans in North Carolina and the South (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1984), pp. 160-88; Todd L. Savitt, "Training the 'consecrated, skillful, Christian physician': Documents illustrating student life at Leonard Medical School, 1882-1918," N.C. Hist. Rev., 1998, 75, 250-76; Darlene Clark Hine, "The anatomy of failure: Medical education reform and the Leonard Medical School of Shaw University, 1882-1920," J. Negro Ed., 1985, 54, 512-25; Daniel Smith Lamb, comp. and ed., Howard University Medical Department, A Historical Biographical and Statistical Souvenir (Freeport, N.Y.: Books For Libraries Press, 1971; reprint of volume published Washington, D.C.: Beresford, 1900); D. B. Nichols, "The genesis of Howard University," Twenty-Fifth Anniversary of the Organization of Howard University (Washington, D.C.: Howard University Press, 1895); Walter Dyson, "Founding of the School of Medicine of Howard University, 1868-1873," Howard Univ. Studies Hist., November 1929, 10; Walter Dyson, Howard University, The Capstone of Negro Education; A History: 1867-1940 (Washington, D.C.: Howard University, 1941); Gloria Moldow, Women Doctors in Gilded-Age Washington: Race, Gender, and Professionalization (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1987); Todd L. Savitt, "Lincoln University Medical Department: A forgotten black medical school," J. Hist. Med. Allied Sci., 1985, 40, 42-65; Todd L. Savitt, "Abraham Flexner and the black medical schools," in Barbara M. Barzansky and Norman Gevitz, eds., Flexner and the 1990s: Medical Education in the 20th Century (New York: Greenwood Press, 1992), pp. 65-81; James Summerville, Educating Black Doctors: A History of Meharry Medical College (University, Ala.: University of Alabama Press, 1983); Charles Victor Roman, Meharry Medical College: A History (Nashville, Tenn.: Sunday School Publishing Board of the National Baptist Convention, 1934); Darlene Clark Hine, "The pursuit of professional equality: Meharry Medical College, 1921-1938, a case study," in Vincent P. Franklin and James D. Anderson, eds., New Perspectives on Black Educational History (Boston: G.K. Hall, 1978), pp. 173-92; Leslie A. Falk, "Meharry Medical College: a century of service," Southern Exposure, Summer 1978, 6, 14-17; Leslie A. Falk and N. A. Quaynor-Malm, "Early Afro-American medical education in the United States: The origins of Meharry Medical College in the nineteenth century," Prof. 23rd Congr. Hist. Med., London, 2-9 September 1972 (London: Wellcome Institute of the History of Medicine, 1974), pp. 346-56; Todd L. Savitt, "Straight University Medical Department: The short life of a black medical school in Reconstruction New Orleans," Louisiana Hist., 2000, 41, 175-201.
18. For information on African-American medical schools before 1920, see Herbert M. Morais, The History of the Negro in Medicine (New York: Publishers Co., 1967), pp. 40-67; Todd L. Savitt, "The education of black physicians at Shaw University, 1882-1918," in Jeffrey J. Crow and Flora J. Hatley, eds., Black Americans in North Carolina and the South (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1984), pp. 160-88; Todd L. Savitt, "Training the 'consecrated, skillful, Christian physician': Documents illustrating student life at Leonard Medical School, 1882-1918," N.C. Hist. Rev., 1998, 75, 250-76; Darlene Clark Hine, "The anatomy of failure: Medical education reform and the Leonard Medical School of Shaw University, 1882-1920," J. Negro Ed., 1985, 54, 512-25; Daniel Smith Lamb, comp. and ed., Howard University Medical Department, A Historical Biographical and Statistical Souvenir (Freeport, N.Y.: Books For Libraries Press, 1971; reprint of volume published Washington, D.C.: Beresford, 1900); D. B. Nichols, "The genesis of Howard University," Twenty-Fifth Anniversary of the Organization of Howard University (Washington, D.C.: Howard University Press, 1895); Walter Dyson, "Founding of the School of Medicine of Howard University, 1868-1873," Howard Univ. Studies Hist., November 1929, 10; Walter Dyson, Howard University, The Capstone of Negro Education; A History: 1867-1940 (Washington, D.C.: Howard University, 1941); Gloria Moldow, Women Doctors in Gilded-Age Washington: Race, Gender, and Professionalization (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1987); Todd L. Savitt, "Lincoln University Medical Department: A forgotten black medical school," J. Hist. Med. Allied Sci., 1985, 40, 42-65; Todd L. Savitt, "Abraham Flexner and the black medical schools," in Barbara M. Barzansky and Norman Gevitz, eds., Flexner and the 1990s: Medical Education in the 20th Century (New York: Greenwood Press, 1992), pp. 65-81; James Summerville, Educating Black Doctors: A History of Meharry Medical College (University, Ala.: University of Alabama Press, 1983); Charles Victor Roman, Meharry Medical College: A History (Nashville, Tenn.: Sunday School Publishing Board of the National Baptist Convention, 1934); Darlene Clark Hine, "The pursuit of professional equality: Meharry Medical College, 1921-1938, a case study," in Vincent P. Franklin and James D. Anderson, eds., New Perspectives on Black Educational History (Boston: G.K. Hall, 1978), pp. 173-92; Leslie A. Falk, "Meharry Medical College: a century of service," Southern Exposure, Summer 1978, 6, 14-17; Leslie A. Falk and N. A. Quaynor-Malm, "Early Afro-American medical education in the United States: The origins of Meharry Medical College in the nineteenth century," Prof. 23rd Congr. Hist. Med., London, 2-9 September 1972 (London: Wellcome Institute of the History of Medicine, 1974), pp. 346-56; Todd L. Savitt, "Straight University Medical Department: The short life of a black medical school in Reconstruction New Orleans," Louisiana Hist., 2000, 41, 175-201.
19. For information on African-American medical schools before 1920, see Herbert M. Morais, The History of the Negro in Medicine (New York: Publishers Co., 1967), pp. 40-67; Todd L. Savitt, "The education of black physicians at Shaw University, 1882-1918," in Jeffrey J. Crow and Flora J. Hatley, eds., Black Americans in North Carolina and the South (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1984), pp. 160-88; Todd L. Savitt, "Training the 'consecrated, skillful, Christian physician': Documents illustrating student life at Leonard Medical School, 1882-1918," N.C. Hist. Rev., 1998, 75, 250-76; Darlene Clark Hine, "The anatomy of failure: Medical education reform and the Leonard Medical School of Shaw University, 1882-1920," J. Negro Ed., 1985, 54, 512-25; Daniel Smith Lamb, comp. and ed., Howard University Medical Department, A Historical Biographical and Statistical Souvenir (Freeport, N.Y.: Books For Libraries Press, 1971; reprint of volume published Washington, D.C.: Beresford, 1900); D. B. Nichols, "The genesis of Howard University," Twenty-Fifth Anniversary of the Organization of Howard University (Washington, D.C.: Howard University Press, 1895); Walter Dyson, "Founding of the School of Medicine of Howard University, 1868-1873," Howard Univ. Studies Hist., November 1929, 10; Walter Dyson, Howard University, The Capstone of Negro Education; A History: 1867-1940 (Washington, D.C.: Howard University, 1941); Gloria Moldow, Women Doctors in Gilded-Age Washington: Race, Gender, and Professionalization (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1987); Todd L. Savitt, "Lincoln University Medical Department: A forgotten black medical school," J. Hist. Med. Allied Sci., 1985, 40, 42-65; Todd L. Savitt, "Abraham Flexner and the black medical schools," in Barbara M. Barzansky and Norman Gevitz, eds., Flexner and the 1990s: Medical Education in the 20th Century (New York: Greenwood Press, 1992), pp. 65-81; James Summerville, Educating Black Doctors: A History of Meharry Medical College (University, Ala.: University of Alabama Press, 1983); Charles Victor Roman, Meharry Medical College: A History (Nashville, Tenn.: Sunday School Publishing Board of the National Baptist Convention, 1934); Darlene Clark Hine, "The pursuit of professional equality: Meharry Medical College, 1921-1938, a case study," in Vincent P. Franklin and James D. Anderson, eds., New Perspectives on Black Educational History (Boston: G.K. Hall, 1978), pp. 173-92; Leslie A. Falk, "Meharry Medical College: a century of service," Southern Exposure, Summer 1978, 6, 14-17; Leslie A. Falk and N. A. Quaynor-Malm, "Early Afro-American medical education in the United States: The origins of Meharry Medical College in the nineteenth century," Prof. 23rd Congr. Hist. Med., London, 2-9 September 1972 (London: Wellcome Institute of the History of Medicine, 1974), pp. 346-56; Todd L. Savitt, "Straight University Medical Department: The short life of a black medical school in Reconstruction New Orleans," Louisiana Hist., 2000, 41, 175-201.
20. For information on African-American medical schools before 1920, see Herbert M. Morais, The History of the Negro in Medicine (New York: Publishers Co., 1967), pp. 40-67; Todd L. Savitt, "The education of black physicians at Shaw University, 1882-1918," in Jeffrey J. Crow and Flora J. Hatley, eds., Black Americans in North Carolina and the South (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1984), pp. 160-88; Todd L. Savitt, "Training the 'consecrated, skillful, Christian physician': Documents illustrating student life at Leonard Medical School, 1882-1918," N.C. Hist. Rev., 1998, 75, 250-76; Darlene Clark Hine, "The anatomy of failure: Medical education reform and the Leonard Medical School of Shaw University, 1882-1920," J. Negro Ed., 1985, 54, 512-25; Daniel Smith Lamb, comp. and ed., Howard University Medical Department, A Historical Biographical and Statistical Souvenir (Freeport, N.Y.: Books For Libraries Press, 1971; reprint of volume published Washington, D.C.: Beresford, 1900); D. B. Nichols, "The genesis of Howard University," Twenty-Fifth Anniversary of the Organization of Howard University (Washington, D.C.: Howard University Press, 1895); Walter Dyson, "Founding of the School of Medicine of Howard University, 1868-1873," Howard Univ. Studies Hist., November 1929, 10; Walter Dyson, Howard University, The Capstone of Negro Education; A History: 1867-1940 (Washington, D.C.: Howard University, 1941); Gloria Moldow, Women Doctors in Gilded-Age Washington: Race, Gender, and Professionalization (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1987); Todd L. Savitt, "Lincoln University Medical Department: A forgotten black medical school," J. Hist. Med. Allied Sci., 1985, 40, 42-65; Todd L. Savitt, "Abraham Flexner and the black medical schools," in Barbara M. Barzansky and Norman Gevitz, eds., Flexner and the 1990s: Medical Education in the 20th Century (New York: Greenwood Press, 1992), pp. 65-81; James Summerville, Educating Black Doctors: A History of Meharry Medical College (University, Ala.: University of Alabama Press, 1983); Charles Victor Roman, Meharry Medical College: A History (Nashville, Tenn.: Sunday School Publishing Board of the National Baptist Convention, 1934); Darlene Clark Hine, "The pursuit of professional equality: Meharry Medical College, 1921-1938, a case study," in Vincent P. Franklin and James D. Anderson, eds., New Perspectives on Black Educational History (Boston: G.K. Hall, 1978), pp. 173-92; Leslie A. Falk, "Meharry Medical College: a century of service," Southern Exposure, Summer 1978, 6, 14-17; Leslie A. Falk and N. A. Quaynor-Malm, "Early Afro-American medical education in the United States: The origins of Meharry Medical College in the nineteenth century," Prof. 23rd Congr. Hist. Med., London, 2-9 September 1972 (London: Wellcome Institute of the History of Medicine, 1974), pp. 346-56; Todd L. Savitt, "Straight University Medical Department: The short life of a black medical school in Reconstruction New Orleans," Louisiana Hist., 2000, 41, 175-201.
21. For information on African-American medical schools before 1920, see Herbert M. Morais, The History of the Negro in Medicine (New York: Publishers Co., 1967), pp. 40-67; Todd L. Savitt, "The education of black physicians at Shaw University, 1882-1918," in Jeffrey J. Crow and Flora J. Hatley, eds., Black Americans in North Carolina and the South (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1984), pp. 160-88; Todd L. Savitt, "Training the 'consecrated, skillful, Christian physician': Documents illustrating student life at Leonard Medical School, 1882-1918," N.C. Hist. Rev., 1998, 75, 250-76; Darlene Clark Hine, "The anatomy of failure: Medical education reform and the Leonard Medical School of Shaw University, 1882-1920," J. Negro Ed., 1985, 54, 512-25; Daniel Smith Lamb, comp. and ed., Howard University Medical Department, A Historical Biographical and Statistical Souvenir (Freeport, N.Y.: Books For Libraries Press, 1971; reprint of volume published Washington, D.C.: Beresford, 1900); D. B. Nichols, "The genesis of Howard University," Twenty-Fifth Anniversary of the Organization of Howard University (Washington, D.C.: Howard University Press, 1895); Walter Dyson, "Founding of the School of Medicine of Howard University, 1868-1873," Howard Univ. Studies Hist., November 1929, 10; Walter Dyson, Howard University, The Capstone of Negro Education; A History: 1867-1940 (Washington, D.C.: Howard University, 1941); Gloria Moldow, Women Doctors in Gilded-Age Washington: Race, Gender, and Professionalization (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1987); Todd L. Savitt, "Lincoln University Medical Department: A forgotten black medical school," J. Hist. Med. Allied Sci., 1985, 40, 42-65; Todd L. Savitt, "Abraham Flexner and the black medical schools," in Barbara M. Barzansky and Norman Gevitz, eds., Flexner and the 1990s: Medical Education in the 20th Century (New York: Greenwood Press, 1992), pp. 65-81; James Summerville, Educating Black Doctors: A History of Meharry Medical College (University, Ala.: University of Alabama Press, 1983); Charles Victor Roman, Meharry Medical College: A History (Nashville, Tenn.: Sunday School Publishing Board of the National Baptist Convention, 1934); Darlene Clark Hine, "The pursuit of professional equality: Meharry Medical College, 1921-1938, a case study," in Vincent P. Franklin and James D. Anderson, eds., New Perspectives on Black Educational History (Boston: G.K. Hall, 1978), pp. 173-92; Leslie A. Falk, "Meharry Medical College: a century of service," Southern Exposure, Summer 1978, 6, 14-17; Leslie A. Falk and N. A. Quaynor-Malm, "Early Afro-American medical education in the United States: The origins of Meharry Medical College in the nineteenth century," Prof. 23rd Congr. Hist. Med., London, 2-9 September 1972 (London: Wellcome Institute of the History of Medicine, 1974), pp. 346-56; Todd L. Savitt, "Straight University Medical Department: The short life of a black medical school in Reconstruction New Orleans," Louisiana Hist., 2000, 41, 175-201.
22. For information on African-American medical schools before 1920, see Herbert M. Morais, The History of the Negro in Medicine (New York: Publishers Co., 1967), pp. 40-67; Todd L. Savitt, "The education of black physicians at Shaw University, 1882-1918," in Jeffrey J. Crow and Flora J. Hatley, eds., Black Americans in North Carolina and the South (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1984), pp. 160-88; Todd L. Savitt, "Training the 'consecrated, skillful, Christian physician': Documents illustrating student life at Leonard Medical School, 1882-1918," N.C. Hist. Rev., 1998, 75, 250-76; Darlene Clark Hine, "The anatomy of failure: Medical education reform and the Leonard Medical School of Shaw University, 1882-1920," J. Negro Ed., 1985, 54, 512-25; Daniel Smith Lamb, comp. and ed., Howard University Medical Department, A Historical Biographical and Statistical Souvenir (Freeport, N.Y.: Books For Libraries Press, 1971; reprint of volume published Washington, D.C.: Beresford, 1900); D. B. Nichols, "The genesis of Howard University," Twenty-Fifth Anniversary of the Organization of Howard University (Washington, D.C.: Howard University Press, 1895); Walter Dyson, "Founding of the School of Medicine of Howard University, 1868-1873," Howard Univ. Studies Hist., November 1929, 10; Walter Dyson, Howard University, The Capstone of Negro Education; A History: 1867-1940 (Washington, D.C.: Howard University, 1941); Gloria Moldow, Women Doctors in Gilded-Age Washington: Race, Gender, and Professionalization (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1987); Todd L. Savitt, "Lincoln University Medical Department: A forgotten black medical school," J. Hist. Med. Allied Sci., 1985, 40, 42-65; Todd L. Savitt, "Abraham Flexner and the black medical schools," in Barbara M. Barzansky and Norman Gevitz, eds., Flexner and the 1990s: Medical Education in the 20th Century (New York: Greenwood Press, 1992), pp. 65-81; James Summerville, Educating Black Doctors: A History of Meharry Medical College (University, Ala.: University of Alabama Press, 1983); Charles Victor Roman, Meharry Medical College: A History (Nashville, Tenn.: Sunday School Publishing Board of the National Baptist Convention, 1934); Darlene Clark Hine, "The pursuit of professional equality: Meharry Medical College, 1921-1938, a case study," in Vincent P. Franklin and James D. Anderson, eds., New Perspectives on Black Educational History (Boston: G.K. Hall, 1978), pp. 173-92; Leslie A. Falk, "Meharry Medical College: a century of service," Southern Exposure, Summer 1978, 6, 14-17; Leslie A. Falk and N. A. Quaynor-Malm, "Early Afro-American medical education in the United States: The origins of Meharry Medical College in the nineteenth century," Prof. 23rd Congr. Hist. Med., London, 2-9 September 1972 (London: Wellcome Institute of the History of Medicine, 1974), pp. 346-56; Todd L. Savitt, "Straight University Medical Department: The short life of a black medical school in Reconstruction New Orleans," Louisiana Hist., 2000, 41, 175-201.
