Pipelines or pipe dreams? Lessons from the history of Arab transit pipelines

Middle East Journal

Volumn 54, Issue 2, 2000, Pages 224-239

  Stevens, Paul ^a  

^a NONE

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EID: 0034147449     PISSN: 00263141     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
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References (124)

1. This territory has the ability (national or regional) to abrogate unilaterally international agreements
2. Middle East Economic Consultants, Gulf Oil Transport Prospects, (Beirut: Middle East Economic Consultants Report No 34, 1982).
3. The term "transit fees" refers to the formal transit fee and the usually preferential terms under which the transit country can lift oil or gas from the line for domestic consumption.
4. The original source of interest in such lines periodically re-emerges as in D. Brito and E. Sheshinski, "Alternatives to the Straits of Hormuz", The Energy Journal, Cleveland, Vol. 19 No. 2 (1998).
5. Energy Information Administration, Caspian Sea Region (Washington D.C.: Energy Information Administration, 1997).
6. International Energy Agency, Caspian Oil and Gas (Paris: International Energy Agency, 1998). For further details see: Middle East Economic Survey (MEES), (Cyprus), Vol. XLI No.30.
7. International Energy Agency, Caspian Oil and Gas (Paris: International Energy Agency, 1998). For further details see: Middle East Economic Survey (MEES), (Cyprus), Vol. XLI No.30.
8. British Petroleum, The BP Statistical Review of World Energy (London: British Petroleum, 1998).
9. The issue of whether the Caspian is treated legally as a sea or a lake has to do with how its resources are allocated, see: S. Vinogradov, "The Legal Status of the Caspian Sea and its Hydrocarbon Resources" in G H Blake, M A Pratt, C H Schofield, and J A Brown (Eds.), Boundaries and Energy: Problems and Prospects (Den Haag: Kluwer Law International, 1998) and S. Vinogradov and P. Wouters, "The Caspian Sea: Quest for a New Legal Regime", Leiden Journal of International Law Vol 9 (1996).
10. The issue of whether the Caspian is treated legally as a sea or a lake has to do with how its resources are allocated, see: S. Vinogradov, "The Legal Status of the Caspian Sea and its Hydrocarbon Resources" in G H Blake, M A Pratt, C H Schofield, and J A Brown (Eds.), Boundaries and Energy: Problems and Prospects (Den Haag: Kluwer Law International, 1998) and S. Vinogradov and P. Wouters, "The Caspian Sea: Quest for a New Legal Regime", Leiden Journal of International Law Vol 9 (1996).
11. S. Akiner, Pipelines from the Caspian, Paper to "The Changing Politics of International Energy Investment"-IAEE, BIEE, Chatham House and Montreux Energy 4-5, December 1995; Energy Information Administration, Caspian Sea Region http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/cabs/caspian.html, 1997; The Institute for International Energy Studies and the Institute for Political and International Studies, Oil and Gas Prospects in the Caspian Region (Teheran: The Institute for International Energy Studies and the Institute for Political and International Studies, 1996); A. Miyamoto, Natural Gas in Central Asia: Industries, Markets and Export Options of Kazakstan, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan (London: Royal Institute of International Affairs, 1997); J. Roberts, Caspian Pipelines. Former Soviet South Project (London: Royal Institute of International Affairs, 1996); A. Seek, Pipelines from Central Asia and the Transcaucasus: A Maze of Alternatives Paper to "Boundaries and Energy: Problems and Prospects" - 4th International Conference of the International Boundaries Research Unit. 18-19th July 1996); T. Stauffer, The Iranian Connection: The Geo-Economics of Exporting Central Asian Energy via Iran (Boulder: International Research Center for Energy and Economic Development. Occasional Papers: No 29, 1997).
12. S. Akiner, Pipelines from the Caspian, Paper to "The Changing Politics of International Energy Investment"-IAEE, BIEE, Chatham House and Montreux Energy 4-5, December 1995; Energy Information Administration, Caspian Sea Region http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/cabs/caspian.html, 1997; The Institute for International Energy Studies and the Institute for Political and International Studies, Oil and Gas Prospects in the Caspian Region (Teheran: The Institute for International Energy Studies and the Institute for Political and International Studies, 1996); A. Miyamoto, Natural Gas in Central Asia: Industries, Markets and Export Options of Kazakstan, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan (London: Royal Institute of International Affairs, 1997); J. Roberts, Caspian Pipelines. Former Soviet South Project (London: Royal Institute of International Affairs, 1996); A. Seek, Pipelines from Central Asia and the Transcaucasus: A Maze of Alternatives Paper to "Boundaries and Energy: Problems and Prospects" - 4th International Conference of the International Boundaries Research Unit. 18-19th July 1996); T. Stauffer, The Iranian Connection: The Geo-Economics of Exporting Central Asian Energy via Iran (Boulder: International Research Center for Energy and Economic Development. Occasional Papers: No 29, 1997).
