Translation, difference and ontological fluidity: Cerebral angiography and neurosurgical practice (1926-45)

Social Studies of Science

Volumn 30, Issue 3, 2000, Pages 421-426

  Moreira, Tiago ^a  

^a LANCASTER UNIVERSITY   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

Egas Moniz; Medical technology; Narrative; Social topology

Indexed keywords

EID: 0034195802     PISSN: 03063127     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/030631200030003004     Document Type: Article

References (84)

1. António de Egas Moniz, Confidências de um Investigador Científico (Lisboa: Ática, 1949), 66.
2. Histology is the study of cells and tissues at the microscopic level. For the relevance of neuropathology to neurosurgical practices, see the section entitled 'Arterial Encephalography II', below.
3. Letter of Wilder Penfield to Pedro de Almeida Lima, cited in João Lobo Antunes, Um Modo de Ser (Lisboa: Gradiva, 1996), 196.
4. Geoffrey Jefferson, 'Retrospect on the Contribution of Prof. Egas Moniz to Surgical Neurology', Medicina Contemporanea, Vol. 66 (1955), 152-60, at 157-58.
5. Brian S. Worthington, 'Neuroradiology - the Brain', in Graham H. Whitehouse and Worthington (eds), Techniques in Diagnostic Imaging (Oxford: Blackwell, 2nd edn, 1990), 361-74; Kenneth W. Lindsay and Ian Bone, Neurology and Neurosurgery Illustrated (New York: Churchill Livingstone, 1997), 43-15.
6. Brian S. Worthington, 'Neuroradiology - the Brain', in Graham H. Whitehouse and Worthington (eds), Techniques in Diagnostic Imaging (Oxford: Blackwell, 2nd edn, 1990), 361-74; Kenneth W. Lindsay and Ian Bone, Neurology and Neurosurgery Illustrated (New York: Churchill Livingstone, 1997), 43-15.
7. For a similar argument related to the 'social sciences', see: Bruno Latour, Pandora's Hope (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1999); Latour, 'When Things Strike Back: A Possible Contribution of "Science Studies" to the Social Sciences', British Journal of Sociology, Vol. 51, No. 1 (January/March 2000), 107-24.
8. For a similar argument related to the 'social sciences', see: Bruno Latour, Pandora's Hope (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1999); Latour, 'When Things Strike Back: A Possible Contribution of "Science Studies" to the Social Sciences', British Journal of Sociology, Vol. 51, No. 1 (January/March 2000), 107-24.
9. For a thorough discussion of the notion of construction', see Sergio Sismondo, Science without Myth: On Constructions, Reality and Social Knowledge (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1996).
10. Thomas S. Kuhn, 'Postscript - 1969', The Structure of Scientific Revolutions (Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press, 2nd edn, 1970), 174-210, at 206.
11. The concept of dis/continuity attempts to grasp the uncertain and ultimately undecided character of sociotechnical processes. It is central to my argument in the way that, graphically as well as conceptually, it attends to the precariousness of both the making of links (associations between actants) and the institution of 'cuts' (differences between actants). Instead of using the concept of continuity or discontinuity as descriptors of processes, I use dis/continuity as a concept encapsulating the character of sociotechnical practices - that is, to describe the position from which hybrid collectives are constructed.
12. Hans-Jörg Rheinberger, Towards a History of Epistemic Things (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1997), 179.
13. Jacques Derrida's critique of 'logocentrism' in philosophy focuses on the status of representation and of writing. For Derrida, written marks and traces are 'machines' of meaning, in the sense that they can be productive in and of their own. This is taken to be a fundamental difference from theories of representation that understand meaning as an effect of a previously established set of ontological relations. For Derrida, meaning is the relations between signifiers. See Jacques Derrida, Of Grammatology (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1976).
14. For a definition of the concept of experimental system, see Rheinberger, op. cit. note 10, 19-21.
15. Ibid., 185.
16. Bruno Latour, 'Irreductions', in his The Pasteurization of France (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1998), 153-236, at 161.
17. Michel Gallon and John Law, 'Agency and the Hybrid Collective', South Atlantic Quarterly, Vol. 94 (1995), 481-507.
18. This story has been put forward mainly by historian-practitioners of neurosurgery. See, for example, Arthur Earl Walker (ed.), A History of Neurological Surgery (London & Baltimore, MD: Tindal & Cox, 1951); Hugo Krayenbühl, 'History of Cerebral Angiography and its Developments since Egas Moniz', Centenary of Egas Moniz (Lisboa: Centro de Estudos Egas Moniz, 1978), 63-74; Tibor Doby, 'Cerebral Angiography and Egas Moniz', American Journal of Roentgenology, Vol. 159, No. 2 (August 1992), 364.