23. For information on African-American medical schools before 1920, see Herbert M. Morais, The History of the Negro in Medicine (New York: Publishers Co., 1967), pp. 40-67; Todd L. Savitt, "The education of black physicians at Shaw University, 1882-1918," in Jeffrey J. Crow and Flora J. Hatley, eds., Black Americans in North Carolina and the South (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1984), pp. 160-88; Todd L. Savitt, "Training the 'consecrated, skillful, Christian physician': Documents illustrating student life at Leonard Medical School, 1882-1918," N.C. Hist. Rev., 1998, 75, 250-76; Darlene Clark Hine, "The anatomy of failure: Medical education reform and the Leonard Medical School of Shaw University, 1882-1920," J. Negro Ed., 1985, 54, 512-25; Daniel Smith Lamb, comp. and ed., Howard University Medical Department, A Historical Biographical and Statistical Souvenir (Freeport, N.Y.: Books For Libraries Press, 1971; reprint of volume published Washington, D.C.: Beresford, 1900); D. B. Nichols, "The genesis of Howard University," Twenty-Fifth Anniversary of the Organization of Howard University (Washington, D.C.: Howard University Press, 1895); Walter Dyson, "Founding of the School of Medicine of Howard University, 1868-1873," Howard Univ. Studies Hist., November 1929, 10; Walter Dyson, Howard University, The Capstone of Negro Education; A History: 1867-1940 (Washington, D.C.: Howard University, 1941); Gloria Moldow, Women Doctors in Gilded-Age Washington: Race, Gender, and Professionalization (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1987); Todd L. Savitt, "Lincoln University Medical Department: A forgotten black medical school," J. Hist. Med. Allied Sci., 1985, 40, 42-65; Todd L. Savitt, "Abraham Flexner and the black medical schools," in Barbara M. Barzansky and Norman Gevitz, eds., Flexner and the 1990s: Medical Education in the 20th Century (New York: Greenwood Press, 1992), pp. 65-81; James Summerville, Educating Black Doctors: A History of Meharry Medical College (University, Ala.: University of Alabama Press, 1983); Charles Victor Roman, Meharry Medical College: A History (Nashville, Tenn.: Sunday School Publishing Board of the National Baptist Convention, 1934); Darlene Clark Hine, "The pursuit of professional equality: Meharry Medical College, 1921-1938, a case study," in Vincent P. Franklin and James D. Anderson, eds., New Perspectives on Black Educational History (Boston: G.K. Hall, 1978), pp. 173-92; Leslie A. Falk, "Meharry Medical College: a century of service," Southern Exposure, Summer 1978, 6, 14-17; Leslie A. Falk and N. A. Quaynor-Malm, "Early Afro-American medical education in the United States: The origins of Meharry Medical College in the nineteenth century," Prof. 23rd Congr. Hist. Med., London, 2-9 September 1972 (London: Wellcome Institute of the History of Medicine, 1974), pp. 346-56; Todd L. Savitt, "Straight University Medical Department: The short life of a black medical school in Reconstruction New Orleans," Louisiana Hist., 2000, 41, 175-201.
24. For information on African-American medical schools before 1920, see Herbert M. Morais, The History of the Negro in Medicine (New York: Publishers Co., 1967), pp. 40-67; Todd L. Savitt, "The education of black physicians at Shaw University, 1882-1918," in Jeffrey J. Crow and Flora J. Hatley, eds., Black Americans in North Carolina and the South (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1984), pp. 160-88; Todd L. Savitt, "Training the 'consecrated, skillful, Christian physician': Documents illustrating student life at Leonard Medical School, 1882-1918," N.C. Hist. Rev., 1998, 75, 250-76; Darlene Clark Hine, "The anatomy of failure: Medical education reform and the Leonard Medical School of Shaw University, 1882-1920," J. Negro Ed., 1985, 54, 512-25; Daniel Smith Lamb, comp. and ed., Howard University Medical Department, A Historical Biographical and Statistical Souvenir (Freeport, N.Y.: Books For Libraries Press, 1971; reprint of volume published Washington, D.C.: Beresford, 1900); D. B. Nichols, "The genesis of Howard University," Twenty-Fifth Anniversary of the Organization of Howard University (Washington, D.C.: Howard University Press, 1895); Walter Dyson, "Founding of the School of Medicine of Howard University, 1868-1873," Howard Univ. Studies Hist., November 1929, 10; Walter Dyson, Howard University, The Capstone of Negro Education; A History: 1867-1940 (Washington, D.C.: Howard University, 1941); Gloria Moldow, Women Doctors in Gilded-Age Washington: Race, Gender, and Professionalization (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1987); Todd L. Savitt, "Lincoln University Medical Department: A forgotten black medical school," J. Hist. Med. Allied Sci., 1985, 40, 42-65; Todd L. Savitt, "Abraham Flexner and the black medical schools," in Barbara M. Barzansky and Norman Gevitz, eds., Flexner and the 1990s: Medical Education in the 20th Century (New York: Greenwood Press, 1992), pp. 65-81; James Summerville, Educating Black Doctors: A History of Meharry Medical College (University, Ala.: University of Alabama Press, 1983); Charles Victor Roman, Meharry Medical College: A History (Nashville, Tenn.: Sunday School Publishing Board of the National Baptist Convention, 1934); Darlene Clark Hine, "The pursuit of professional equality: Meharry Medical College, 1921-1938, a case study," in Vincent P. Franklin and James D. Anderson, eds., New Perspectives on Black Educational History (Boston: G.K. Hall, 1978), pp. 173-92; Leslie A. Falk, "Meharry Medical College: a century of service," Southern Exposure, Summer 1978, 6, 14-17; Leslie A. Falk and N. A. Quaynor-Malm, "Early Afro-American medical education in the United States: The origins of Meharry Medical College in the nineteenth century," Prof. 23rd Congr. Hist. Med., London, 2-9 September 1972 (London: Wellcome Institute of the History of Medicine, 1974), pp. 346-56; Todd L. Savitt, "Straight University Medical Department: The short life of a black medical school in Reconstruction New Orleans," Louisiana Hist., 2000, 41, 175-201.
25. Savitt, (n. 3) "Training . . . at Leonard," p. 270.
26. For more on the history of medical education during the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, see Abraham Flexner, Medical Education in the United States and Canada; A Report to the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching (New York: Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching, 1910), pp. 3-19; Martin Kaufman, American Medical Education: The Formative Years, 1765-1910 (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1976), especially pp. 109-82; Kenneth M. Ludmerer, Learning to Heal: The Development of American Medical Education (New York: Basic Books, 1985); Regina Markell Morantz-Sanchez, Sympathy and Science: Women Physicians in American Medicine (New York: Oxford University Press, 1985), pp. 64-89; and Moldow, (n. 3) Women Doctors, pp. 37-74.
27. For more on the history of medical education during the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, see Abraham Flexner, Medical Education in the United States and Canada; A Report to the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching (New York: Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching, 1910), pp. 3-19; Martin Kaufman, American Medical Education: The Formative Years, 1765-1910 (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1976), especially pp. 109-82; Kenneth M. Ludmerer, Learning to Heal: The Development of American Medical Education (New York: Basic Books, 1985); Regina Markell Morantz-Sanchez, Sympathy and Science: Women Physicians in American Medicine (New York: Oxford University Press, 1985), pp. 64-89; and Moldow, (n. 3) Women Doctors, pp. 37-74.
28. For more on the history of medical education during the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, see Abraham Flexner, Medical Education in the United States and Canada; A Report to the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching (New York: Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching, 1910), pp. 3-19; Martin Kaufman, American Medical Education: The Formative Years, 1765-1910 (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1976), especially pp. 109-82; Kenneth M. Ludmerer, Learning to Heal: The Development of American Medical Education (New York: Basic Books, 1985); Regina Markell Morantz-Sanchez, Sympathy and Science: Women Physicians in American Medicine (New York: Oxford University Press, 1985), pp. 64-89; and Moldow, (n. 3) Women Doctors, pp. 37-74.
29. For more on the history of medical education during the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, see Abraham Flexner, Medical Education in the United States and Canada; A Report to the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching (New York: Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching, 1910), pp. 3-19; Martin Kaufman, American Medical Education: The Formative Years, 1765-1910 (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1976), especially pp. 109-82; Kenneth M. Ludmerer, Learning to Heal: The Development of American Medical Education (New York: Basic Books, 1985); Regina Markell Morantz-Sanchez, Sympathy and Science: Women Physicians in American Medicine (New York: Oxford University Press, 1985), pp. 64-89; and Moldow, (n. 3) Women Doctors, pp. 37-74.
30. For more on the history of medical education during the late nineteenth
31. No records of any of the black proprietary schools have been located. Unlike the mission schools which had affiliations with universities or with religious organizations, Louisville National, Chattanooga National, and others answered to no other record-keeping organization. Official records of these schools appear to no longer exist, or, if they do, have not been put in the public domain. The discussions in this article are based primarily on college catalogs and other published primary source material.
32. H. C. Weeden, ed. and comp., Weeden's History of the Colored People of Louisville (Louisville, Ky.: n.p., 1897), p. 57. On black life and community in Louisville during this period see George C. Wright, Life Behind a Veil: Blacks in Louisville, Kentucky, 1865-1930 (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1985). See also Lawrence H. Williams, Black Higher Education in Kentucky 1879-1930: The History of Simmons University (Lewiston, N.Y.: Edwin Meilen Press, 1987).
33. H. C. Weeden, ed. and comp., Weeden's History of the Colored People of Louisville (Louisville, Ky.: n.p., 1897), p. 57. On black life and community in Louisville during this period see George C. Wright, Life Behind a Veil: Blacks in Louisville, Kentucky, 1865-1930 (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1985). See also Lawrence H. Williams, Black Higher Education in Kentucky 1879-1930: The History of Simmons University (Lewiston, N.Y.: Edwin Meilen Press, 1987).
34. H. C. Weeden, ed. and comp., Weeden's History of the Colored People of Louisville (Louisville, Ky.: n.p., 1897), p. 57. On black life and community in Louisville during this period see George C. Wright, Life Behind a Veil: Blacks in Louisville, Kentucky, 1865-1930 (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1985). See also Lawrence H. Williams, Black Higher Education in Kentucky 1879-1930: The History of Simmons University (Lewiston, N.Y.: Edwin Meilen Press, 1987).
35. For biographical information on Fitzbutler, see W. Montague Cobb, "Henry Fitzbutler," J. Natl. Med. Assoc., 1952, 44, 403-7; Leslie L. Hanawalt, "Henry Fitzbutler: Detroit's first black medical student," Detroit in Perspective, 1973, 1, 126-40; Obituary, Louisville National Medical College Catalogue [hereafter LNMC Catalogue], 1901-1902, p. 32, found in the National Library of Medicine, Bethesda, Md.; Weeden, (n. 7) History, pp. 26, 44, 57. No issues of either newspaper with which Fitzbutler was involved are extant.
36. For biographical information on Fitzbutler, see W. Montague Cobb, "Henry Fitzbutler," J. Natl. Med. Assoc., 1952, 44, 403-7; Leslie L. Hanawalt, "Henry Fitzbutler: Detroit's first black medical student," Detroit in Perspective, 1973, 1, 126-40; Obituary, Louisville National Medical College Catalogue [hereafter LNMC Catalogue], 1901-1902, p. 32, found in the National Library of Medicine, Bethesda, Md.; Weeden, (n. 7) History, pp. 26, 44, 57. No issues of either newspaper with which Fitzbutler was involved are extant.
37. For biographical information on Fitzbutler, see W. Montague Cobb, "Henry Fitzbutler," J. Natl. Med. Assoc., 1952, 44, 403-7; Leslie L. Hanawalt, "Henry Fitzbutler: Detroit's first black medical student," Detroit in Perspective, 1973, 1, 126-40; Obituary, Louisville National Medical College Catalogue [hereafter LNMC Catalogue], 1901-1902, p. 32, found in the National Library of Medicine, Bethesda, Md.; Weeden, (n. 7) History, pp. 26, 44, 57. No issues of either newspaper with which Fitzbutler was involved are extant.
38. For biographical information on Fitzbutler, see W. Montague Cobb, "Henry Fitzbutler," J. Natl. Med. Assoc., 1952, 44, 403-7; Leslie L. Hanawalt, "Henry Fitzbutler: Detroit's first black medical student," Detroit in Perspective, 1973, 1, 126-40; Obituary, Louisville National Medical College Catalogue [hereafter LNMC Catalogue], 1901-1902, p. 32, found in the National Library of Medicine, Bethesda, Md.; Weeden, (n. 7) History, pp. 26, 44, 57. No issues of either newspaper with which Fitzbutler was involved are extant.
39. Conrad is listed in Polk's Medical Directory [hereafter PMD], 1886, p. 399; 1890, p. 496. Conrad later (1892) took courses at the Hahnemann Medical College in Chicago. His advertised specialty in PMD (1893, p. 510) was diseases of women and children.
40. Conrad is listed in Polk's Medical Directory [hereafter PMD], 1886, p. 399; 1890, p. 496. Conrad later (1892) took courses at the Hahnemann Medical College in Chicago. His advertised specialty in PMD (1893, p. 510) was diseases of women and children.
41. A brief historical statement about LNMC's founding appears in LNMC Catalogue, 1891-1892, p. 8. One of Fitzbutler's preceptees, William T. Peyton, was principal of the Western Colored Public School for many years (see, e.g., Louisville City Directory, 1877, p. 333). Another student, Richard Harper, as the history section of the LNMC Catalogue explains, had been a student at Meharry before coming to Louisville in about 1885 to study medicine with Dr. Conrad. Little information is available for others who formed what the LNMC Catalogue described as "a nucleus for medical education . . . in the cities of the Ohio Falls."
42. LNMC Catalogue, 1891-1892, p. 8; 1894-1895, p. 7; Kentucky. General Assembly. Session Acts of the General Assembly, 1888, p. 443 (chapter 1234), Frankfort, Ky; "Medical laws of Kentucky," April 25, 1888, Section 3, in PMD, 1890, p. 457.
43. LNMC Catalogue, 1891-1892, p. 8; 1894-1895, p. 7; Kentucky. General Assembly. Session Acts of the General Assembly, 1888, p. 443 (chapter 1234), Frankfort, Ky; "Medical laws of Kentucky," April 25, 1888, Section 3, in PMD, 1890, p. 457.
44. LNMC Catalogue, 1891-1892, p. 8; 1894-1895, p. 7; Kentucky. General Assembly. Session Acts of the General Assembly, 1888, p. 443 (chapter 1234), Frankfort, Ky; "Medical laws of Kentucky," April 25, 1888, Section 3, in PMD, 1890, p. 457.
45. LNMC Catalogue, 1891-1892, p. 8; 1894-1895, p. 7; Kentucky. General Assembly. Session Acts of the General Assembly, 1888, p. 443 (chapter 1234), Frankfort, Ky; "Medical laws of Kentucky," April 25, 1888, Section 3, in PMD, 1890, p. 457.
46. Weeden, (n. 7), History, pp. 26, 57; LNMC Catalogue, 1894-1895, p. 7.
47. Weeden, (n. 7), History, pp. 26, 57; LNMC Catalogue, 1894-1895, p. 7.
48. See faculty lists in LNMC catalogs.
49. Ibid.; PMD.
50. LNMC Catalogue, 1902-1903, p. 7.
51. LNMC Catalogue, 1891-1892, p. 9; 1889-1890, pp. 5-7
52. LNMC Catalogue, 1891-1892, p. 9; 1889-1890, pp. 5-7
53. No LNMC catalog for 1890-1891 is extant. See historical descriptions in subsequent catalogs (e.g., 1896-1897, p. 4).
54. LNMC Catalogue, 1891-1892, pp. 5, 6.
55. F. H. Gerrish, "Report of the committee," Bull. Am. Acad. Med., 1894, 19, 435-39.
56. LNMC Catalogue, 1891-1892, quotes on pp. 11, 5.
57. LNMC Catalogue, 1891-1892, p. 6; 1902-1903, p. 5; State University Catalog, 1892-1893, p. 32, found in the National Library of Medicine, Bethesda, Md.; LNMC Catalog, 1890-1891, pp. 4, 9.