13. S. Akiner, Pipelines from the Caspian, Paper to "The Changing Politics of International Energy Investment"-IAEE, BIEE, Chatham House and Montreux Energy 4-5, December 1995; Energy Information Administration, Caspian Sea Region http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/cabs/caspian.html, 1997; The Institute for International Energy Studies and the Institute for Political and International Studies, Oil and Gas Prospects in the Caspian Region (Teheran: The Institute for International Energy Studies and the Institute for Political and International Studies, 1996); A. Miyamoto, Natural Gas in Central Asia: Industries, Markets and Export Options of Kazakstan, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan (London: Royal Institute of International Affairs, 1997); J. Roberts, Caspian Pipelines. Former Soviet South Project (London: Royal Institute of International Affairs, 1996); A. Seek, Pipelines from Central Asia and the Transcaucasus: A Maze of Alternatives Paper to "Boundaries and Energy: Problems and Prospects" - 4th International Conference of the International Boundaries Research Unit. 18-19th July 1996); T. Stauffer, The Iranian Connection: The Geo-Economics of Exporting Central Asian Energy via Iran (Boulder: International Research Center for Energy and Economic Development. Occasional Papers: No 29, 1997).
14. S. Akiner, Pipelines from the Caspian, Paper to "The Changing Politics of International Energy Investment"-IAEE, BIEE, Chatham House and Montreux Energy 4-5, December 1995; Energy Information Administration, Caspian Sea Region http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/cabs/caspian.html, 1997; The Institute for International Energy Studies and the Institute for Political and International Studies, Oil and Gas Prospects in the Caspian Region (Teheran: The Institute for International Energy Studies and the Institute for Political and International Studies, 1996); A. Miyamoto, Natural Gas in Central Asia: Industries, Markets and Export Options of Kazakstan, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan (London: Royal Institute of International Affairs, 1997); J. Roberts, Caspian Pipelines. Former Soviet South Project (London: Royal Institute of International Affairs, 1996); A. Seek, Pipelines from Central Asia and the Transcaucasus: A Maze of Alternatives Paper to "Boundaries and Energy: Problems and Prospects" - 4th International Conference of the International Boundaries Research Unit. 18-19th July 1996); T. Stauffer, The Iranian Connection: The Geo-Economics of Exporting Central Asian Energy via Iran (Boulder: International Research Center for Energy and Economic Development. Occasional Papers: No 29, 1997).
15. S. Akiner, Pipelines from the Caspian, Paper to "The Changing Politics of International Energy Investment"-IAEE, BIEE, Chatham House and Montreux Energy 4-5, December 1995; Energy Information Administration, Caspian Sea Region http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/cabs/caspian.html, 1997; The Institute for International Energy Studies and the Institute for Political and International Studies, Oil and Gas Prospects in the Caspian Region (Teheran: The Institute for International Energy Studies and the Institute for Political and International Studies, 1996); A. Miyamoto, Natural Gas in Central Asia: Industries, Markets and Export Options of Kazakstan, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan (London: Royal Institute of International Affairs, 1997); J. Roberts, Caspian Pipelines. Former Soviet South Project (London: Royal Institute of International Affairs, 1996); A. Seek, Pipelines from Central Asia and the Transcaucasus: A Maze of Alternatives Paper to "Boundaries and Energy: Problems and Prospects" - 4th International Conference of the International Boundaries Research Unit. 18-19th July 1996); T. Stauffer, The Iranian Connection: The Geo-Economics of Exporting Central Asian Energy via Iran (Boulder: International Research Center for Energy and Economic Development. Occasional Papers: No 29, 1997).