19. This story has been put forward mainly by historian-practitioners of neurosurgery. See, for example, Arthur Earl Walker (ed.), A History of Neurological Surgery (London & Baltimore, MD: Tindal & Cox, 1951); Hugo Krayenbühl, 'History of Cerebral Angiography and its Developments since Egas Moniz', Centenary of Egas Moniz (Lisboa: Centro de Estudos Egas Moniz, 1978), 63-74; Tibor Doby, 'Cerebral Angiography and Egas Moniz', American Journal of Roentgenology, Vol. 159, No. 2 (August 1992), 364.
20. This story has been put forward mainly by historian-practitioners of neurosurgery. See, for example, Arthur Earl Walker (ed.), A History of Neurological Surgery (London & Baltimore, MD: Tindal & Cox, 1951); Hugo Krayenbühl, 'History of Cerebral Angiography and its Developments since Egas Moniz', Centenary of Egas Moniz (Lisboa: Centro de Estudos Egas Moniz, 1978), 63-74; Tibor Doby, 'Cerebral Angiography and Egas Moniz', American Journal of Roentgenology, Vol. 159, No. 2 (August 1992), 364.
21. I am trying to be surprised, as a researcher, by the processes of sociotechnical innovation in the same way that 'drug addicts' can be surprised by their treatment, or scientists can be surprised by their materials of study. See, for example, Emilie Gomart, 'Surprised by Methadone: Trials and Translations of Drug Experience during Substitution Treatment', paper presented at the 4S/EASST conference (Bielefeld, 9-13 October 1996).
22. António de Egas Moniz, 'Arterial Encephalography: Its Importance in the Localisation of Cerebral Tumors', in Robert H. Wilkins (ed.), Neurosurgical Classics (New York: Johnson Reprint, 1965), 265-76.
23. Mass growths in the limited space of the cranial cavity induce lesion in the cerebral cortex and other cerebral structures. The most common type of mass lesions are cerebral tumours.
24. For a historical sociological account of the emergence of localization practices, see Susan Leigh Star, Regions of the Mind: Brain Research and the Quest for Scientific Certainty (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1989). The importance of neurological examination in the formation of neurology is stressed in a biography of Jean Martin Charcot: Christopher G. Goetz, Michel Bonduelle and Toby Gelfand, Charcot: Constructing Neurology (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995). See also J.M. Charcot, Leçons sur les Maladies du Système Nerveux (Paris: Delahaye, 1872).
25. For a historical sociological account of the emergence of localization practices, see Susan Leigh Star, Regions of the Mind: Brain Research and the Quest for Scientific Certainty (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1989). The importance of neurological examination in the formation of neurology is stressed in a biography of Jean Martin Charcot: Christopher G. Goetz, Michel Bonduelle and Toby Gelfand, Charcot: Constructing Neurology (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995). See also J.M. Charcot, Leçons sur les Maladies du Système Nerveux (Paris: Delahaye, 1872).
26. For a historical sociological account of the emergence of localization practices, see Susan Leigh Star, Regions of the Mind: Brain Research and the Quest for Scientific Certainty (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1989). The importance of neurological examination in the formation of neurology is stressed in a biography of Jean Martin Charcot: Christopher G. Goetz, Michel Bonduelle and Toby Gelfand, Charcot: Constructing Neurology (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995). See also J.M. Charcot, Leçons sur les Maladies du Système Nerveux (Paris: Delahaye, 1872).
27. Donald Ferrier, The Croonian Lectures on Cerebral Localization (London: Smith Elder, 1890), 15.
28. James Collier, 'The False Localising Signs of Intracranial Tumours', Brain, Vol. 27 (1904), 490-508.
29. Walter Russell Brain and Eric Benjamin Strauss, Recent Advances in Neurology (London: Churchill, 2nd edn, 1929), vi.
30. The heads were supplied by the Anatomy Professor, Henrique de Vilhena, from corpses at the anatomical theatre at the Medicine Faculty.
31. Myelography was a technique of diagnosing spinal tumours by radiography of an injection of Lipiodol. The oil was injected in the ventricular space and would fall through the subarachnoid space around the spinal cord. Any obstruction would become visible to x-rays by stopping the liquid's descent. See Jean Sicard and Jean Forrestier, 'Méthode Radiographique d'Exploration de la Cavité Epidurale par le Lipiodol', Revue Neurologique, Vol. 37 (1921), 1264-66.