58. LNMC Catalogue, 1891-1892, p. 6; 1902-1903, p. 5; State University Catalog, 1892-1893, p. 32, found in the National Library of Medicine, Bethesda, Md.; LNMC Catalog, 1890-1891, pp. 4, 9.
59. LNMC Catalogue, 1891-1892, p. 6; 1902-1903, p. 5; State University Catalog, 1892-1893, p. 32, found in the National Library of Medicine, Bethesda, Md.; LNMC Catalog, 1890-1891, pp. 4, 9.
60. LNMC Catalogue, 1891-1892, p. 6; 1902-1903, p. 5; State University Catalog, 1892-1893, p. 32, found in the National Library of Medicine, Bethesda, Md.; LNMC Catalog, 1890-1891, pp. 4, 9.
61. LNMC Catalogue, 1894-1895, p. 3.
62. Obituary, Louisville Courier-Journal, 13 April 1893, p. 7.
63. LNMC Catalogue, 1895-1896, p. 8.
64. Louisville Courier-Journal, 10 April 1891, p. 8; 7 April 1893, p. 5; 11 April 1894, p. 6; 9 April 1896, p. 8; 6 April 1898, p. 6.
65. Louisville Courier-Journal, 10 April 1891, p. 8; 7 April 1893, p. 5; 11 April 1894, p. 6; 9 April 1896, p. 8; 6 April 1898, p. 6.
66. Louisville Courier-Journal, 10 April 1891, p. 8; 7 April 1893, p. 5; 11 April 1894, p. 6; 9 April 1896, p. 8; 6 April 1898, p. 6.
67. Louisville Courier-Journal, 10 April 1891, p. 8; 7 April 1893, p. 5; 11 April 1894, p. 6; 9 April 1896, p. 8; 6 April 1898, p. 6.
68. Louisville Courier-Journal, 10 April 1891, p. 8; 7 April 1893, p. 5; 11 April 1894, p. 6; 9 April 1896, p. 8; 6 April 1898, p. 6.
69. Med. Surg. Observ., 1893, 1, 161. On the history of the Medical and Surgical Observer see Todd L. Savitt, "'A journal of our own': The Medical and Surgical Observer at the beginnings of an African-American medical profession in late nineteenth-century America," J. Natl. Med. Assoc., 1996, 88, 52-59, 115-22.
70. Med. Surg. Observ., 1893, 1, 161. On the history of the Medical and Surgical Observer see Todd L. Savitt, "'A journal of our own': The Medical and Surgical Observer at the beginnings of an African-American medical profession in late nineteenth-century America," J. Natl. Med. Assoc., 1996, 88, 52-59, 115-22.
71. See, e.g., LNMC Catalogue, 1898-1899, p. 11; 1905-1906, pp. 8-9.
72. See, e.g., LNMC Catalogue, 1898-1899, p. 11; 1905-1906, pp. 8-9.
73. See George M. Kober, "The Past and present status of medical education in this country," Proc. Assoc. Am. Med. Coll., 1907, 26-36, p. 35. On LNMC's adherence, see LNMC Catalogue, 1894-1895, p. 4; 1903-1904, pp. 5-6; 1897-1898, p. 9. Association of American Medical Colleges, Constitution, Article III Section 4, Bull. Am. Acad. Med., 1894, 22, p. 538; LNMC Catalogue, 1894-1895, p. 4.
74. See George M. Kober, "The Past and present status of medical education in this country," Proc. Assoc. Am. Med. Coll., 1907, 26-36, p. 35. On LNMC's adherence, see LNMC Catalogue, 1894-1895, p. 4; 1903-1904, pp. 5-6; 1897-1898, p. 9. Association of American Medical Colleges, Constitution, Article III Section 4, Bull. Am. Acad. Med., 1894, 22, p. 538; LNMC Catalogue, 1894-1895, p. 4.
75. See George M. Kober, "The Past and present status of medical education in this country," Proc. Assoc. Am. Med. Coll., 1907, 26-36, p. 35. On LNMC's adherence, see LNMC Catalogue, 1894-1895, p. 4; 1903-1904, pp. 5-6; 1897-1898, p. 9. Association of American Medical Colleges, Constitution, Article III Section 4, Bull. Am. Acad. Med., 1894, 22, p. 538; LNMC Catalogue, 1894-1895, p. 4.
76. See George M. Kober, "The Past and present status of medical education in this country," Proc. Assoc. Am. Med. Coll., 1907, 26-36, p. 35. On LNMC's adherence, see LNMC Catalogue, 1894-1895, p. 4; 1903-1904, pp. 5-6; 1897-1898, p. 9. Association of American Medical Colleges, Constitution, Article III Section 4, Bull. Am. Acad. Med., 1894, 22, p. 538; LNMC Catalogue, 1894-1895, p. 4.
77. See George M. Kober, "The Past and present status of medical education in this country," Proc. Assoc. Am. Med. Coll., 1907, 26-36, p. 35. On LNMC's adherence, see LNMC Catalogue, 1894-1895, p. 4; 1903-1904, pp. 5-6; 1897-1898, p. 9. Association of American Medical Colleges, Constitution, Article III Section 4, Bull. Am. Acad. Med., 1894, 22, p. 538; LNMC Catalogue, 1894-1895, p. 4.
78. See George M. Kober, "The Past and present status of medical education in this country," Proc. Assoc. Am. Med. Coll., 1907, 26-36, p. 35. On LNMC's adherence, see LNMC Catalogue, 1894-1895, p. 4; 1903-1904, pp. 5-6; 1897-1898, p. 9. Association of American Medical Colleges, Constitution, Article III Section 4, Bull. Am. Acad. Med., 1894, 22, p. 538; LNMC Catalogue, 1894-1895, p. 4.
79. LNMC Catalogue, 1897-1898, p. 3.
80. LNMC Catalogue, 1891-1892, p. 11; 1895-1896, p. 3; 1897-1898, p. 3; 1896-1897, P. 15.
81. LNMC Catalogue, 1891-1892, p. 11; 1895-1896, p. 3; 1897-1898, p. 3; 1896-1897, P. 15.
82. LNMC Catalogue, 1891-1892, p. 11; 1895-1896, p. 3; 1897-1898, p. 3; 1896-1897, P. 15.
83. LNMC Catalogue, 1891-1892, p. 11; 1895-1896, p. 3; 1897-1898, p. 3; 1896-1897, P. 15.
84. LNMC Catalogue, 1898-1899, pp. 8-10.
85. Ibid., p. 6.
86. Each catalog through 1897-1898 contained summary statements about the graduation exercises up to that year.
87. LNMC Catalogue, 1899-1900, p. 5; 1907-1908, p. 38.
88. LNMC Catalogue, 1899-1900, p. 5; 1907-1908, p. 38.
89. See, e.g., lists of staff and board members in LNMC Catalogue, 1901-1902, pp. 11, 15; 1902-1903, p. 27.
90. See, e.g., lists of staff and board members in LNMC Catalogue, 1901-1902, pp. 11, 15; 1902-1903, p. 27.
91. LNMC Catalogue, 1901-1902, p. 12; 1899-1900, p. 6; quote from 1902-1903, p. 17.
92. LNMC Catalogue, 1901-1902, p. 12; 1899-1900, p. 6; quote from 1902-1903, p. 17.
93. LNMC Catalogue, 1901-1902, p. 12; 1899-1900, p. 6; quote from 1902-1903, p. 17.
94. Obituary, LNMC Catalogue, 1902-1903, p. 32; Obituary, J. Am. Med. Assoc., 1902, 38, 120.
95. Obituary, LNMC Catalogue, 1902-1903, p. 32; Obituary, J. Am. Med. Assoc., 1902, 38, 120.
96. LNMC Catalogue, 1902-1903, pp. 6, 7.
97. LNMC Catalogue, 1905-1906, p. 13.
98. See, e.g., LNMC Catalogue, 1907-1908, pp. 38-39.
99. LNMC Catalogue, 1907-1908, p. 39.
100. The national failure rate for all medical graduates during those same years was 17.2% and 46.5% for black medical school graduates. State board results were published annually in the Journal of the American Medical Assocation. Alabama placed LNMC on its unacceptable list in 1910 (see J. Natl. Med. Assoc., 1910, 2, 306; J. Am. Med. Assoc., 1912, 59, 642).
101. The national failure rate for all medical graduates during those same years was 17.2% and 46.5% for black medical school graduates. State board results were published annually in the Journal of the American Medical Assocation. Alabama placed LNMC on its unacceptable list in 1910 (see J. Natl. Med. Assoc., 1910, 2, 306; J. Am. Med. Assoc., 1912, 59, 642).
102. Flexner, (n. 5) Medical Education, pp. 230, 180-81.
103. Ibid., p. 307.
104. Tennessee General Assembly, Acts of Tennessee, 1875, Chapter 142, "An Act to Provide for the Organization of Corporations," pp. 232-36, Nashville, Tenn.
105. PMD (n. 9), 1886, p. 859.
106. See The Centennial History of the Tennessee State Medical Association, 1830-1930 Philip M. Hamer, ed. (Nashville: Tennessee State Medical Association, 1930), pp. 90-103; and minutes of the Medical Association of the State of Tennessee for the 1880s, printed annually in the Association's Transactions.
107. The 1889 law was printed in full in the Transactions of the Medical Society of the State of Tennessee, Nashville, 1891, pp. 231-36.
108. United States Census Office, Manuscript Census, 1870, Marshall County, Mississippi, range 2, p. 568; Obituary, Memphis Commercial Appeal, 28 October 1899, p. 7.
109. John McLeod Keating, History of the City of Memphis and Shelby County Tennessee, 2 vols. (Syracuse, N.Y.: D. Mason & Co., 1888), II, 96; PMD (n. 9), 1890, p. 1056; Meharry Medical College Catalogue, 1880-1881, p. 6; 1882-1883, p. 6.
110. John McLeod Keating, History of the City of Memphis and Shelby County Tennessee, 2 vols. (Syracuse, N.Y.: D. Mason & Co., 1888), II, 96; PMD (n. 9), 1890, p. 1056; Meharry Medical College Catalogue, 1880-1881, p. 6; 1882-1883, p. 6.
111. John McLeod Keating, History of the City of Memphis and Shelby County Tennessee, 2 vols. (Syracuse, N.Y.: D. Mason & Co., 1888), II, 96; PMD (n. 9), 1890, p. 1056; Meharry Medical College Catalogue, 1880-1881, p. 6; 1882-1883, p. 6.
112. John McLeod Keating, History of the City of Memphis and Shelby County Tennessee, 2 vols. (Syracuse, N.Y.: D. Mason & Co., 1888), II, 96; PMD (n. 9), 1890, p. 1056; Meharry Medical College Catalogue, 1880-1881, p. 6; 1882-1883, p. 6.
113. PMD (n. 9), 1890, p. 1056.
114. No literature from the school, which later became Shorter College, hints at the existence of a medical department, nor do the standard histories of medical education in Arkansas, the Little Rock city directories for those years, or three official surveys of American medical schools, in 1889, 1890,and 1891, mention Bethel Medical Department or Southwestem University. See John H. Rauch, Report on Medical Education, Medical Colleges and the Regulation of the Practice of Medicine in the United States and Canada, 1765-1890 (Springfield: Illinois State Board of Health, 1890), p. 143; Rauch, Medical Education, Medical Colleges and the Regulation of the Practice of Medicine in the United States and Canada, 1765-1891 (Springfield: Illinois State Board of Health, 1891), pp. 3-4; W. David Baird, Medical Education in Arkansas, 1879-1978 (Memphis, Tenn.: Memphis State University Press, 1979).
115. No literature from the school, which later became Shorter College, hints at the existence of a medical department, nor do the standard histories of medical education in Arkansas, the Little Rock city directories for those years, or three official surveys of American medical schools, in 1889, 1890,and 1891, mention Bethel Medical Department or Southwestem University. See John H. Rauch, Report on Medical Education, Medical Colleges and the Regulation of the Practice of Medicine in the United States and Canada, 1765-1890 (Springfield: Illinois State Board of Health, 1890), p. 143; Rauch, Medical Education, Medical Colleges and the Regulation of the Practice of Medicine in the United States and Canada, 1765-1891 (Springfield: Illinois State Board of Health, 1891), pp. 3-4; W. David Baird, Medical Education in Arkansas, 1879-1978 (Memphis, Tenn.: Memphis State University Press, 1979).
116. No literature from the school, which later became Shorter College, hints at the existence of a medical department, nor do the standard histories of medical education in Arkansas, the Little Rock city directories for those years, or three official surveys of American medical schools, in 1889, 1890,and 1891, mention Bethel Medical Department or Southwestem University. See John H. Rauch, Report on Medical Education, Medical Colleges and the Regulation of the Practice of Medicine in the United States and Canada, 1765-1890 (Springfield: Illinois State Board of Health, 1890), p. 143; Rauch, Medical Education, Medical Colleges and the Regulation of the Practice of Medicine in the United States and Canada, 1765-1891 (Springfield: Illinois State Board of Health, 1891), pp. 3-4; W. David Baird, Medical Education in Arkansas, 1879-1978 (Memphis, Tenn.: Memphis State University Press, 1979).
117. Keating, (n. 50) History, II, 96; "Dr. Cottrell's death," The Christian Index (Jackson, Tennessee), 18 November 1899, p. 4; Memphis City Directory (Dow), 1885, p. 293; Memphis City Directory (Shole), 1885, p. 509 (boldface and capital letters). [Different city directories were published in Memphis during these years (hereafter identified by the publisher).]
118. Keating, (n. 50) History, II, 96; "Dr. Cottrell's death," The Christian Index (Jackson, Tennessee), 18 November 1899, p. 4; Memphis City Directory (Dow), 1885, p. 293; Memphis City Directory (Shole), 1885, p. 509 (boldface and capital letters). [Different city directories were published in Memphis during these years (hereafter identified by the publisher).]
119. Keating, (n. 50) History, II, 96; "Dr. Cottrell's death," The Christian Index (Jackson, Tennessee), 18 November 1899, p. 4; Memphis City Directory (Dow), 1885, p. 293; Memphis City Directory (Shole), 1885, p. 509 (boldface and capital letters). [Different city directories were published in Memphis during these years (hereafter identified by the publisher).]
120. Keating, (n. 50) History, II, 96; "Dr. Cottrell's death," The Christian Index (Jackson, Tennessee), 18 November 1899, p. 4; Memphis City Directory (Dow), 1885, p. 293; Memphis City Directory (Shole), 1885, p. 509 (boldface and capital letters). [Different city directories were published in Memphis during these years (hereafter identified by the publisher).]
121. Charter of Incorporation for Hannibal Medical College, filed in Book O, p. 124, Domestic Charters, Tennessee State Library and Archives, Nashville [hereafter referred to as Charter of HMC].
122. Memphis City Directory (Dow), 1886, p. 172.
123. "Elias Cottrell," in Frank Lincoln Mather, ed., Who's Who of The Colored Race (Chicago: n.p., 1915), p. 77; "Bishop E. Cottrell, Holly Springs, Miss.," in G.P. Hamilton, Beacon Lights of the Race (Memphis, Tenn.: E.H. Clarke & Brother, 1911), pp. 7-17; Othal Hawthorne Lakey, The History of the CME Church (Memphis, Tenn.: CME Publishing House, 1985), pp. 128, 258, 265, 289, 382-83, 651, 671; Encyclopedia of World Methodism (Nashville, Tenn.: United Methodist Publishing House, 1974), p. 592; Isaac Lane, Autobiography of Bishop Isaac Lane, L.L.D. (Nashville, Tenn.: Publishing House of the M.E. Church, South, 1916), pp. 163-64 (with photograph); Central Tennessee College Catalogue, 1879-1880, p. 20, found in the Meharry Medical College Archives, Nashville, Tenn.
124. "Elias Cottrell," in Frank Lincoln Mather, ed., Who's Who of The Colored Race (Chicago: n.p., 1915), p. 77; "Bishop E. Cottrell, Holly Springs, Miss.," in G.P. Hamilton, Beacon Lights of the Race (Memphis, Tenn.: E.H. Clarke & Brother, 1911), pp. 7-17; Othal Hawthorne Lakey, The History of the CME Church (Memphis, Tenn.: CME Publishing House, 1985), pp. 128, 258, 265, 289, 382-83, 651, 671; Encyclopedia of World Methodism (Nashville, Tenn.: United Methodist Publishing House, 1974), p. 592; Isaac Lane, Autobiography of Bishop Isaac Lane, L.L.D. (Nashville, Tenn.: Publishing House of the M.E. Church, South, 1916), pp. 163-64 (with photograph); Central Tennessee College Catalogue, 1879-1880, p. 20, found in the Meharry Medical College Archives, Nashville, Tenn.