16. S. Akiner, Pipelines from the Caspian, Paper to "The Changing Politics of International Energy Investment"-IAEE, BIEE, Chatham House and Montreux Energy 4-5, December 1995; Energy Information Administration, Caspian Sea Region http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/cabs/caspian.html, 1997; The Institute for International Energy Studies and the Institute for Political and International Studies, Oil and Gas Prospects in the Caspian Region (Teheran: The Institute for International Energy Studies and the Institute for Political and International Studies, 1996); A. Miyamoto, Natural Gas in Central Asia: Industries, Markets and Export Options of Kazakstan, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan (London: Royal Institute of International Affairs, 1997); J. Roberts, Caspian Pipelines. Former Soviet South Project (London: Royal Institute of International Affairs, 1996); A. Seek, Pipelines from Central Asia and the Transcaucasus: A Maze of Alternatives Paper to "Boundaries and Energy: Problems and Prospects" - 4th International Conference of the International Boundaries Research Unit. 18-19th July 1996); T. Stauffer, The Iranian Connection: The Geo-Economics of Exporting Central Asian Energy via Iran (Boulder: International Research Center for Energy and Economic Development. Occasional Papers: No 29, 1997).
17. S. Akiner, Pipelines from the Caspian, Paper to "The Changing Politics of International Energy Investment"-IAEE, BIEE, Chatham House and Montreux Energy 4-5, December 1995; Energy Information Administration, Caspian Sea Region http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/cabs/caspian.html, 1997; The Institute for International Energy Studies and the Institute for Political and International Studies, Oil and Gas Prospects in the Caspian Region (Teheran: The Institute for International Energy Studies and the Institute for Political and International Studies, 1996); A. Miyamoto, Natural Gas in Central Asia: Industries, Markets and Export Options of Kazakstan, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan (London: Royal Institute of International Affairs, 1997); J. Roberts, Caspian Pipelines. Former Soviet South Project (London: Royal Institute of International Affairs, 1996); A. Seek, Pipelines from Central Asia and the Transcaucasus: A Maze of Alternatives Paper to "Boundaries and Energy: Problems and Prospects" - 4th International Conference of the International Boundaries Research Unit. 18-19th July 1996); T. Stauffer, The Iranian Connection: The Geo-Economics of Exporting Central Asian Energy via Iran (Boulder: International Research Center for Energy and Economic Development. Occasional Papers: No 29, 1997).
18. British Petroleum, The BP Statistical Review.
19. A. Y. Al-Hamad, Impact of the recent decline in oil revenues on the Arab economies, Copy of text delivered to the Eighth Oxford Energy Seminar, 1986; W. Khadduri, "Impacts of low oil prices" Oxford Energy Forum, (May 1994); W. Khadduri, Challenges for Gulf Optimization Strategies: Constraints of the Past. In Gulf Energy and the World: Challenges and Threats (Abu Dhabi: The Emirates Center for Strategic Studies and Research, 1997).
20. A. Y. Al-Hamad, Impact of the recent decline in oil revenues on the Arab economies, Copy of text delivered to the Eighth Oxford Energy Seminar, 1986; W. Khadduri, "Impacts of low oil prices" Oxford Energy Forum, (May 1994); W. Khadduri, Challenges for Gulf Optimization Strategies: Constraints of the Past. In Gulf Energy and the World: Challenges and Threats (Abu Dhabi: The Emirates Center for Strategic Studies and Research, 1997).
21. A. Y. Al-Hamad, Impact of the recent decline in oil revenues on the Arab economies, Copy of text delivered to the Eighth Oxford Energy Seminar, 1986; W. Khadduri, "Impacts of low oil prices" Oxford Energy Forum, (May 1994); W. Khadduri, Challenges for Gulf Optimization Strategies: Constraints of the Past. In Gulf Energy and the World: Challenges and Threats (Abu Dhabi: The Emirates Center for Strategic Studies and Research, 1997).
22. P. Stevens, "Oil Prices: The Start of an Era" Energy Policy Vol. 24 No. 5, (May 1996).
23. T. Stauffer, "Natural Gas and Gulf Oil: Boom or Bane?" in Gulf Energy and the World: Challenges and Threats (Abu Dhabi: The Emirates Center for Strategic Studies and Research, 1997).
24. P. Horsnell, Oil in Asia (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997).
25. G. Q. Lumsden, The Qatar-Pakistan Pipeline: Politics and Prospects, Paper to "The Changing Politics of International Energy Investment" - IAEE, BIEE, Chatham House and Montreux Energy, 4-5 December 1995; J. V. Mitchell with P. Beck and M. Grubb, The New Geopolitics of Energy (London: The Royal Institute of International Affairs, 1996); P. Stevens, "A History of Transit Pipelines in the Middle East: Lessons for the Future" in G. H. Blake, M. A. Pratt, C. H. Schofield and J. A. Brown (Eds.) Boundaries and Energy: Problems and Prospects (Den Haag: Kluwer Law International, 1998).