32. Moniz, op. cit. note 1, 47.
33. Ibid., 34.
34. This was a hypophysiary tumour causing blindness. Hypophysiary tumours also produce what are called endocrinal disorders, particularly pituitary problems associated, for example, with problems of growth (gigantism, acromegaly).
35. Moniz, op. cit. note 1, 93.
36. Percival Bailey and Harvey Cushing, A Classification of the Tumours of the Glioma Group on a Histogenetic Basis with a Correlated Study of Prognosis (Philadelphia, MA, London & Montreal: Lippincott, 1926).
37. For a historical, if pessimistic, account of the clinical use of x-rays, see Stanley Joel Reiser, Medicine and the Reign of Technology (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1978), and Reiser, 'The Science of Diagnosis: the Diagnostic Technology', William Bynum and Roy Porter (eds), Companion Encyclopaedia of the History of Medicine (London: Routledge, 1993), 826-51.
38. For a historical, if pessimistic, account of the clinical use of x-rays, see Stanley Joel Reiser, Medicine and the Reign of Technology (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1978), and Reiser, 'The Science of Diagnosis: the Diagnostic Technology', William Bynum and Roy Porter (eds), Companion Encyclopaedia of the History of Medicine (London: Routledge, 1993), 826-51.
39. Bettyann H. Kevles, in her Naked to the Bone: Medical Imaging in the Twentieth Century (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1997), offers a different perspective from Reiser's; for her account of the approaches explored, see esp. 97-115.
40. Walter E. Dandy, 'Ventriculography following the Injection of Air into the Cerebral Ventricles', Annals of Surgery, Vol. 68 (1918), 5-11.
41. A.E. Moniz, Diagnostic des Tumeurs Cérébrales et L'Encéphalographie Artérielle (Paris: Masson & Cie, 1931), 425.
42. Gustave Roussy, one of the leading members of that school, had analyzed every tumour extracted in Moniz's clinic. See, for example, G. Roussy, Jean Lhermite and J. Cornil, 'Essai de Classification des Tumeurs Cérébrales', Annales d'Anatomie Pathologique (1924), I, 333-40; and, for an insight into the controversy around classification of tumours between Bailey/Cushing and the French group, see G. Roussy, 'Une Nouvelle Classification des Gliomes, d'après Percival Bailey', ibid., Vol. 5 (1928), 661-66.
43. Gustave Roussy, one of the leading members of that school, had analyzed every tumour extracted in Moniz's clinic. See, for example, G. Roussy, Jean Lhermite and J. Cornil, 'Essai de Classification des Tumeurs Cérébrales', Annales d'Anatomie Pathologique (1924), I, 333-40; and, for an insight into the controversy around classification of tumours between Bailey/Cushing and the French group, see G. Roussy, 'Une Nouvelle Classification des Gliomes, d'après Percival Bailey', ibid., Vol. 5 (1928), 661-66.
44. Moniz argued that it was possible to distinguish between mengioblastomas - visualization of tumorous accessory vascularization, vascularized (gliomas) - dilatation of some arteries, and non-vascularized (cystic) - deviation of arteries: see Moniz, op. cit. note 34, 144.
45. For research on 'articulation-work' see, for example, Joan Fujimura, 'Constructing "Do-able" Problems in Cancer Research: Articulating Alignment', Social Studies of Science, Vol. 17, No. 2 (May 1987), 257-93, and Susan Leigh Star, 'Triangulating Clinical and Basic Research: British Localizationists, 1870-1906', History of Science, Vol. 24, Part 1, No. 63 (March 1986), 29-48.
46. For research on 'articulation-work' see, for example, Joan Fujimura, 'Constructing "Do-able" Problems in Cancer Research: Articulating Alignment', Social Studies of Science, Vol. 17, No. 2 (May 1987), 257-93, and Susan Leigh Star, 'Triangulating Clinical and Basic Research: British Localizationists, 1870-1906', History of Science, Vol. 24, Part 1, No. 63 (March 1986), 29-48.
47. Bernicke Pasveer, Shadows of Knowledge: Making a Representing Practice in Medicine: X-ray Pictures and Pulmonary Tuberculosis, 1895-1930 (unpublished PhD thesis, University of Amsterdam, 1992), 134.