125. "Elias Cottrell," in Frank Lincoln Mather, ed., Who's Who of The Colored Race (Chicago: n.p., 1915), p. 77; "Bishop E. Cottrell, Holly Springs, Miss.," in G.P. Hamilton, Beacon Lights of the Race (Memphis, Tenn.: E.H. Clarke & Brother, 1911), pp. 7-17; Othal Hawthorne Lakey, The History of the CME Church (Memphis, Tenn.: CME Publishing House, 1985), pp. 128, 258, 265, 289, 382-83, 651, 671; Encyclopedia of World Methodism (Nashville, Tenn.: United Methodist Publishing House, 1974), p. 592; Isaac Lane, Autobiography of Bishop Isaac Lane, L.L.D. (Nashville, Tenn.: Publishing House of the M.E. Church, South, 1916), pp. 163-64 (with photograph); Central Tennessee College Catalogue, 1879-1880, p. 20, found in the Meharry Medical College Archives, Nashville, Tenn.
126. "Elias Cottrell," in Frank Lincoln Mather, ed., Who's Who of The Colored Race (Chicago: n.p., 1915), p. 77; "Bishop E. Cottrell, Holly Springs, Miss.," in G.P. Hamilton, Beacon Lights of the Race (Memphis, Tenn.: E.H. Clarke & Brother, 1911), pp. 7-17; Othal Hawthorne Lakey, The History of the CME Church (Memphis, Tenn.: CME Publishing House, 1985), pp. 128, 258, 265, 289, 382-83, 651, 671; Encyclopedia of World Methodism (Nashville, Tenn.: United Methodist Publishing House, 1974), p. 592; Isaac Lane, Autobiography of Bishop Isaac Lane, L.L.D. (Nashville, Tenn.: Publishing House of the M.E. Church, South, 1916), pp. 163-64 (with photograph); Central Tennessee College Catalogue, 1879-1880, p. 20, found in the Meharry Medical College Archives, Nashville, Tenn.
127. "Elias Cottrell," in Frank Lincoln Mather, ed., Who's Who of The Colored Race (Chicago: n.p., 1915), p. 77; "Bishop E. Cottrell, Holly Springs, Miss.," in G.P. Hamilton, Beacon Lights of the Race (Memphis, Tenn.: E.H. Clarke & Brother, 1911), pp. 7-17; Othal Hawthorne Lakey, The History of the CME Church (Memphis, Tenn.: CME Publishing House, 1985), pp. 128, 258, 265, 289, 382-83, 651, 671; Encyclopedia of World Methodism (Nashville, Tenn.: United Methodist Publishing House, 1974), p. 592; Isaac Lane, Autobiography of Bishop Isaac Lane, L.L.D. (Nashville, Tenn.: Publishing House of the M.E. Church, South, 1916), pp. 163-64 (with photograph); Central Tennessee College Catalogue, 1879-1880, p. 20, found in the Meharry Medical College Archives, Nashville, Tenn.
128. "Elias Cottrell," in Frank Lincoln Mather, ed., Who's Who of The Colored Race (Chicago: n.p., 1915), p. 77; "Bishop E. Cottrell, Holly Springs, Miss.," in G.P. Hamilton, Beacon Lights of the Race (Memphis, Tenn.: E.H. Clarke & Brother, 1911), pp. 7-17; Othal Hawthorne Lakey, The History of the CME Church (Memphis, Tenn.: CME Publishing House, 1985), pp. 128, 258, 265, 289, 382-83, 651, 671; Encyclopedia of World Methodism (Nashville, Tenn.: United Methodist Publishing House, 1974), p. 592; Isaac Lane, Autobiography of Bishop Isaac Lane, L.L.D. (Nashville, Tenn.: Publishing House of the M.E. Church, South, 1916), pp. 163-64 (with photograph); Central Tennessee College Catalogue, 1879-1880, p. 20, found in the Meharry Medical College Archives, Nashville, Tenn.
129. Fields's name appears in Memphis city directories only twice between 1884 and 1894. Memphis City Directory (Dow), 1885, p. 781; Memphis City Directory (Shole), 1885, p. 17.
130. Fields's name appears in Memphis city directories only twice between 1884 and 1894. Memphis City Directory (Dow), 1885, p. 781; Memphis City Directory (Shole), 1885, p. 17.
131. G.P. Hamilton, The Bright Side of Memphis: A Compendium of Information Concerning the Colored People of Memphis, Tennessee (Memphis, Tenn.: n.p., 1908), p. 152; Memphis City Directory, 1888, p. 389.
132. G.P. Hamilton, The Bright Side of Memphis: A Compendium of Information Concerning the Colored People of Memphis, Tennessee (Memphis, Tenn.: n.p., 1908), p. 152; Memphis City Directory, 1888, p. 389.
133. Humes's name appears on the Charter of HMC (n. 54) as "H.H. Hennés." The city directories are confusing concerning Humes, as he is sometimes listed without his middle initial, sometimes as J. Humes, and sometimes twice, as both Henry and Henry H., in the same year. Possibly there were two people with the same name living in Memphis, or he had a relative living there.
134. Alonzo L. Hall, The Ancient, Mediaeval and Modern Greatness of the Negro (Memphis: Striker Printers, 1907), pp. 44-45. See also David M. Tucker, Black Pastors and Leaders: The Memphis Clergy, 1819-1972 (Memphis, Tenn.: Memphis State University Press, 1975), p. 59.
135. Alonzo L. Hall, The Ancient, Mediaeval and Modern Greatness of the Negro (Memphis: Striker Printers, 1907), pp. 44-45. See also David M. Tucker, Black Pastors and Leaders: The Memphis Clergy, 1819-1972 (Memphis, Tenn.: Memphis State University Press, 1975), p. 59.
136. In 1889-1890, both the school and Cottrell were located at 317 2nd Street. In 1890-1891, the school was at 73 Madison Street, and Cottrell's office was at 315 2nd Street. In 1891-1892, both HMC and Cottrell's office were located at 130 Beale Street. In 1892-1893, the school was at 34 Winchester and Cottrell had his office listed in the 1893 directory at 518 Orleans. The display ad in the 1893 directory directed those wishing further information to write or call on Cottrell at 446 Main Street, his home address according to the directory. From 1893 until the last listing in the city directory, 1895, HMC was located at 121 Beale Street, the same as Cottrell's office and residence. See Memphis city directories and PMD for these years.
137. Memphis City Directory (Polk), 1892, pp. 1097 (street listing), 272, 447, 572, 687, 720 (name listing), 18 (advertisement for Morgan and Young); Memphis City Directory (Dow), 1892, p. 466 (Fernandis listing). Another year, 1893-1894, 121 Beale Street housed HMC, the offices of three lawyers, a barber shop, and the medical office and residence of Tarleton C. Cottrell (Memphis City Directory, 1894, pp. 968 [street listing], 240 [name listing], 722, 790, 880 [business listings]).
138. Memphis City Directory, 1894, p. 5.
139. Ibid., pp. 54-55; Sanborn Fire Insurance maps of Memphis, 1897, no. 143, found in the Memphis Shelby County Public Library and Information Center, Memphis, Tenn.
140. Rauch, (n. 52) Report on Medical Education, 1890, p. 143; ibid., 1891, p. 150.
141. Rauch, (n. 52) Report on Medical Education, 1890, p. 143; ibid., 1891, p. 150.
142. For faculty rosters, see Memphis City Directory (Polk), 1892, pp. 65-66; 1893, p. 56; 1894, pp. 54-55; 1895, p. 73; 1896, p. 67.
143. For faculty rosters, see Memphis City Directory (Polk), 1892, pp. 65-66; 1893, p. 56; 1894, pp. 54-55; 1895, p. 73; 1896, p. 67.
144. For faculty rosters, see Memphis City Directory (Polk), 1892, pp. 65-66; 1893, p. 56; 1894, pp. 54-55; 1895, p. 73; 1896, p. 67.
145. For faculty rosters, see Memphis City Directory (Polk), 1892, pp. 65-66; 1893, p. 56; 1894, pp. 54-55; 1895, p. 73; 1896, p. 67.
146. For faculty rosters, see Memphis City Directory (Polk), 1892, pp. 65-66; 1893, p. 56; 1894, pp. 54-55; 1895, p. 73; 1896, p. 67.
147. Rauch, (n. 52) Report on Medical Education, 1890, p. 143; ibid., 1891, p. 150; ibid., 1890, p. 143. If Cottrell and Anderson were two of the three M.D. holders on the faculty, then at least one of the two whites must not have been a physician, or must have practiced in Memphis without an M.D. degree. Perhaps one was a lawyer who taught medical jurisprudence, a course Rauch lists as offered at HMC. Unfortunately, no evidence to help identify these two individuals is extant.
148. Rauch, (n. 52) Report on Medical Education, 1890, p. 143; ibid., 1891, p. 150; ibid., 1890, p. 143. If Cottrell and Anderson were two of the three M.D. holders on the faculty, then at least one of the two whites must not have been a physician, or must have practiced in Memphis without an M.D. degree. Perhaps one was a lawyer who taught medical jurisprudence, a course Rauch lists as offered at HMC. Unfortunately, no evidence to help identify these two individuals is extant.
149. Rauch, (n. 52) Report on Medical Education, 1890, p. 143; ibid., 1891, p. 150; ibid., 1890, p. 143. If Cottrell and Anderson were two of the three M.D. holders on the faculty, then at least one of the two whites must not have been a physician, or must have practiced in Memphis without an M.D. degree. Perhaps one was a lawyer who taught medical jurisprudence, a course Rauch lists as offered at HMC. Unfortunately, no evidence to help identify these two individuals is extant.
150. Two African-American ministers associated with medicine and with Hannibal resided in Memphis in 1889, Hall and Jacob Palmer Jay. Jay had, throughout the 1880s, served as a pastor, first at Salem Church, then at Gilfield Church. He had also, for some of those same years, operated a drug store (see Memphis city directories for the 1880s). Jay appears on the first available HMC faculty roster, for 1891-1892 (Memphis City Directory [Polk], 1892, pp. 65-66), and could possibly have taught from 1889 until that date. Two facts argue against this, however. First, he appears to have held an M.D. degree, as he signed an 1879 article on yellow fever published in an eclectic medical journal as "J. P. Jay, M.D., Memphis" (J. P. Jay, "Yellow fever," Eclectic Med. J. Penn., 1879, 17, 190-97. This article is cited in Harold J. Abrahams, Extinct Medical Schools of Nineteenth-Century Philadelphia [Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1966], p. 520). The location of Jay's medical training cannot be determined. Second, though Jay's name appears in the 1889 city directory, it disappears from the 1890 and 1891 editions, each compiled during the previous autumns. Thus Jay was probably not living in Memphis during the 1889-1890 or 1890-1891 school terms. If the directories were inaccurate (they were not always reliable), and if none of the white faculty members were M.D. physicians, then Jay could have been the third M.D. physician at HMC. Were Jay the third M.D., however, the as-yet-unidentified non-M.D. minister would have to have been one of the two whites on the faculty, an unlikely circumstance, as that minister, now that Jay has been eliminated because he claimed to have held an M.D., was probably Hannibal co-founder Alonzo L. Hall.
151. Two African-American ministers associated with medicine and with Hannibal resided in Memphis in 1889, Hall and Jacob Palmer Jay. Jay had, throughout the 1880s, served as a pastor, first at Salem Church, then at Gilfield Church. He had also, for some of those same years, operated a drug store (see Memphis city directories for the 1880s). Jay appears on the first available HMC faculty roster, for 1891-1892 (Memphis City Directory [Polk], 1892, pp. 65-66), and could possibly have taught from 1889 until that date. Two facts argue against this, however. First, he appears to have held an M.D. degree, as he signed an 1879 article on yellow fever published in an eclectic medical journal as "J. P. Jay, M.D., Memphis" (J. P. Jay, "Yellow fever," Eclectic Med. J. Penn., 1879, 17, 190-97. This article is cited in Harold J. Abrahams, Extinct Medical Schools of Nineteenth-Century Philadelphia [Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1966], p. 520). The location of Jay's medical training cannot be determined. Second, though Jay's name appears in the 1889 city directory, it disappears from the 1890 and 1891 editions, each compiled during the previous autumns. Thus Jay was probably not living in Memphis during the 1889-1890 or 1890-1891 school terms. If the directories were inaccurate (they were not always reliable), and if none of the white faculty members were M.D. physicians, then Jay could have been the third M.D. physician at HMC. Were Jay the third M.D., however, the as-yet-unidentified non-M.D. minister would have to have been one of the two whites on the faculty, an unlikely circumstance, as that minister, now that Jay has been eliminated because he claimed to have held an M.D., was probably Hannibal co-founder Alonzo L. Hall.
152. Two African-American ministers associated with medicine and with Hannibal resided in Memphis in 1889, Hall and Jacob Palmer Jay. Jay had, throughout the 1880s, served as a pastor, first at Salem Church, then at Gilfield Church. He had also, for some of those same years, operated a drug store (see Memphis city directories for the 1880s). Jay appears on the first available HMC faculty roster, for 1891-1892 (Memphis City Directory [Polk], 1892, pp. 65-66), and could possibly have taught from 1889 until that date. Two facts argue against this, however. First, he appears to have held an M.D. degree, as he signed an 1879 article on yellow fever published in an eclectic medical journal as "J. P. Jay, M.D., Memphis" (J. P. Jay, "Yellow fever," Eclectic Med. J. Penn., 1879, 17, 190-97. This article is cited in Harold J. Abrahams, Extinct Medical Schools of Nineteenth-Century Philadelphia [Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1966], p. 520). The location of Jay's medical training cannot be determined. Second, though Jay's name appears in the 1889 city directory, it disappears from the 1890 and 1891 editions, each compiled during the previous autumns. Thus Jay was probably not living in Memphis during the 1889-1890 or 1890-1891 school terms. If the directories were inaccurate (they were not always reliable), and if none of the white faculty members were M.D. physicians, then Jay could have been the third M.D. physician at HMC. Were Jay the third M.D., however, the as-yet-unidentified non-M.D. minister would have to have been one of the two whites on the faculty, an unlikely circumstance, as that minister, now that Jay has been eliminated because he claimed to have held an M.D., was probably Hannibal co-founder Alonzo L. Hall.
153. See annual reports of the board, reprinted in the Transactions of the Medical Society of the State of Tennessee in 1890, 1891, and 1892.
154. Physicians', Dentists' and Druggists' Directory of Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, Mississippi, South Carolina and Tennessee (New Orleans: Galen Gonser & Co., 1891), p. 215; Hamilton, (n. 58) Bright Side, p. 152; PMD (n. 9), 1893, p. 1184; American Medical Directory, 1909, p. 1098; 1912, p. 1165; Memphis City Directory, 1894, p. 5; 1895, pp. 73, 67 (for faculty lists).
155. Physicians', Dentists' and Druggists' Directory of Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, Mississippi, South Carolina and Tennessee (New Orleans: Galen Gonser & Co., 1891), p. 215; Hamilton, (n. 58) Bright Side, p. 152; PMD (n. 9), 1893, p. 1184; American Medical Directory, 1909, p. 1098; 1912, p. 1165; Memphis City Directory, 1894, p. 5; 1895, pp. 73, 67 (for faculty lists).
156. Physicians', Dentists' and Druggists' Directory of Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, Mississippi, South Carolina and Tennessee (New Orleans: Galen Gonser & Co., 1891), p. 215; Hamilton, (n. 58) Bright Side, p. 152; PMD (n. 9), 1893, p. 1184; American Medical Directory, 1909, p. 1098; 1912, p. 1165; Memphis City Directory, 1894, p. 5; 1895, pp. 73, 67 (for faculty lists).
157. Physicians', Dentists' and Druggists' Directory of Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, Mississippi, South Carolina and Tennessee (New Orleans: Galen Gonser & Co., 1891), p. 215; Hamilton, (n. 58) Bright Side, p. 152; PMD (n. 9), 1893, p. 1184; American Medical Directory, 1909, p. 1098; 1912, p. 1165; Memphis City Directory, 1894, p. 5; 1895, pp. 73, 67 (for faculty lists).