26. G. Q. Lumsden, The Qatar-Pakistan Pipeline: Politics and Prospects, Paper to "The Changing Politics of International Energy Investment" - IAEE, BIEE, Chatham House and Montreux Energy, 4-5 December 1995; J. V. Mitchell with P. Beck and M. Grubb, The New Geopolitics of Energy (London: The Royal Institute of International Affairs, 1996); P. Stevens, "A History of Transit Pipelines in the Middle East: Lessons for the Future" in G. H. Blake, M. A. Pratt, C. H. Schofield and J. A. Brown (Eds.) Boundaries and Energy: Problems and Prospects (Den Haag: Kluwer Law International, 1998).
27. G. Q. Lumsden, The Qatar-Pakistan Pipeline: Politics and Prospects, Paper to "The Changing Politics of International Energy Investment" - IAEE, BIEE, Chatham House and Montreux Energy, 4-5 December 1995; J. V. Mitchell with P. Beck and M. Grubb, The New Geopolitics of Energy (London: The Royal Institute of International Affairs, 1996); P. Stevens, "A History of Transit Pipelines in the Middle East: Lessons for the Future" in G. H. Blake, M. A. Pratt, C. H. Schofield and J. A. Brown (Eds.) Boundaries and Energy: Problems and Prospects (Den Haag: Kluwer Law International, 1998).
28. To prevent the footnotes of sources in this section from swamping the text, they are collectively cited in a footnote at the end of each paragraph. Page numbers are only given where quotations have been used.
29. E. Penrose & E. F. Penrose, Iraq: International Relations and National Development (Boulder & London: Ernest Benn and Westview Press, 1978).
30. G. W. Stocking, Middle East Oil: A Study in Political and Economic Controversy (Nashville: Vanderbilt University Press, 1970).
31. Penrose and Penrose, Iraq Stocking, Middle East Oil, p. 274.
32. Stocking, Middle East Oil, p. 282.
33. Stocking, Middle East Oil.
34. For extensive details of the agreement see MEES, Vol.XVI. No. 13. The actual text is published in MEES, XVI 15.
35. For extensive details of the agreement see MEES, Vol.XVI. No. 13. The actual text is published in MEES, XVI 15.
36. Penrose and Penrose, Iraq MEES, Vol. XV, No. 52; Vol. XVI, Nos. 12, 34.
37. Penrose and Penrose, Iraq MEES, Vol. XV, No. 52; Vol. XVI, Nos. 12, 34.
38. Under the 1973 agreement, Syrian and Lebanon could lift crude at $2.45 per barrel in 1973 rising to $2.75 per barrel by the end of 1975. However, the first oil shock effectively quadrupled prices. By 1975, Lebanon and Syria were lifting Iraq crude at $3.05 per barrel compared to its market price of $11.85. Lebanon could lift up to 1.5 million tons per year but Syria could lift as much as it needed for domestic consumption.
39. MEES, Vol. XIX, Nos. 19 and 27; Vol. XXII, Nos.2, 6, 8, 13, 20, 21 p. 9.
40. MEES, Vol. XIX, Nos. 19 and 27; Vol. XXII, Nos.2, 6, 8, 13, 20, 21 p. 9.
41. MEES, Vol. XXIII. Nos. 50, 51, 52; Vol. XXIV, Nos.8, 12, 19, 22, 34, 43 p. 2; Vol.XXV, No. 13,
42. MEES, Vol. XXIII. Nos. 50, 51, 52; Vol. XXIV, Nos.8, 12, 19, 22, 34, 43 p. 2; Vol.XXV, No. 13,
43. MEES, Vol. XXIII. Nos. 50, 51, 52; Vol. XXIV, Nos.8, 12, 19, 22, 34, 43 p. 2; Vol.XXV, No. 13,
44. MEES, Vol. XXV, Nos.9, 27, 36; Vol. XXIX, No. 7: Vol. XLI, No. 1.
45. MEES, Vol. XXV, Nos.9, 27, 36; Vol. XXIX, No. 7: Vol. XLI, No. 1.
46. MEES, Vol. XXV, Nos.9, 27, 36; Vol. XXIX, No. 7: Vol. XLI, No. 1.
47. MEES, Vol. XIII, No. 30.
48. In 1970, Iran was also exploring the possibility of an oil pipeline through Turkey from Ahwaz to exit at Iskanderum (MEES, Vol. XIII, No. 30). In March 1968, Bechtel-France was awarded a contract for a feasibility study for a gas pipeline to Istanbul (MEES, Vol. XI, No. 22).