48. This can be described as an example of what 'classic ANT' would call an 'actor-world': see, for example, Michel Callon, 'Some Elements of a Sociology of Translation: Domestication of the Scallops and the Fishermen of St Brieuc Bay', in John Law (ed.), Power, Action and Belief: A New Sociology of Knowledge? (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1986), 196-233.
49. A.E. Moniz, La Localisation des Tumeurs Cérébrales et L'Encéphalographie Arterielle (Raport presenté au Congrès Neurologique International de Berne) (Lisboa: Libano de Silva, 1931), 5.
50. See, for example, Giovani Sai, 'Death of Patient 3 Days After Arteriography', Rivista di Patologia Nervosa, Vol. 35 (1930), 100-06.
51. See Charles Foix and J. Nicolesco, Anatomie Cérébrale (Paris: Masson et Cie, 1925).
52. Joaquim da Gama Imaginário, Contribuição para a História da Angiografia Cerebral: A Expansão da Angiografia em Inglaterra (Lisboa: Separata da Gazeta Médica Portuguesa, 1956), 25.
53. A.E. Moniz, L'Angiographie Cérébrale: Ses Applications et Resultats en Anatomie Physiologie et Clinique (Paris: Masson & Cie, 1934), 40. The condition of study of the brain is also mentioned in other contexts; the brain's materiality emerges as a problematic issue in anatomical controversies: see, for example, Steven Shapin, 'The Politics of Observation', in Barry Barnes and Shapin (eds), Natural Order (London: Routledge, 1979), 118-65.
54. A.E. Moniz, L'Angiographie Cérébrale: Ses Applications et Resultats en Anatomie Physiologie et Clinique (Paris: Masson & Cie, 1934), 40. The condition of study of the brain is also mentioned in other contexts; the brain's materiality emerges as a problematic issue in anatomical controversies: see, for example, Steven Shapin, 'The Politics of Observation', in Barry Barnes and Shapin (eds), Natural Order (London: Routledge, 1979), 118-65.
55. The study by Pedro Almeida Lima and Valadas Preto of the 'carotid siphon' as a shock-absorber - P.A. Lima and V. Preto, 'Alguns Pormenores da Anatomia da Carotida Interna', Arquivos de Anatomia e Antropologia, Vol. 18 (1937), 1-36 - and Moniz's own conclusions about the blood capacity of both the straight and the transverse sinuses, were examples of the importance angiography had in physiology.
56. Moniz, op. cit. note 44, 20.
57. Norman Dott, 'Intracranial Aneurysms: Cerebral Arterio-Radiography: Surgical Treatment', Edinburgh Medical Journal, Vol. 40 (1933), 219-26. In the early 1930s, the same association between angiography and surgical treatment of vascular diseases was achieved by Dandy, Tonnis and others - particularly by Dandy, later in association with his surgical technique for aneurysms: see Walter Dandy, 'Intracranial Aneurysms of the Internal Carotid', Annals of Surgery, Vol. 107 (1938), 154-60.
58. Norman Dott, 'Intracranial Aneurysms: Cerebral Arterio-Radiography: Surgical Treatment', Edinburgh Medical Journal, Vol. 40 (1933), 219-26. In the early 1930s, the same association between angiography and surgical treatment of vascular diseases was achieved by Dandy, Tonnis and others - particularly by Dandy, later in association with his surgical technique for aneurysms: see Walter Dandy, 'Intracranial Aneurysms of the Internal Carotid', Annals of Surgery, Vol. 107 (1938), 154-60.
59. Harvey Cushing defined neurosurgical practice, through the example of neoplastic surgery, as 'the complicated act of diagnosing, of localising and of removal of a brain tumour': Cushing, Studies in Intracranial Physiology and Surgery (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1925), at 137.
60. See, for example, two insightful books on understanding the rôle of maps in ordering practice: David Turnbull, Maps are Territories: Science is an Atlas (Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press, 1993), and Michel Serres, Atlas (Paris: Juilliard, 1994).
61. See, for example, two insightful books on understanding the rôle of maps in ordering practice: David Turnbull, Maps are Territories: Science is an Atlas (Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press, 1993), and Michel Serres, Atlas (Paris: Juilliard, 1994).