158. Physicians', Dentists' and Druggists' Directory of Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, Mississippi, South Carolina and Tennessee (New Orleans: Galen Gonser & Co., 1891), p. 215; Hamilton, (n. 58) Bright Side, p. 152; PMD (n. 9), 1893, p. 1184; American Medical Directory, 1909, p. 1098; 1912, p. 1165; Memphis City Directory, 1894, p. 5; 1895, pp. 73, 67 (for faculty lists).
159. Physicians', Dentists' and Druggists' Directory of Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, Mississippi, South Carolina and Tennessee (New Orleans: Galen Gonser & Co., 1891), p. 215; Hamilton, (n. 58) Bright Side, p. 152; PMD (n. 9), 1893, p. 1184; American Medical Directory, 1909, p. 1098; 1912, p. 1165; Memphis City Directory, 1894, p. 5; 1895, pp. 73, 67 (for faculty lists).
160. Physicians', Dentists' and Druggists' Directory of Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, Mississippi, South Carolina and Tennessee (New Orleans: Galen Gonser & Co., 1891), p. 215; Hamilton, (n. 58) Bright Side, p. 152; PMD (n. 9), 1893, p. 1184; American Medical Directory, 1909, p. 1098; 1912, p. 1165; Memphis City Directory, 1894, p. 5; 1895, pp. 73, 67 (for faculty lists).
161. Memphis City Directory (Dow), 1892, p. 627; Memphis City Directory (Polk), 1892, p. 530; PMD (n. 9), 1893, p. 1037; Memphis City Directory (Polk), 1894, p. 5.
162. Memphis City Directory (Dow), 1892, p. 627; Memphis City Directory (Polk), 1892, p. 530; PMD (n. 9), 1893, p. 1037; Memphis City Directory (Polk), 1894, p. 5.
163. Memphis City Directory (Dow), 1892, p. 627; Memphis City Directory (Polk), 1892, p. 530; PMD (n. 9), 1893, p. 1037; Memphis City Directory (Polk), 1894, p. 5.
164. Memphis City Directory (Dow), 1892, p. 627; Memphis City Directory (Polk), 1892, p. 530; PMD (n. 9), 1893, p. 1037; Memphis City Directory (Polk), 1894, p. 5.
165. PMD (n. 9), 1893, p. 1037. Guthrie city directories do not list Jeter as a resident between 1890 and 1896, though he may well have lived in a nearby rural area, as was the case in 1898 (The Business and Resident Directory of Guthrie and Logan County Oklahoma For the Year Commencing January 1, 1898 [Guthrie: Rooney and Hamilton, n.d.], p. 129, located at the Territorial Museum, Guthrie, Oklahoma), and thus not have been listed in the directory. By 1898 Jeter, born in Alabama, was practicing in the small African-American town of Evansville, Oklahoma, and then in nearby Luther. In 1900, though practicing far from Memphis, in Luther, Oklahoma, Jeter was proud enough of his previous connection with HMC to advertise in a national medical directory that he was "Ex Professor of Physiology and Hygiene" at the school. Oklahoma Register of Physicians, p. 171, offices of the State Board of Medical Licensure and Supervision, Oklahoma City, Oklahoma. The register lists his name as John Troy Jeter.
166. PMD (n. 9), 1900, p. 1461; Charles James Bate, "It's Been a Long Time" (And We've Come a Long Way): A History of the Oklahoma Black Medical Providers (The Black Healers) (Muskogee, Ok.: Hoffman Printing Company, 1986), pp. 152, 290.
167. PMD (n. 9), 1900, p. 1461; Charles James Bate, "It's Been a Long Time" (And We've Come a Long Way): A History of the Oklahoma Black Medical Providers (The Black Healers) (Muskogee, Ok.: Hoffman Printing Company, 1986), pp. 152, 290.
168. Memphis City Directory (Dow), 1891, p. 723; (Dow), 1892, p. 790; (Polk), 1892, pp. 66, 719,720; 1893, P. 56; 1894, p. 55; 1895, p. 73; 1896, p. 67.
169. Memphis City Directory (Dow), 1891, p. 723; (Dow), 1892, p. 790; (Polk), 1892, pp. 66, 719,720; 1893, P. 56; 1894, p. 55; 1895, p. 73; 1896, p. 67.
170. Memphis City Directory (Dow), 1891, p. 723; (Dow), 1892, p. 790; (Polk), 1892, pp. 66, 719,720; 1893, P. 56; 1894, p. 55; 1895, p. 73; 1896, p. 67.
171. Memphis City Directory (Dow), 1891, p. 723; (Dow), 1892, p. 790; (Polk), 1892, pp. 66, 719,720; 1893, P. 56; 1894, p. 55; 1895, p. 73; 1896, p. 67.
172. Memphis City Directory (Dow), 1891, p. 723; (Dow), 1892, p. 790; (Polk), 1892, pp. 66, 719,720; 1893, P. 56; 1894, p. 55; 1895, p. 73; 1896, p. 67.
173. Memphis City Directory (Dow), 1891, p. 723; (Dow), 1892, p. 790; (Polk), 1892, pp. 66, 719,720; 1893, P. 56; 1894, p. 55; 1895, p. 73; 1896, p. 67.
174. Memphis City Directory (Dow), 1891, p. 723; (Dow), 1892, p. 790; (Polk), 1892, pp. 66, 719,720; 1893, P. 56; 1894, p. 55; 1895, p. 73; 1896, p. 67.
175. On medical sectarianism and the rivalry between allopaths and "irregular" practitioners in the nineteenth century, see William G. Rothstein, American Physicians in the Nineteenth Century: From Sects to Science (Baltimore, Md.: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1972).
176. It is possible that Chiles arrived in Memphis in 1889 and was one of the two whites on HMC's faculty whom Rauch listed in his 1890 report. He does not, however, appear in either the 1888 or 1890 directories. (The relevant alphabetical pages are missing from the 1889 directory, but he is not included in the physician listings that year. See Memphis city directories and PMDs for the 1880s and 1890s and Physicians', Dentists' and Druggists' Directory [n. 70], p. 214.) Chiles maintained a private practice in Memphis during the early 1890s, departing, according to Memphis city directories, perhaps as early as 1894 (Chiles's name disappears from city directories beginning with the 1895 edition, published in late 1894). He continued his practice in the small town of Pecan Point, Arkansas (see PMD [n. 9], 1898, p. 224).
177. Clifford Hickman's brother, Benjamin Hickman, Jr., graduated two years later. Their father was the long-time and highly respected janitor of the Eclectic Medical Institute until his death in 1900. See Harvey Wickes Felter, History of the Eclectic Medical Institute, Cincinnati, Ohio, 1845-1902 (Cincinnati, Ohio: Alumni Association of the Eclectic Medical Institute, 1902), pp. 191, 192, 78, 64; Eclectic Medical Journal (Cincinnati), 1889, 49, 309; 1900, 60, 232. The Eclectic Medical Institute, according to Rothstein, ([n.75] American Physicians, p. 227) "compared favorably with the better medical schools of all sects." Even Dr. T. J. Happel, secretary of the Tennessee State Board of Medical Examiners, admitted to a gathering of state medical society members in 1892 "with some degree of shame, that the regular medical profession is apparently being outstripped" in medical education by the two major medical sects of the time, homeopathy and eclecticism. ("Address to the Tennessee State Medical Society," Transactions of the Medical Society of the State of Tennessee, Knoxville, 1892, p. 292). Hickman is listed in Memphis city directories from 1891 through 1894 and then disappears. PMD (n. 9), 1898, p. 1278, places him in Cincinnati, and the obituary notice on his father in the Eclectic Medical Journal, 1900, 60, p. 232, puts him in South Bend, Indiana.
178. Clifford Hickman's brother, Benjamin Hickman, Jr., graduated two years later. Their father was the long-time and highly respected janitor of the Eclectic Medical Institute until his death in 1900. See Harvey Wickes Felter, History of the Eclectic Medical Institute, Cincinnati, Ohio, 1845-1902 (Cincinnati, Ohio: Alumni Association of the Eclectic Medical Institute, 1902), pp. 191, 192, 78, 64; Eclectic Medical Journal (Cincinnati), 1889, 49, 309; 1900, 60, 232. The Eclectic Medical Institute, according to Rothstein, ([n.75] American Physicians, p. 227) "compared favorably with the better medical schools of all sects." Even Dr. T. J. Happel, secretary of the Tennessee State Board of Medical Examiners, admitted to a gathering of state medical society members in 1892 "with some degree of shame, that the regular medical profession is apparently being outstripped" in medical education by the two major medical sects of the time, homeopathy and eclecticism. ("Address to the Tennessee State Medical Society," Transactions of the Medical Society of the State of Tennessee, Knoxville, 1892, p. 292). Hickman is listed in Memphis city directories from 1891 through 1894 and then disappears. PMD (n. 9), 1898, p. 1278, places him in Cincinnati, and the obituary notice on his father in the Eclectic Medical Journal, 1900, 60, p. 232, puts him in South Bend, Indiana.
179. Clifford Hickman's brother, Benjamin Hickman, Jr., graduated two years later. Their father was the long-time and highly respected janitor of the Eclectic Medical Institute until his death in 1900. See Harvey Wickes Felter, History of the Eclectic Medical Institute, Cincinnati, Ohio, 1845-1902 (Cincinnati, Ohio: Alumni Association of the Eclectic Medical Institute, 1902), pp. 191, 192, 78, 64; Eclectic Medical Journal (Cincinnati), 1889, 49, 309; 1900, 60, 232. The Eclectic Medical Institute, according to Rothstein, ([n.75] American Physicians, p. 227) "compared favorably with the better medical schools of all sects." Even Dr. T. J. Happel, secretary of the Tennessee State Board of Medical Examiners, admitted to a gathering of state medical society members in 1892 "with some degree of shame, that the regular medical profession is apparently being outstripped" in medical education by the two major medical sects of the time, homeopathy and eclecticism. ("Address to the Tennessee State Medical Society," Transactions of the Medical Society of the State of Tennessee, Knoxville, 1892, p. 292). Hickman is listed in Memphis city directories from 1891 through 1894 and then disappears. PMD (n. 9), 1898, p. 1278, places him in Cincinnati, and the obituary notice on his father in the Eclectic Medical Journal, 1900, 60, p. 232, puts him in South Bend, Indiana.
180. Clifford Hickman's brother, Benjamin Hickman, Jr., graduated two years later. Their father was the long-time and highly respected janitor of the Eclectic Medical Institute until his death in 1900. See Harvey Wickes Felter, History of the Eclectic Medical Institute, Cincinnati, Ohio, 1845-1902 (Cincinnati, Ohio: Alumni Association of the Eclectic Medical Institute, 1902), pp. 191, 192, 78, 64; Eclectic Medical Journal (Cincinnati), 1889, 49, 309; 1900, 60, 232. The Eclectic Medical Institute, according to Rothstein, ([n.75] American Physicians, p. 227) "compared favorably with the better medical schools of all sects." Even Dr. T. J. Happel, secretary of the Tennessee State Board of Medical Examiners, admitted to a gathering of state medical society members in 1892 "with some degree of shame, that the regular medical profession is apparently being outstripped" in medical education by the two major medical sects of the time, homeopathy and eclecticism. ("Address to the Tennessee State Medical Society," Transactions of the Medical Society of the State of Tennessee, Knoxville, 1892, p. 292). Hickman is listed in Memphis city directories from 1891 through 1894 and then disappears. PMD (n. 9), 1898, p. 1278, places him in Cincinnati, and the obituary notice on his father in the Eclectic Medical Journal, 1900, 60, p. 232, puts him in South Bend, Indiana.
181. Clifford Hickman's brother, Benjamin Hickman, Jr., graduated two years later. Their father was the long-time and highly respected janitor of the Eclectic Medical Institute until his death in 1900. See Harvey Wickes Felter, History of the Eclectic Medical Institute, Cincinnati, Ohio, 1845-1902 (Cincinnati, Ohio: Alumni Association of the Eclectic Medical Institute, 1902), pp. 191, 192, 78, 64; Eclectic Medical Journal (Cincinnati), 1889, 49, 309; 1900, 60, 232. The Eclectic Medical Institute, according to Rothstein, ([n.75] American Physicians, p. 227) "compared favorably with the better medical schools of all sects." Even Dr. T. J. Happel, secretary of the Tennessee State Board of Medical Examiners, admitted to a gathering of state medical society members in 1892 "with some degree of shame, that the regular medical profession is apparently being outstripped" in medical education by the two major medical sects of the time, homeopathy and eclecticism. ("Address to the Tennessee State Medical Society," Transactions of the Medical Society of the State of Tennessee, Knoxville, 1892, p. 292). Hickman is listed in Memphis city directories from 1891 through 1894 and then disappears. PMD (n. 9), 1898, p. 1278, places him in Cincinnati, and the obituary notice on his father in the Eclectic Medical Journal, 1900, 60, p. 232, puts him in South Bend, Indiana.
182. Clifford Hickman's brother, Benjamin Hickman, Jr., graduated two years later. Their father was the long-time and highly respected janitor of the Eclectic Medical Institute until his death in 1900. See Harvey Wickes Felter, History of the Eclectic Medical Institute, Cincinnati, Ohio, 1845-1902 (Cincinnati, Ohio: Alumni Association of the Eclectic Medical Institute, 1902), pp. 191, 192, 78, 64; Eclectic Medical Journal (Cincinnati), 1889, 49, 309; 1900, 60, 232. The Eclectic Medical Institute, according to Rothstein, ([n.75] American Physicians, p. 227) "compared favorably with the better medical schools of all sects." Even Dr. T. J. Happel, secretary of the Tennessee State Board of Medical Examiners, admitted to a gathering of state medical society members in 1892 "with some degree of shame, that the regular medical profession is apparently being outstripped" in medical education by the two major medical sects of the time, homeopathy and eclecticism. ("Address to the Tennessee State Medical Society," Transactions of the Medical Society of the State of Tennessee, Knoxville, 1892, p. 292). Hickman is listed in Memphis city directories from 1891 through 1894 and then disappears. PMD (n. 9), 1898, p. 1278, places him in Cincinnati, and the obituary notice on his father in the Eclectic Medical Journal, 1900, 60, p. 232, puts him in South Bend, Indiana.
183. See listings in medical directories, 1886-1900, and in Memphis, Tennessee, and Evansville, Indiana, city directories for the 1880s and 1890s. For more on Jay, see n. 68.
184. Memphis Commercial Appeal, 18 October 1935, 22 June 1990; Memphis Daily News, 25 June 1990; Interactions (University of Michigan College of Pharmacy), Spring 1991, p. 18; Roberta Church and Ronald Walter, Nineteenth Century Memphis Families of Color, 1850-1900 (Memphis, Tenn.: Murdock Printing Co., 1987), p. 63; Patricia M. LaPointe, From Saddlebags to Science: A Century of Health Care in Memphis, 1830-1930 (Memphis, Tenn.: The Health Sciences Museum Foundation of the Memphis and Shelby County Medical Society Auxiliary, 1984), p. 106; Tennessee Historical Commission highway marker at 159 Beale Street, Memphis; University of Michigan School of Pharmacy, Catalogue, 1891-1892, found in the National Library of Medicine, Bethesda, Md.; John Parascandola, The Development of American Pharmacology: John J. Abel and the Shaping of a Discipline (Baltimore, Md.: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1992), pp. 84-85.
185. Memphis Commercial Appeal, 18 October 1935, 22 June 1990; Memphis Daily News, 25 June 1990; Interactions (University of Michigan College of Pharmacy), Spring 1991, p. 18; Roberta Church and Ronald Walter, Nineteenth Century Memphis Families of Color, 1850-1900 (Memphis, Tenn.: Murdock Printing Co., 1987), p. 63; Patricia M. LaPointe, From Saddlebags to Science: A Century of Health Care in Memphis, 1830-1930 (Memphis, Tenn.: The Health Sciences Museum Foundation of the Memphis and Shelby County Medical Society Auxiliary, 1984), p. 106; Tennessee Historical Commission highway marker at 159 Beale Street, Memphis; University of Michigan School of Pharmacy, Catalogue, 1891-1892, found in the National Library of Medicine, Bethesda, Md.; John Parascandola, The Development of American Pharmacology: John J. Abel and the Shaping of a Discipline (Baltimore, Md.: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1992), pp. 84-85.
186. Memphis Commercial Appeal, 18 October 1935, 22 June 1990; Memphis Daily News, 25 June 1990; Interactions (University of Michigan College of Pharmacy), Spring 1991, p. 18; Roberta Church and Ronald Walter, Nineteenth Century Memphis Families of Color, 1850-1900 (Memphis, Tenn.: Murdock Printing Co., 1987), p. 63; Patricia M. LaPointe, From Saddlebags to Science: A Century of Health Care in Memphis, 1830-1930 (Memphis, Tenn.: The Health Sciences Museum Foundation of the Memphis and Shelby County Medical Society Auxiliary, 1984), p. 106; Tennessee Historical Commission highway marker at 159 Beale Street, Memphis; University of Michigan School of Pharmacy, Catalogue, 1891-1892, found in the National Library of Medicine, Bethesda, Md.; John Parascandola, The Development of American Pharmacology: John J. Abel and the Shaping of a Discipline (Baltimore, Md.: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1992), pp. 84-85.