62. Moniz established that meningiomas could be distinguished according to their arterial irrigation, since their angioarchitecture was basically the same (arterial circulation in the centre, venous circulation in the exterior). However, the malignancy of gliomas could be distinguished by the arterio-venous configuration they presented: malignant gliomas presented an arterial vascularization in the periphery while non-malignant gliomas showed the opposite image, with arteries feeding the inside of the tumour. In this way Moniz's team could differentiate between the two most common primary tumours of the brain: astrocytomas and glioblastomas. I am referring here to the unpublished Portuguese manuscript of a 413-page volume, A. Egas Moniz, Arteriografia e Flebografia Cerebrais (Lisboa: Universidade de Lisboa, 1940), subsequently published in German translation as A.E. Moniz, Die Cerebrale Arteriographie und Phlebographie, in Ostrid Foester, Handbuch der Neurologie (Berlin: Springer-Verlag, 1940), Vol. VIII.
63. Moniz established that meningiomas could be distinguished according to their arterial irrigation, since their angioarchitecture was basically the same (arterial circulation in the centre, venous circulation in the exterior). However, the malignancy of gliomas could be distinguished by the arterio-venous configuration they presented: malignant gliomas presented an arterial vascularization in the periphery while non-malignant gliomas showed the opposite image, with arteries feeding the inside of the tumour. In this way Moniz's team could differentiate between the two most common primary tumours of the brain: astrocytomas and glioblastomas. I am referring here to the unpublished Portuguese manuscript of a 413-page volume, A. Egas Moniz, Arteriografia e Flebografia Cerebrais (Lisboa: Universidade de Lisboa, 1940), subsequently published in German translation as A.E. Moniz, Die Cerebrale Arteriographie und Phlebographie, in Ostrid Foester, Handbuch der Neurologie (Berlin: Springer-Verlag, 1940), Vol. VIII.
64. 'Knowing these details can seem unimportant for those who are less familiarized with intracranial surgery. In a case like this [tumour of the skull base], the surgeons who had not used angiography would have a localizing diagnosis but would be assailed by doubts about the histological nature of the neoplasm. Possibly a malignant neoplasm, which would point to a large extirpation, the surgeon would have done a large trephination, which would have to include the motor region. We, knowing the exact localization and being sure that it was a benign neoplasm, probably a cystic one, made a smaller and lower trephination. Thus, we saved time and blood and, more importantly, we did not expose the motor region, preventing it from being exposed either to direct traumatism or to traumatisms caused by surgical manipulations crushing the cortex against the limits of the trephination and inducing a secondary oedema': P.A. Lima, in Moniz, op. cit. note 50, 387-88. This is my own translation of the original Portuguese version; Lima and Moniz collaborated closely in this work, and sections were effectively drafted by Lima.
65. Its association with experimental cancer and with sedimentation in the reticulo-endotelial cells of the liver, made Thorotrast a dangerous substance. In fact, it became associated with sarcomas. See, for example, G. Roussy, Charles Oberling and M. Guerin, 'Action Cancerigne du Dioxide de Thorium chez le Rat Blanc', Bulletin de l'Académie Médicale de Paris, Vol. 112 (1934), 122-27.
66. I am using here Foucault's definition of 'strategy without subject'. Strategy, in this sense, is a relational effect of associations between materials, which produce displacement in the 'actancy' of materials. On the relation between Foucault's definition of strategy and ANT's, see John Law, 'Notes on the Theory of the Actor-Network: Ordering, Strategy and Heterogeneity', Systems Practice, Vol. 5 (1992), 379-93.
67. Moniz was still using it in 1949: 'We continued to use it and have passed the limit of 2000 tests made with Thorotrast without any observation of the suspected consequences': Moniz, op. cit. note 1, 156. No more than five years later, Joaquim Silva Horta published the results of his PhD thesis about the pathological conditions induced by Thorotrast: hepatic cirrhosis, fibrosarcomas, and so on. This group of symptoms was later to be called 'Thorotrast disease'. See, for example, J.S. Horta, As Formas Anatomo-clinicas Resultantes da Acção do Thorotraste (Lisboa: Instituto de Anatomia Patológica de Lisboa, Hospital de Santa Maria [IAPLHSM], 1954).
68. Moniz was still using it in 1949: 'We continued to use it and have passed the limit of 2000 tests made with Thorotrast without any observation of the suspected consequences': Moniz, op. cit. note 1, 156. No more than five years later, Joaquim Silva Horta published the results of his PhD thesis about the pathological conditions induced by Thorotrast: hepatic cirrhosis, fibrosarcomas, and so on. This group of symptoms was later to be called 'Thorotrast disease'. See, for example, J.S. Horta, As Formas Anatomo-clinicas Resultantes da Acção do Thorotraste (Lisboa: Instituto de Anatomia Patológica de Lisboa, Hospital de Santa Maria [IAPLHSM], 1954).
69. Wohwill also produced evidence about tissue reaction to Thorotrast which reinforced the surgical component of the injection technique: Fredrich Wohwill, Sobre as Reacções dos Tecidos ao Torotraste (Lisboa: Academia das Ciências de Lisboa [ACL], 1939).
70. Sidney W. Gross, 'Cerebral Arteriography by Means of a Rapidly Excreted Organic Iodide', Archives of Neurology and Psychiatry, Vol. 44 (1940), 217-22.
71. Lindgren's explanation of the percutaneous injection tried by Loman and Myerson in 1936 pointed in that direction. Instead of ensuring the introduction of liquid in the vessel by direct visual control, the injection technique would be guided by the normal angiographic picture of the carotid. See E. Lindgren, 'The Technique of Direct (Percutaneous) Cerebral Angiography', British Journal of Radiology, Vol. 20 (1947), 326-31; Julius Loman and Abraham Myerson, 'Visualization of Cerebral Vessels by Direct Intracarotid Injection of Thorium Dioxide (Thorotrast)', American Journal of Roentgenology, Vol. 35, No. 2 (February 1936), 188-95.
72. Lindgren's explanation of the percutaneous injection tried by Loman and Myerson in 1936 pointed in that direction. Instead of ensuring the introduction of liquid in the vessel by direct visual control, the injection technique would be guided by the normal angiographic picture of the carotid. See E. Lindgren, 'The Technique of Direct (Percutaneous) Cerebral Angiography', British Journal of Radiology, Vol. 20 (1947), 326-31; Julius Loman and Abraham Myerson, 'Visualization of Cerebral Vessels by Direct Intracarotid Injection of Thorium Dioxide (Thorotrast)', American Journal of Roentgenology, Vol. 35, No. 2 (February 1936), 188-95.
73. These convulsive attacks were never mentioned in Moniz's account of the technique; they emerge in the agonistic situation allied with the construction of the use of Diorast.
74. Ernest Sachs, History and Development of Neurological Surgery (New York: Paul Hobsen, 1952), 152.
75. In Britain 'before 1946, the investigation which was always done by open operation, was only rarely performed. Since that year, the figures of the two hospitals (National Hospital, Queen's Square and Maida Vale Hospital of Nervous Diseases) have been: 1946: 60 cerebral arteriograms 1947: 180 cerebral arteriograms 1952: 650 cerebral arteriograms.' David Sutton, 'Neuroradiology', in W.R. Brain and E.B. Strauss (eds), Recent Advances in Neurology and Neuropsychiatry (London: Churchill, 7th edn, 1962), 240-73, at 263.
76. John Law and Annemarie Mol, 'Notes on Materiality and Sociality', Sociological Review, Vol. 43 (1995), 274-94; Bruno Latour, Aramis, ou l'amour des techniques (Paris: La Découverte, 1993).
77. John Law and Annemarie Mol, 'Notes on Materiality and Sociality', Sociological Review, Vol. 43 (1995), 274-94; Bruno Latour, Aramis, ou l'amour des techniques (Paris: La Découverte, 1993).
78. My concerns about agency, multiplicity, fluidity and contingency are closely aligned with John Law's notion of 'decentring the object of technoscience': see J. Law, Aircraft Stories (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, forthcoming).
79. Susan Leigh Star and James R. Griesemer, 'Institutional Ecology, "Translations" and Boundary Objects: Amateurs and Professionals in Berkeley's Museum of Vertebrate Zoology, 1907-39', Social Studies of Science, Vol. 19, No. 3 (August 1989), 387-420.
80. Annemarie Mol and John Law, 'Regions, Networks and Fluids: Anaemia and Social Topology', Social Studies of Science, Vol. 24, No. 4 (November 1994), 641-71, at 661 (italics in original).
81. James R. Griesemer, 'The Role of Instruments in the Generative Analysis of Science', in Adele E. Clarke and Joan H. Fujimura (eds), The Right Tools for the Jobs (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1992), 47-76, at 53.
82. For an excellent study of a fluid technology, see Marianne de Laet and Annemarie Mol, 'The Zimbabwe Bush Pump: Mechanics of a Fluid Technology', Social Studies of Science, Vol. 30, No. 2 (April 2000), 225-63.
83. The space of difference is shared by the two leading poststructuralist philosophers, Foucault and Derrida: see Michel Foucault, Archéologie du Savoir (Paris: Gallimard, 1969), esp. 268;
84. Derrida, op. cit. note 11.