187. Memphis Commercial Appeal, 18 October 1935, 22 June 1990; Memphis Daily News, 25 June 1990; Interactions (University of Michigan College of Pharmacy), Spring 1991, p. 18; Roberta Church and Ronald Walter, Nineteenth Century Memphis Families of Color, 1850-1900 (Memphis, Tenn.: Murdock Printing Co., 1987), p. 63; Patricia M. LaPointe, From Saddlebags to Science: A Century of Health Care in Memphis, 1830-1930 (Memphis, Tenn.: The Health Sciences Museum Foundation of the Memphis and Shelby County Medical Society Auxiliary, 1984), p. 106; Tennessee Historical Commission highway marker at 159 Beale Street, Memphis; University of Michigan School of Pharmacy, Catalogue, 1891-1892, found in the National Library of Medicine, Bethesda, Md.; John Parascandola, The Development of American Pharmacology: John J. Abel and the Shaping of a Discipline (Baltimore, Md.: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1992), pp. 84-85.
188. Memphis Commercial Appeal, 18 October 1935, 22 June 1990; Memphis Daily News, 25 June 1990; Interactions (University of Michigan College of Pharmacy), Spring 1991, p. 18; Roberta Church and Ronald Walter, Nineteenth Century Memphis Families of Color, 1850-1900 (Memphis, Tenn.: Murdock Printing Co., 1987), p. 63; Patricia M. LaPointe, From Saddlebags to Science: A Century of Health Care in Memphis, 1830-1930 (Memphis, Tenn.: The Health Sciences Museum Foundation of the Memphis and Shelby County Medical Society Auxiliary, 1984), p. 106; Tennessee Historical Commission highway marker at 159 Beale Street, Memphis; University of Michigan School of Pharmacy, Catalogue, 1891-1892, found in the National Library of Medicine, Bethesda, Md.; John Parascandola, The Development of American Pharmacology: John J. Abel and the Shaping of a Discipline (Baltimore, Md.: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1992), pp. 84-85.
189. Memphis Commercial Appeal, 18 October 1935, 22 June 1990; Memphis Daily News, 25 June 1990; Interactions (University of Michigan College of Pharmacy), Spring 1991, p. 18; Roberta Church and Ronald Walter, Nineteenth Century Memphis Families of Color, 1850-1900 (Memphis, Tenn.: Murdock Printing Co., 1987), p.
190. William J. Simmons, Men of Mark: Eminent, Progressive and Rising (Cleveland, Ohio: Rewell & Co., 1887), pp. 538-45; Hamilton, (n. 58) Bright Side, pp. 72-75; Willard B. Gatewood, Aristocrats of Color: The Black Elite, 1880-1920 (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1990), pp. 21, 89.
191. William J. Simmons, Men of Mark: Eminent, Progressive and Rising (Cleveland, Ohio: Rewell & Co., 1887), pp. 538-45; Hamilton, (n. 58) Bright Side, pp. 72-75; Willard B. Gatewood, Aristocrats of Color: The Black Elite, 1880-1920 (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1990), pp. 21, 89.
192. William J. Simmons, Men of Mark: Eminent, Progressive and Rising (Cleveland, Ohio: Rewell & Co., 1887), pp. 538-45; Hamilton, (n. 58) Bright Side, pp. 72-75; Willard B. Gatewood, Aristocrats of Color: The Black Elite, 1880-1920 (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1990), pp. 21, 89.
193. Memphis City Directory, 1894, p. 5. See also Rauch, (n. 52) Report on Medical Education, 1890, p. 143; 1891, p. 150.
194. Memphis City Directory, 1894, p. 5. See also Rauch, (n. 52) Report on Medical Education, 1890, p. 143; 1891, p. 150.
195. Memphis City Directory, 1894, p. 5. See also Rauch, (n. 52) Report on Medical Education, 1890, p. 143; 1891, p. 150.
196. On admission standards, see Kenneth J. Ludmerer, Learning to Heal: The Development of American Medical Education (New York: Basic Books, 1985), p. 97. Rauch, (n. 52) Report on Medical Education, 1891, p. 151.
197. On admission standards, see Kenneth J. Ludmerer, Learning to Heal: The Development of American Medical Education (New York: Basic Books, 1985), p. 97. Rauch, (n. 52) Report on Medical Education, 1891, p. 151.
198. Rauch, (n. 52) Report on Medical Education, 1890, p. 143; 1891, p. 151; Memphis City Directory, 1893, p. 18.
199. Rauch, (n. 52) Report on Medical Education, 1890, p. 143; 1891, p. 151; Memphis City Directory, 1893, p. 18.
200. Rauch, (n. 52) Report on Medical Education, 1890, p. 143; 1891, p. 151; Memphis City Directory, 1893, p. 18.
201. Rauch, (n. 52) Report on Medical Education, 1891.
202. Bate ([n. 73] Long Time, p. 110) lists several physicians who purportedly graduated from Hannibal. A closer look at the backgrounds of these physicians reveals that they graduated from other medical schools or that their medical alma maters cannot be confirmed through medical directories. Kenneth R. Manning of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology is compiling a database of African-American physicians and kindly shared John J. Pullen's name with me in a personal communication, 5 June 1990.
203. Rauch, (n. 52) Report on Medical Education, 1891, p. 151.
204. American Medical Directory, 1909, p. 40.
205. Memphis City Directory, 1896, pp. 67, 210, 328, 724.
206. Memphis City Directory, 1893, p. 1893; 1894, p. 5 and listings for Anderson, Chiles, Cottrell, Hall, Hickman, Jackson, Jeter, Morgan, and Settle; 1890, p. 121; 1893, p. 123.
207. Memphis City Directory, 1893, p. 1893; 1894, p. 5 and listings for Anderson, Chiles, Cottrell, Hall, Hickman, Jackson, Jeter, Morgan, and Settle; 1890, p. 121; 1893, p. 123.
208. Memphis City Directory, 1893, p. 1893; 1894, p. 5 and listings for Anderson, Chiles, Cottrell, Hall, Hickman, Jackson, Jeter, Morgan, and Settle; 1890, p. 121; 1893, p. 123.
209. Memphis City Directory, 1893, p. 1893; 1894, p. 5 and listings for Anderson, Chiles, Cottrell, Hall, Hickman, Jackson, Jeter, Morgan, and Settle; 1890, p. 121; 1893, p. 123.
210. Medical and Surgical Observer, 1893, 1, 161.
211. Transactions of the Medical Society of the State of Tennessee, Knoxville, 1900, p. 23.
212. None of the available published annual reports of the state board, from 1890 through 1897, mention this action. Yet Hamer ([n. 47], Centennial History, p. 1070 states, without citation, that the board, "on occasion . . . did refuse to recognize diplomas, for example, those from Hannibal Medical College in Memphis." The board may have taken that action later in the decade or in the next decade, when published reports are not available.
213. "Dr. Cottrell's death," The Christian Index (Jackson, Tennessee), 18 November 1899, p. 4.
214. Ibid.
215. Memphis Commercial Appeal, 28 October 1899, p. 7; 5 November 1899, p. 6.
216. Memphis Commercial Appeal, 28 October 1899, p. 7; 5 November 1899, p. 6.
217. Charter of Incorporation for Chattanooga National Medical College, filed in Book J3, p. 118, Domestic Charters, Tennessee State Library and Archives, Nashville [hereafter referred to as Charter of CNMC].
218. See PMDs and Chattanooga city directories for the 1890s and early twentieth century.
219. The manuscript United States census for 1900 (Hamilton County, Tennessee, vol. 26, E.D. 67, sheet 17, line 84) reports Haigler's birth date as July 1856. J. Bliss White, comp., Biography and Achievements of the Colored Citizens of Chattanooga, 1904 (n.p.: 1904), p. 52, lists his birth date as 4 July 1857.
220. White, (n. 98) Biography, p. 52.
221. In 1886-1887, Haigler studied medicine at the Northwestern Ohio Medical College (Northwestern Ohio Medical College Catalogue, 1887-1888, p. 12 [list of matriculates for 1886-1887], found in the National Library of Medicine, Bethesda, Md.). Northwestern Ohio Medical College did not list him as a student the following year, but a catalog from rival Toledo Medical College included his name, with the degree Ph.D. (Bachelor of Pharmacy) following it. His preceptor (all students at Toledo Medical College had a preceptor) that year was G. A. Collamore, an 1859 Harvard Medical College graduate practicing medicine in Chattanooga (Toledo Medical College Catalogue, 1888-1889, p. 15, found in the National Library of Medicine, Bethesda, Md.; PMD [n. 10], 1890, p. 936). Haigler did not complete his medical studies at either Toledo school, however, but instead left Ohio in 1888 to enroll at two black medical schools for the 1888-1889 term, Meharry Medical College in Nashville as a second-year student and the newly opened Louisville National Medical College in Kentucky as a senior (Meharry Medical College Catalogue, 1888-1889, p. 6; LNMC Catalogue, 1889-1890, p. 6).
222. In 1886-1887, Haigler studied medicine at the Northwestern Ohio Medical College (Northwestern Ohio Medical College Catalogue, 1887-1888, p. 12 [list of matriculates for 1886-1887], found in the National Library of Medicine, Bethesda, Md.). Northwestern Ohio Medical College did not list him as a student the following year, but a catalog from rival Toledo Medical College included his name, with the degree Ph.D. (Bachelor of Pharmacy) following it. His preceptor (all students at Toledo Medical College had a preceptor) that year was G. A. Collamore, an 1859 Harvard Medical College graduate practicing medicine in Chattanooga (Toledo Medical College Catalogue, 1888-1889, p. 15, found in the National Library of Medicine, Bethesda, Md.; PMD [n. 10], 1890, p. 936). Haigler did not complete his medical studies at either Toledo school, however, but instead left Ohio in 1888 to enroll at two black medical schools for the 1888-1889 term, Meharry Medical College in Nashville as a second-year student and the newly opened Louisville National Medical College in Kentucky as a senior (Meharry Medical College Catalogue, 1888-1889, p. 6; LNMC Catalogue, 1889-1890, p. 6).
223. In 1886-1887, Haigler studied medicine at the Northwestern Ohio Medical College (Northwestern Ohio Medical College Catalogue, 1887-1888, p. 12 [list of matriculates for 1886-1887], found in the National Library of Medicine, Bethesda, Md.). Northwestern Ohio Medical College did not list him as a student the following year, but a catalog from rival Toledo Medical College included his name, with the degree Ph.D. (Bachelor of Pharmacy) following it. His preceptor (all students at Toledo Medical College had a preceptor) that year was G. A. Collamore, an 1859 Harvard Medical College graduate practicing medicine in Chattanooga (Toledo Medical College Catalogue, 1888-1889, p. 15, found in the National Library of Medicine, Bethesda, Md.; PMD [n. 10], 1890, p. 936). Haigler did not complete his medical studies at either Toledo school, however, but instead left Ohio in 1888 to enroll at two black medical schools for the 1888-1889 term, Meharry Medical College in Nashville as a second-year student and the newly opened Louisville National Medical College in Kentucky as a senior (Meharry Medical College Catalogue, 1888-1889, p. 6; LNMC Catalogue, 1889-1890, p. 6).
224. In 1886-1887, Haigler studied medicine at the Northwestern Ohio Medical College (Northwestern Ohio Medical College Catalogue, 1887-1888, p. 12 [list of matriculates for 1886-1887], found in the National Library of Medicine, Bethesda, Md.). Northwestern Ohio Medical College did not list him as a student the following year, but a catalog from rival Toledo Medical College included his name, with the degree Ph.D. (Bachelor of Pharmacy) following it. His preceptor (all students at Toledo Medical College had a preceptor) that year was G. A. Collamore, an 1859 Harvard Medical College graduate practicing medicine in Chattanooga (Toledo Medical College Catalogue, 1888-1889, p. 15, found in the National Library of Medicine, Bethesda, Md.; PMD [n. 10], 1890, p. 936). Haigler did not complete his medical studies at either Toledo school, however, but instead left Ohio in 1888 to enroll at two black medical schools for the 1888-1889 term, Meharry Medical College in Nashville as a second-year student and the newly opened Louisville National Medical College in Kentucky as a senior (Meharry Medical College Catalogue, 1888-1889, p. 6; LNMC Catalogue, 1889-1890, p. 6).
225. In 1886-1887, Haigler studied medicine at the Northwestern Ohio Medical College (Northwestern Ohio Medical College Catalogue, 1887-1888, p. 12 [list of matriculates for 1886-1887], found in the National Library of Medicine, Bethesda, Md.). Northwestern Ohio Medical College did not list him as a student the following year, but a catalog from rival Toledo Medical College included his name, with the degree Ph.D. (Bachelor of Pharmacy) following it. His preceptor (all students at Toledo Medical College had a preceptor) that year was G. A. Collamore, an 1859 Harvard Medical College graduate practicing medicine in Chattanooga (Toledo Medical College Catalogue, 1888-1889, p. 15, found in the National Library of Medicine, Bethesda, Md.; PMD [n. 10], 1890, p. 936). Haigler did not complete his medical studies at either Toledo school, however, but instead left Ohio in 1888 to enroll at two black medical schools for the 1888-1889 term, Meharry Medical College in Nashville as a second-year student and the newly opened Louisville National Medical College in Kentucky as a senior (Meharry Medical College Catalogue, 1888-1889, p. 6; LNMC Catalogue, 1889-1890, p. 6).
226. White, (n. 98) Biography, p. 53. See also PMD (n. 9), 1898, p. 1507; 1900, p. 1644; 1904, p. 1789; Chattanooga City Directory, 1899, pp. 20, 304; 1902, pp. 13, 323; 1903, p. 13.
227. White, (n. 98) Biography, p. 53. See also PMD (n. 9), 1898, p. 1507; 1900, p. 1644; 1904, p. 1789; Chattanooga City Directory, 1899, pp. 20, 304; 1902, pp. 13, 323; 1903, p. 13.
228. White, (n. 98) Biography, p. 53. See also PMD (n. 9), 1898, p. 1507; 1900, p. 1644; 1904, p. 1789; Chattanooga City Directory, 1899, pp. 20, 304; 1902, pp. 13, 323; 1903, p. 13.
229. White, (n. 98) Biography, p. 53. See also PMD (n. 9), 1898, p. 1507; 1900, p. 1644; 1904, p. 1789; Chattanooga City Directory, 1899, pp. 20, 304; 1902, pp. 13, 323; 1903, p. 13.
230. White, (n. 98) Biography, p. 53. See also PMD (n. 9), 1898, p. 1507; 1900, p. 1644; 1904, p. 1789; Chattanooga City Directory, 1899, pp. 20, 304; 1902, pp. 13, 323; 1903, p. 13.
231. White, (n. 98) Biography, p. 53. See also PMD (n. 9), 1898, p. 1507; 1900, p. 1644; 1904, p. 1789; Chattanooga City Directory, 1899, pp. 20, 304; 1902, pp. 13, 323; 1903, p. 13.
232. White, (n. 98) Biography, p. 53. See also PMD (n. 9), 1898, p. 1507; 1900, p. 1644; 1904, p. 1789; Chattanooga City Directory, 1899, pp. 20, 304; 1902, pp. 13, 323; 1903, p. 13.
233. White, (n. 98) Biography, p. 53; Charter of CNMC (n. 96).
234. White, (n. 98) Biography, p. 50; Chattanooga city directories for 1890s and early 1900s.
235. Charter of CNMC (n. 96).
236. White, (n. 98) Biography, p. 53.
237. Chattanooga City Directory, 1902, pp. 162, 323, 861-62; 1903, pp. 176, 343, 950; 1904, pp. 196, 368, 1003.
238. Chattanooga City Directory, 1902, pp. 162, 323, 861-62; 1903, pp. 176, 343, 950; 1904, pp. 196, 368, 1003.
239. Chattanooga City Directory, 1902, pp. 162, 323, 861-62; 1903, pp. 176, 343, 950; 1904, pp. 196, 368, 1003.
240. Young and Company, Business Directory of the Principal Cities of Tennessee and Northern Alabama, for 1900, p. 29. Notes on this advertisement are found in the S. R. Bruesch Papers, University of Tennessee Health Sciences Library, Memphis.
241. PMD (n. 9), 1904, pp. 832, 2125-26. Murdock also listed degrees from the University of Edinburgh in Scotland, the Kentucky School of Medicine in Louisville, the Michigan Medical College in Lansing, and the Michigan Homeopathic Medical College in Lansing.
242. PMD (n. 9), 1902, p. 165, states a faculty of eleven; 1904, p. 179, states a staff of nine for the 1902-1903 term.
243. List of students copied by American Medical Association officials from "Announcement of the Chattanooga National Medical College, 7th Annual Session from September 2, 1904-April 27, 1905," in Medical Schools Alumni files, vol. 44, Chattanooga National Medical College, AMA Archives, Chicago; Polk's and AMA medical directories, 1886-1912 (very few of the graduates of CNMC are listed in these directories, and those who are listed almost never identify CNMC as their medical alma maters); William L. Smith and Dan J. Smith, "The extinct black medical colleges of the United States: A history," (unpublished manuscript; Los Angeles, 1977), p. 22.
244. PMD (n. 9), 1904, p. 179.
245. "Biography of Isaac Henry Miller, By: Himself, August 31, 1938," in WPA File, University of Louisville Health Sciences Library, Louisville, Ky. Miller claimed, in this autobiographical sketch, to have "spent two years at the Louisville National Medical College. One year interne Chattanooga National Medical College, Three years regular course, graduated in 1903." His name does not appear in any LNMC Catalogues, nor in any medical directories through 1916.
246. Medical Schools Alumni files, (n. 110), vol. 44.
247. Chattanooga City Directory, 1906, p. 759; 1907, p. 821; 1905, p. 13; 1906, pp. 12, 274; 1907, p. 13; PMD (n. 9) pp. 1920, 1943; American Medical Directory, 1906, p. 1218; 1909, p. 1496; 1912, p. 1169; Directory of Deceased American Physicians, 1804-1929, 2 vols. (Chicago: American Medical Association, 1993), I. 633.
248. Chattanooga City Directory, 1906, p. 759; 1907, p. 821; 1905, p. 13; 1906, pp. 12, 274; 1907, p. 13; PMD (n. 9) pp. 1920, 1943; American Medical Directory, 1906, p. 1218; 1909, p. 1496; 1912, p. 1169; Directory of Deceased American Physicians, 1804-1929, 2 vols. (Chicago: American Medical Association, 1993), I. 633.
249. Chattanooga City Directory, 1906, p. 759; 1907, p. 821; 1905, p. 13; 1906, pp. 12, 274; 1907, p. 13; PMD (n. 9) pp. 1920, 1943; American Medical Directory, 1906, p. 1218; 1909, p. 1496; 1912, p. 1169; Directory of Deceased American Physicians, 1804-1929, 2 vols. (Chicago: American Medical Association, 1993), I. 633.
250. Chattanooga City Directory, 1906, p. 759; 1907, p. 821; 1905, p. 13; 1906, pp. 12, 274; 1907, p. 13; PMD (n. 9) pp. 1920, 1943; American Medical Directory, 1906, p. 1218; 1909, p. 1496; 1912, p. 1169; Directory of Deceased American Physicians, 1804-1929, 2 vols. (Chicago: American Medical Association, 1993), I. 633.
251. Chattanooga City Directory, 1906, p. 759; 1907, p. 821; 1905, p. 13; 1906, pp. 12, 274; 1907, p. 13; PMD (n. 9) pp. 1920, 1943; American Medical Directory, 1906, p. 1218; 1909, p. 1496; 1912, p. 1169; Directory of Deceased American Physicians, 1804-1929, 2 vols. (Chicago: American Medical Association, 1993), I. 633.
252. Chattanooga City Directory, 1906, p. 759; 1907, p. 821; 1905, p. 13; 1906, pp. 12, 274; 1907, p. 13; PMD (n. 9) pp. 1920, 1943; American Medical Directory, 1906, p. 1218; 1909, p. 1496; 1912, p. 1169; Directory of Deceased American Physicians, 1804-1929, 2 vols. (Chicago: American Medical Association, 1993), I. 633.
253. Chattanooga City Directory, 1906, p. 759; 1907, p. 821; 1905, p. 13; 1906, pp. 12, 274; 1907, p. 13; PMD (n. 9) pp. 1920, 1943; American Medical Directory, 1906, p. 1218; 1909, p. 1496; 1912, p. 1169; Directory of Deceased American Physicians, 1804-1929, 2 vols. (Chicago: American Medical Association, 1993), I. 633.
254. Chattanooga City Directory, 1906, p. 759; 1907, p. 821; 1905, p. 13; 1906, pp. 12, 274; 1907, p. 13; PMD (n. 9) pp. 1920, 1943; American Medical Directory, 1906, p. 1218; 1909, p. 1496; 1912, p. 1169; Directory of Deceased American Physicians, 1804-1929, 2 vols. (Chicago: American Medical Association, 1993), I. 633.
255. Chattanooga City Directory, 1906, p. 759; 1907, p. 821; 1905, p. 13; 1906, pp. 12, 274; 1907, p. 13; PMD (n. 9) pp. 1920, 1943; American Medical Directory, 1906, p. 1218; 1909, p. 1496; 1912, p. 1169; Directory of Deceased American Physicians, 1804-1929, 2 vols. (Chicago: American Medical Association, 1993), I. 633.
256. Chattanooga City Directory, 1906, p. 759; 1907, p. 821; 1905, p. 13; 1906, pp. 12, 274; 1907, p. 13; PMD (n. 9) pp. 1920, 1943; American Medical Directory, 1906, p. 1218; 1909, p. 1496; 1912, p. 1169; Directory of Deceased American Physicians, 1804-1929, 2 vols. (Chicago: American Medical Association, 1993), I. 633.
257. Memphis Tri-State Defender, 1 January 1955, p. 16; S. R. Bruesch, "Medical Education," in Marcus J. Stewart and William T. Black, Jr., eds., The History of Medicine in Memphis (Memphis, Tenn.: Memphis and Shelby County Medical Society, 1971), p. 325, states UWT granted 216 M.D. degrees. The unidentified author of "Miles Vandahurst Lynk" in J. Natl. Med. Assoc., 1952, 44, 475, claims 266 graduates, which probably includes law, pharmacy, nursing, and medicine.
258. Memphis Tri-State Defender, 1 January 1955, p. 16; S. R. Bruesch, "Medical Education," in Marcus J. Stewart and William T. Black, Jr., eds., The History of Medicine in Memphis (Memphis, Tenn.: Memphis and Shelby County Medical Society, 1971), p. 325, states UWT granted 216 M.D. degrees. The unidentified author of "Miles Vandahurst Lynk" in J. Natl. Med. Assoc., 1952, 44, 475, claims 266 graduates, which probably includes law, pharmacy, nursing, and medicine.
259. Memphis Tri-State Defender, 1 January 1955, p. 16; S. R. Bruesch, "Medical Education," in Marcus J. Stewart and William T. Black, Jr., eds., The History of Medicine in Memphis (Memphis, Tenn.: Memphis and Shelby County Medical Society, 1971), p. 325, states UWT granted 216 M.D. degrees. The unidentified author of "Miles Vandahurst Lynk" in J. Natl. Med. Assoc., 1952, 44, 475, claims 266 graduates, which probably includes law, pharmacy, nursing, and medicine.
260. Much of the information about Lynk's life comes from his autobiography, Sixty Years of Medicine or the the and Times of Dr. Miles V. Lynk: An Autobiography (Memphis, Tenn.: Twentieth Century Press, 1951). Lynk selects aspects of his life to include in this autobiography, focusing on certain achievements and omitting much detail between those high points.
261. Meharry Medical College Catalogue, 1888-1889, p. 8.
262. Lynk, (n. 116) Sixty Years, pp. 20-27.
263. Ibid., pp. 27-28. Another Meharry graduate, J. Edward Perry, had a very different response to this tactic in Columbia, Missouri, a few years later. See Perry's autobiography, Forty Cords of Wood: Memoirs of a Medical Doctor (Jefferson City, Missouri: Lincoln University Press, 1947), pp. 159-60, and Todd L. Savitt, "Entering a white profession: Black physicians in the New South, 1880-1920." Bull. Hist. Med., 1987, 61, 507-40, pp. 521-22.
264. Ibid., pp. 27-28. Another Meharry graduate, J. Edward Perry, had a very different response to this tactic in Columbia, Missouri, a few years later. See Perry's autobiography, Forty Cords of Wood: Memoirs of a Medical Doctor (Jefferson City, Missouri: Lincoln University Press, 1947), pp. 159-60, and Todd L. Savitt, "Entering a white profession: Black physicians in the New South, 1880-1920." Bull. Hist. Med., 1987, 61, 507-40, pp. 521-22.
265. Ibid., pp. 27-28. Another Meharry graduate, J. Edward Perry, had a very different response to this tactic in Columbia, Missouri, a few years later. See Perry's autobiography, Forty Cords of Wood: Memoirs of a Medical Doctor (Jefferson City, Missouri: Lincoln University Press, 1947), pp. 159-60, and Todd L. Savitt, "Entering a white profession: Black physicians in the New South, 1880-1920." Bull. Hist. Med., 1987, 61, 507-40, pp. 521-22.
266. Lynk, (n. 116) Sixty Years, pp. 28-29; Jackson, Tenn., City Directory, 1891-1892, pp. 31, 36-37; M. V. Lynk, "The Afro-American population ofJackson. Its rise and progress," Jackson Daily Sun, 12 December 1900.
267. Lynk, (n. 116) Sixty Years, pp. 28-29; Jackson, Tenn., City Directory, 1891-1892, pp. 31, 36-37; M. V. Lynk, "The Afro-American population ofJackson. Its rise and progress," Jackson Daily Sun, 12 December 1900.
268. Lynk, (n. 116) Sixty Years, pp. 28-29; Jackson, Tenn., City Directory, 1891-1892, pp. 31, 36-37; M. V. Lynk, "The Afro-American population ofJackson. Its rise and progress," Jackson Daily Sun, 12 December 1900.
269. The Christian Index (Jackson, Tenn.), 26 September 1891.
270. Savitt, (n. 26), pp. 58-59.
271. By 1900, Lynk had edited and published through the Lynk Publishing House of Jackson The Afro-American School Speaker and Gems of Literature, For School Commencements, Literary Circles, Debating Clubs, and Rhetoricals Generally (1896), a collection of black literature to acquaint African-American schoolchildren with the greatest writings of persons of color, and The Black Troopers; Or, the Daring Heroism of the Negro Soldiers in the Spanish-American War (1899), which sold more than 15,000 copies and gave readers a view of black accomplishments in the military. He had also edited and published several issues of an illustrated monthly journal for the general public called Lynk's Magazine. Lynk wrote of himself in the 12 December 1900 issue of the Jackson Daily Sun: "What Booker T. Washington is to industrial education, Dr. Lynk is to good, helpful race literature. . . . It is to his class of young colored men that his race must look for guidance and wholesome example." On his publications and reactions to them, see Lynk, (n. 116) Sixty Years, p. 6; Penelope L. Bullock, The Afro-American Periodical Press, 1838-1909 (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1981), pp. 185-89; Indianapolis Freeman, 12 February, 5 November, and 10 December 1898, and 2 June 1900; Jackson Daily Sun, 12 December 1900; Washington (D.C.) Colored American, 30 July 1898.
272. By 1900, Lynk had edited and published through the Lynk Publishing House of Jackson The Afro-American School Speaker and Gems of Literature, For School Commencements, Literary Circles, Debating Clubs, and Rhetoricals Generally (1896), a collection of black literature to acquaint African-American schoolchildren with the greatest writings of persons of color, and The Black Troopers; Or, the Daring Heroism of the Negro Soldiers in the Spanish-American War (1899), which sold more than 15,000 copies and gave readers a view of black accomplishments in the military. He had also edited and published several issues of an illustrated monthly journal for the general public called Lynk's Magazine. Lynk wrote of himself in the 12 December 1900 issue of the Jackson Daily Sun: "What Booker T. Washington is to industrial education, Dr. Lynk is to good, helpful race literature. . . . It is to his class of young colored men that his race must look for guidance and wholesome example." On his publications and reactions to them, see Lynk, (n. 116) Sixty Years, p. 6; Penelope L. Bullock, The Afro-American Periodical Press, 1838-1909 (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1981), pp. 185-89; Indianapolis Freeman, 12 February, 5 November, and 10 December 1898, and 2 June 1900; Jackson Daily Sun, 12 December 1900; Washington (D.C.) Colored American, 30 July 1898.
273. By 1900, Lynk had edited and published through the Lynk Publishing House of Jackson The Afro-American School Speaker and Gems of Literature, For School Commencements, Literary Circles, Debating Clubs, and Rhetoricals Generally (1896), a collection of black literature to acquaint African-American schoolchildren with the greatest writings of persons of color, and The Black Troopers; Or, the Daring Heroism of the Negro Soldiers in the Spanish-American War (1899), which sold more than 15,000 copies and gave readers a view of black accomplishments in the military. He had also edited and published several issues of an illustrated monthly journal for the general public called Lynk's Magazine. Lynk wrote of himself in the 12 December 1900 issue of the Jackson Daily Sun: "What Booker T. Washington is to industrial education, Dr. Lynk is to good, helpful race literature. . . . It is to his class of young colored men that his race must look for guidance and wholesome example." On his publications and reactions to them, see Lynk, (n. 116) Sixty Years, p. 6; Penelope L. Bullock, The Afro-American Periodical Press, 1838-1909 (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1981), pp. 185-89; Indianapolis Freeman, 12 February, 5 November, and 10 December 1898, and 2 June 1900; Jackson Daily Sun, 12 December 1900; Washington (D.C.) Colored American, 30 July 1898.
274. By 1900, Lynk had edited and published through the Lynk Publishing House of Jackson The Afro-American School Speaker and Gems of Literature, For School Commencements, Literary Circles, Debating Clubs, and Rhetoricals Generally (1896), a collection of black literature to acquaint African-American schoolchildren with the greatest writings of persons of color, and The Black Troopers; Or, the Daring Heroism of the Negro Soldiers in the Spanish-American War (1899), which sold more than 15,000 copies and gave readers a view of black accomplishments in the military. He had also edited and published several issues of an illustrated monthly journal for the general public called Lynk's Magazine. Lynk wrote of himself in the 12 December 1900 issue of the Jackson Daily Sun: "What Booker T. Washington is to industrial education, Dr. Lynk is to good, helpful race literature. . . . It is to his class of young colored men that his race must look for guidance and wholesome example." On his publications and reactions to them, see Lynk, (n. 116) Sixty Years, p. 6; Penelope L. Bullock, The Afro-American Periodical Press, 1838-1909 (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1981), pp. 185-89; Indianapolis Freeman, 12 February, 5 November, and 10 December 1898, and 2 June 1900; Jackson Daily Sun, 12 December 1900; Washington (D.C.) Colored American, 30 July 1898.
275. By 1900, Lynk had edited and published through the Lynk Publishing House of Jackson The Afro-American School Speaker and Gems of Literature, For School Commencements, Literary Circles, Debating Clubs, and Rhetoricals Generally (1896), a collection of black literature to acquaint African-American schoolchildren with the greatest writings of persons of color, and The Black Troopers; Or, the Daring Heroism of the Negro Soldiers in the Spanish-American War (1899), which sold more than 15,000 copies and gave readers a view of black accomplishments in the military. He had also edited and published several issues of an illustrated monthly journal for the general public called Lynk's Magazine. Lynk wrote of himself in the 12 December 1900 issue of the Jackson Daily Sun: "What Booker T. Washington is to industrial education, Dr. Lynk is to good, helpful race literature. . . . It is to his class of young colored men that his race must look for guidance and wholesome example." On his publications and reactions to them, see Lynk, (n. 116) Sixty Years, p. 6; Penelope L. Bullock, The Afro-American Periodical Press, 1838-1909 (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1981), pp. 185-89; Indianapolis Freeman, 12 February, 5 November, and 10 December 1898, and 2 June 1900; Jackson Daily Sun, 12 December 1900; Washington (D.C.) Colored American, 30 July 1898.
276. By 1900, Lynk had edited and published through the Lynk Publishing House of Jackson The Afro-American School Speaker and Gems of Literature, For School Commencements, Literary Circles, Debating Clubs, and Rhetoricals Generally (1896), a collection of black literature to acquaint African-American schoolchildren with the greatest writings of persons of color, and The Black Troopers; Or, the Daring Heroism of the Negro Soldiers in the Spanish-American War (1899), which sold more than 15,000 copies and gave readers a view of black accomplishments in the military. He had also edited and published several issues of an illustrated monthly journal for the general public called Lynk's Magazine. Lynk wrote of himself in the 12 December 1900 issue of the Jackson Daily Sun: "What Booker T. Washington is to industrial education, Dr. Lynk is to good, helpful race literature. . . . It is to his class of young colored men that his race must look for guidance and wholesome example." On his publications and reactions to them, see Lynk, (n. 116) Sixty Years, p. 6; Penelope L. Bullock, The Afro-American Periodical Press, 1838-1909 (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1981), pp. 185-89; Indianapolis Freeman, 12 February, 5 November, and 10 December 1898, and 2 June 1900; Jackson Daily Sun, 12 December 1900; Washington (D.C.) Colored American, 30 July 1898.
277. By 1900, Lynk had edited and published through the Lynk Publishing House of Jackson The Afro-American School Speaker and Gems of Literature, For School Commencements, Literary Circles, Debating Clubs, and Rhetoricals Generally (1896), a collection of black literature to acquaint African-American schoolchildren with the greatest writings of persons of color, and The Black Troopers; Or, the Daring Heroism of the Negro Soldiers in the Spanish-American War (1899), which sold more than 15,000 copies and gave readers a view of black accomplishments in the military. He had also edited and published several issues of an illustrated monthly journal for the general public called Lynk's Magazine. Lynk wrote of himself in the 12 December 1900 issue of the Jackson Daily Sun: "What Booker T. Washington is to industrial education, Dr. Lynk is to good, helpful race literature. . . . It is to his class of young colored men that his race must look for guidance and wholesome example." On his publications and reactions to them, see Lynk, (n. 116) Sixty Years, p. 6; Penelope L. Bullock, The Afro-American Periodical Press, 1838-1909 (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1981), pp. 185-89; Indianapolis Freeman, 12 February, 5 November, and 10 December 1898, and 2 June 1900; Jackson Daily Sun, 12 December 1900; Washington (D.C.) Colored American, 30 July 1898.
278. Lakey, (n. 56) CME Church; Ralph G. Gay, "Christian Methodist Episcopal Church," in Encyclopedia of World Methodism (Nashville, Tenn.: United Methodist Publishing House, 1974), pp. 487-89; Jackson Headlight, 27 January 1900.
279. Lakey, (n. 56) CME Church; Ralph G. Gay, "Christian Methodist Episcopal Church," in Encyclopedia of World Methodism (Nashville, Tenn.: United Methodist Publishing House, 1974), pp. 487-89; Jackson Headlight, 27 January 1900.
280. Lakey, (n. 56) CME Church; Ralph G. Gay, "Christian Methodist Episcopal Church," in Encyclopedia of World Methodism (Nashville, Tenn.: United Methodist Publishing House, 1974), pp. 487-89; Jackson Headlight, 27 January 1900.
281. Lynk, (n. 116) Sixty Years, pp. 54-55.
282. Ibid., pp. 55-59, quote on p. 54; Hamilton, (n. 58) Bright Side, pp. 71-72.
283. Ibid., pp. 55-59, quote on p. 54; Hamilton, (n. 58) Bright Side, pp. 71-72.
284. University of West Tennessee Catalogue [hereafter UWT Catalogue], 1906-1907, p. 5; 1909-1910, p. 5, found in the National Library of Medicine, Bethesda, Md.
285. University of West Tennessee Catalogue [hereafter UWT Catalogue], 1906-1907, p. 5; 1909-1910, p. 5, found in the National Library of Medicine, Bethesda, Md.
286. Lynk, (n. 116) Sixty Years, p. 64.
287. Ibid., pp. 64-66; Hamilton, (n. 58) Bright Side, p. 258.
288. Ibid., pp. 64-66; Hamilton, (n. 58) Bright Side, p. 258.
289. Lynk, (n. 116) Sixty Years, p. 65; Deed, Ross Witherspoon & Wife To M. V. Lynk, Filed in Deed Book 60, p. 633, 13 August 1901, Madison County, Tennessee, microfilm copy in Jackson/Madison County Library, Jackson, Tenn.
290. Lynk, (n. 116) Sixty Years, pp. 65-66; The Christian Index (Jackson, Tenn.), 31 August 1901.
291. Lynk, (n. 116) Sixty Years, pp. 65-66; The Christian Index (Jackson, Tenn.), 31 August 1901.
292. Lynk, (n. 116) Sixty Years, p. 65.
293. Ibid., pp. 66-67.
294. Indianapolis Freeman, 15 August 1903; UWT Catalogue, 1906-1907, frontispiece.
295. Indianapolis Freeman, 15 August 1903; UWT Catalogue, 1906-1907, frontispiece.
296. Indianapolis Freeman, 15 August 1903. Before the start of the second year of classes an additional story was added to the building (The Christian Index [Jackson, Tenn.], 13 September 1902).
297. Indianapolis Freeman, 15 August 1903. Before the start of the second year of classes an additional story was added to the building (The Christian Index [Jackson, Tenn.], 13 September 1902).
298. Indianapolis Freeman, 15 August 1903; PMDs; local city directories; Meharry Medical College catalogs; Hamilton, (n. 58) Bright Side, pp. 258-59. A faculty picture with the caption, "W. A. Cocolough, A.B., M.D." appears on the composite photo labeled "University of West Tennessee, Jackson, Tenn., 1901" in the 15 August 1903 Indianapolis Freeman article. There is a discrepancy in dates here, as Cocolough did not receive his M.D. degree from Meharry until 1902.
299. Indianapolis Freeman, 15 August 1903; PMDs; local city directories; Meharry Medical College catalogs; Hamilton, (n. 58) Bright Side, pp. 258-59. A faculty picture with the caption, "W. A. Cocolough, A.B., M.D." appears on the composite photo labeled "University of West Tennessee, Jackson, Tenn., 1901" in the 15 August 1903 Indianapolis Freeman article. There is a discrepancy in dates here, as Cocolough did not receive his M.D. degree from Meharry until 1902.
300. PMD (n. 9), 1902, p. 165; 1904, p. 179.
301. PMD (n. 9), 1902, p. 165; 1904, p. 179.
302. PMD (n. 9), 1904, p. 179; American Medical Directory (n. 114), 1906, p. 884.
303. PMD (n. 9), 1904, p. 179; American Medical Directory (n. 114), 1906, p. 884.
304. PMD (n. 9), 1904, p. 179; Indianapolis Freeman, 15 August 1903; UWT Catalogue, 1906-1907, pp. 8, 14.
305. PMD (n. 9), 1904, p. 179; Indianapolis Freeman, 15 August 1903; UWT Catalogue, 1906-1907, pp. 8, 14.
306. PMD (n. 9), 1904, p. 179; Indianapolis Freeman, 15 August 1903; UWT Catalogue, 1906-1907, pp. 8, 14.
307. Indianapolis Freeman, 15 August 1903; UWT Catalogue, 1906-1907, p. 8. On religious values of medical students at Leonard Medical School, see Savitt, (n. 3) "Training . . . at Leonard."
308. Indianapolis Freeman, 15 August 1903; UWT Catalogue, 1906-1907, p. 8. On religious values of medical students at Leonard Medical School, see Savitt, (n. 3) "Training . . . at Leonard."
309. UWT Catalogue, 1906-1907, pp. 8-9.
310. Indianapolis Freeman, 15 August 1903.
311. UWT Catalogue, 1906-1907, pp. 14-15. Lynk listed himself as a UWT law graduate, though his autobiography states that he graduated from the law school he established at Lane College, as described above.
312. UWT Catalogue, 1906-1907, p. 5.
313. Madison County Deed Book 72, pp. 97-99 (23 January 1907), 485-80 (29 June 1907), 500-501 (10 July 1907), microfilm copy in Jackson/Madison County Library, Jackson, Tenn.
314. Memphis City Directory, 1904, pp. 87, 506; Lynk, (n.116) Sixty Years, p. 70; UWT Catalogue, 1909-1910, p. 7. Sanborn Fire Insurance maps (n. 64), Memphis, 1907, show the two vacant school buildings at the end of an unpaved street, South Phillips Place. Memphis city directories of the period contain full city maps with the street car lines marked.
315. Memphis City Directory, 1904, pp. 87, 506; Lynk, (n.116) Sixty Years, p. 70; UWT Catalogue, 1909-1910, p. 7. Sanborn Fire Insurance maps (n. 64), Memphis, 1907, show the two vacant school buildings at the end of an unpaved street, South Phillips Place. Memphis city directories of the period contain full city maps with the street car lines marked.
316. Memphis City Directory, 1904, pp. 87, 506; Lynk, (n.116) Sixty Years, p. 70; UWT Catalogue, 1909-1910, p. 7. Sanborn Fire Insurance maps (n. 64), Memphis, 1907, show the two vacant school buildings at the end of an unpaved street, South Phillips Place. Memphis city directories of the period contain full city maps with the street car lines marked.
317. UWT Catalogue, 1906-1907, p. 5; Hamilton, (n. 58) Bright Side, pp. 257-58.
318. UWT Catalogue, 1906-1907, p. 5; Hamilton, (n. 58) Bright Side, pp. 257-58.
319. UWT Catalogue, 1906-1907, p. 5; Hamilton, (n. 58) Bright Side, pp. 50-52, 47; PMD (n. 10), 1908, p. 2259 (advertisement). Hairston Hospital was located at 628 Orleans; Terrell Patterson Infirmary at 159 Beale, then at 698 Williams.
320. UWT Catalogue, 1906-1907, p. 5; Hamilton, (n. 58) Bright Side, pp. 50-52, 47; PMD (n. 10), 1908, p. 2259 (advertisement). Hairston Hospital was located at 628 Orleans; Terrell Patterson Infirmary at 159 Beale, then at 698 Williams.
321. UWT Catalogue, 1906-1907, p. 5; Hamilton, (n. 58) Bright Side, pp. 50-52, 47; PMD (n. 10), 1908, p. 2259 (advertisement). Hairston Hospital was located at 628 Orleans; Terrell Patterson Infirmary at 159 Beale, then at 698 Williams.
322. See lists of Memphis physicians in city and medical directories; biographical sketches and business cards of Memphis' African-American physicians in Hamilton, (n. 58) Bright Side, pp. 26-54, 177-82. Of the forty physicians Hamilton listed, thirty-three were Meharry graduates, two from Knoxville Medical College (one of whom had attended Meharry for three years before transferring to Knoxville), one from Hannibal, three from University of West Tennessee, and one from Howard.
323. Though catalogs and faculty lists are available for only a few of UWTs sixteen years in Memphis, Lynk's autobiography and the extant records indicate a trend toward using only African-American faculty members. Lynk, (n. 116) Sixty Years, especially pp. 71-72; UWT Catalogue, 1906-1907, p. 4; 1907-1908, p. 1; 1909-1910, p. 4.
324. Though catalogs and faculty lists are available for only a few of UWTs sixteen years in Memphis, Lynk's autobiography and the extant records indicate a trend toward using only African-American faculty members. Lynk, (n. 116) Sixty Years, especially pp. 71-72; UWT Catalogue, 1906-1907, p. 4; 1907-1908, p. 1; 1909-1910, p. 4.
325. Though catalogs and faculty lists are available for only a few of UWTs sixteen years in Memphis, Lynk's autobiography and the extant records indicate a trend toward using only African-American faculty members. Lynk, (n. 116) Sixty Years, especially pp. 71-72; UWT Catalogue, 1906-1907, p. 4; 1907-1908, p. 1; 1909-1910, p. 4.
326. Though catalogs and faculty lists are available for only a few of UWTs sixteen years in Memphis, Lynk's autobiography and the extant records indicate a trend toward using only African-American faculty members. Lynk, (n. 116) Sixty Years, especially pp. 71-72; UWT Catalogue, 1906-1907, p. 4; 1907-1908, p. 1; 1909-1910, p. 4.
327. UWT Catalogue, 1906-1907, p. 3.
328. American Medical Directory, (n. 138), 1923, p. 33. The number of states not recognizing UWT's and other grade "C" medical schools was noted in each annual education issue of the Journal of the American Medical Association. See, for example, J. Am. Med. Assoc., 1922, 79, 656. See also J. Nal. Med. Assoc., 1910, 2, 306.
329. American Medical Directory, (n. 138), 1923, p. 33. The number of states not recognizing UWT's and other grade "C" medical schools was noted in each annual education issue of the Journal of the American Medical Association. See, for example, J. Am. Med. Assoc., 1922, 79, 656. See also J. Nal. Med. Assoc., 1910, 2, 306.
330. American Medical Directory, (n. 138), 1923, p. 33. The number of states not recognizing UWT's and other grade "C" medical schools was noted in each annual education issue of the Journal of the American Medical Association. See, for example, J. Am. Med. Assoc., 1922, 79, 656. See also J. Nal. Med. Assoc., 1910, 2, 306.
331. UWT Catalogue, 1906-1907, pp. 6-7; PMD (n. 9), 1908, p. 2259 (advertisement); UWT Catalogue, 1909-1910, pp. 7-9.
332. UWT Catalogue, 1906-1907, pp. 6-7; PMD (n. 9), 1908, p. 2259 (advertisement); UWT Catalogue, 1909-1910, pp. 7-9.
333. UWT Catalogue, 1906-1907, pp. 6-7; PMD (n. 9), 1908, p. 2259 (advertisement); UWT Catalogue, 1909-1910, pp. 7-9.
334. UWT Catalogue, 1906-1907, 1909-1910.
335. Flexner, (n. 5) Medical Education, pp. 304-5.
336. UWT Catalogue, 1909-1910, pp. 9, 10.
337. Flexner, (n. 5) Medical Education, p. 305.
338. UWT Catalogue, 1909-1910, p. 6; Flexner, (n. 5) Medical Education, pp. 305, 309.
339. UWT Catalogue, 1909-1910, p. 6; Flexner, (n. 5) Medical Education, pp. 305, 309.
340. Savitt, (n. 3) "Flexner".
341. Thomas Jesse Jones, Negro Education: A Study of the Private and Higher Schools for Colored People in the United States, U.S. Department of Interior, Bureau of Education, Bulletin No. 39, 1916, 2 vols. (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1917), 11, 565.
342. Ibid.
343. Oral history interview with Dr. George W. West, 4 August 1976, tape at Fisk University Archives, Nashville, Tennessee.
344. Ibid.
345. Lynk, (n. 116) Sixty Years, pp. 67-68.
346. "A new medical practice act for Tennessee," J. Tenn. State Med. Assoc., 1914-1915, 7, 128-29; "Letters to the Editor", ibid., pp. 174-75, 210-14, 245-47, 331-32, 426; "The new practice act," ibid., 1915-1916, 8, 103-104.
347. "A new medical practice act for Tennessee," J. Tenn. State Med. Assoc., 1914-1915, 7, 128-29; "Letters to the Editor", ibid., pp. 174-75, 210-14, 245-47, 331-32, 426; "The new practice act," ibid., 1915-1916, 8, 103-104.
348. "A new medical practice act for Tennessee," J. Tenn. State Med. Assoc., 1914-1915, 7, 128-29; "Letters to the Editor", ibid., pp. 174-75, 210-14, 245-47, 331-32, 426; "The new practice act," ibid., 1915-1916, 8, 103-104.
349. J. Am. Med. Assoc., 1916, 67, 606; 1917, 69, 551; 1918, 71, 551.
350. J. Am. Med. Assoc., 1916, 67, 606; 1917, 69, 551; 1918, 71, 551.
351. J. Am. Med. Assoc., 1916, 67, 606; 1917, 69, 551; 1918, 71, 551.
352. See, for example, J. Am. Med. Assoc., 1916, 67, 590; 1917, 69, 561; American Medical Directory (n. 114), 1923, p. 33.
353. See, for example, J. Am. Med. Assoc., 1916, 67, 590; 1917, 69, 561; American Medical Directory (n. 114), 1923, p. 33.
354. See, for example, J. Am. Med. Assoc., 1916, 67, 590; 1917, 69, 561; American Medical Directory (n. 114), 1923, p. 33.
355. Memphis Tri-State Defender, 1 January 1955, p. 16; Shaw University Catalogue, 1914, pp. 60-63.
356. Memphis Tri-State Defender, 1 January 1955, p. 16; Shaw University Catalogue, 1914, pp. 60-63.
357. J. Am. Assoc. Assoc., 1923, 81, 551; Lynk, (n. 116) Autobiography.
358. J. Am. Assoc. Assoc., 1923, 81, 551; Lynk, (n. 116) Autobiography.
359. Indianapolis Freeman, 15 August 1903; Hamilton, (n. 58) Bright Side, p. 258; Nashville Globe, 2 May 1913, p. I.
360. Indianapolis Freeman, 15 August 1903; Hamilton, (n. 58) Bright Side, p. 258; Nashville Globe, 2 May 1913, p. I.
361. Indianapolis Freeman, 15 August 1903; Hamilton, (n. 58) Bright Side, p. 258; Nashville Globe, 2 May 1913, p. I.
362. Memphis Tri-State Defender, 1 January 1955, p. 16.