49. In 1970, Iran was also exploring the possibility of an oil pipeline through Turkey from Ahwaz to exit at Iskanderum (MEES, Vol. XIII, No. 30). In March 1968, Bechtel-France was awarded a contract for a feasibility study for a gas pipeline to Istanbul (MEES, Vol. XI, No. 22).
50. MEES, Vol. XV, No. 51.
51. MEES, Vol. XVI, Nos. 28, 45, 50 p. 2; Vol. XVII, No. 26.
52. MEES, Vol. XVI, Nos. 28, 45, 50 p. 2; Vol. XVII, No. 26.
53. Allegedly, the letter demanding renegotiation was delivered 30 minutes after the inauguration at a desert pumping station as the Iraqi delegation boarded their jeeps to leave. MEES, Vol. XX, Nos. 14, 24, 32.
54. MEES, Vol. XXI. Nos. 6, 15, 46; Vol. XXII, No. 2; Vol. XXIII, No. 41.
55. MEES, Vol. XXI. Nos. 6, 15, 46; Vol. XXII, No. 2; Vol. XXIII, No. 41.
56. MEES, Vol. XXI. Nos. 6, 15, 46; Vol. XXII, No. 2; Vol. XXIII, No. 41.
57. MEES, Vol. XXIV, No. 43; Vol. XXV, No. 22; Vol. XXVII, Nos. 2, 32.
58. MEES, Vol. XXIV, No. 43; Vol. XXV, No. 22; Vol. XXVII, Nos. 2, 32.
59. MEES, Vol. XXIV, No. 43; Vol. XXV, No. 22; Vol. XXVII, Nos. 2, 32.
60. MEES, Vol. XXVII, No. 42; Vol. XXVIII, No. 28; Vol. XXX, No. 43; Vol. XXXI, Nos. 28, 31.
61. MEES, Vol. XXVII, No. 42; Vol. XXVIII, No. 28; Vol. XXX, No. 43; Vol. XXXI, Nos. 28, 31.
62. MEES, Vol. XXVII, No. 42; Vol. XXVIII, No. 28; Vol. XXX, No. 43; Vol. XXXI, Nos. 28, 31.
63. MEES, Vol. XXVII, No. 42; Vol. XXVIII, No. 28; Vol. XXX, No. 43; Vol. XXXI, Nos. 28, 31.
64. Considerable detail on the project can be found in MEES, Vol. XXXIII, No. 15.
65. MEES, Vol. XXVIII, Nos. 29, 52; Vol. XXIX, No. 52; Vol. XXX, No. 16 p. A1; Vol. XXXII, No. 45; Vol. XXXIV, No. 29.
66. MEES, Vol. XXVIII, Nos. 29, 52; Vol. XXIX, No. 52; Vol. XXX, No. 16 p. A1; Vol. XXXII, No. 45; Vol. XXXIV, No. 29.
67. MEES, Vol. XXVIII, Nos. 29, 52; Vol. XXIX, No. 52; Vol. XXX, No. 16 p. A1; Vol. XXXII, No. 45; Vol. XXXIV, No. 29.
68. MEES, Vol. XXVIII, Nos. 29, 52; Vol. XXIX, No. 52; Vol. XXX, No. 16 p. A1; Vol. XXXII, No. 45; Vol. XXXIV, No. 29.
69. MEES, Vol. XXVIII, Nos. 29, 52; Vol. XXIX, No. 52; Vol. XXX, No. 16 p. A1; Vol. XXXII, No. 45; Vol. XXXIV, No. 29.
70. MEES, Vol. XXXV, No. 1; Vol. XXXIX, No. 49.
71. MEES, Vol. XXXV, No. 1; Vol. XXXIX, No. 49.
72. I. I. Nawwab, P. C. Speers and P. F. Hoye (Eds.), Saudi Aramco and its World: Arabia and the Middle East (Dhahran: The Saudi Arabian Oil Company (Saudi Aramco), 1995). Stocking, Middle East Oil p. 100.
73. I. I. Nawwab, P. C. Speers and P. F. Hoye (Eds.), Saudi Aramco and its World: Arabia and the Middle East (Dhahran: The Saudi Arabian Oil Company (Saudi Aramco), 1995). Stocking, Middle East Oil p. 100.
74. Stocking, Middle East Oil, p. 328.
75. In Colombia, the guerillas have generally given up bombing the crude pipelines since it never affected loading. Instead, they have taken to leaving notice of their physical presence at points on the line - i.e. "we could have blown it up if we had wanted to" MEES, Vol. XII, Nos. 32, 33, 47; Vol. XIII, No. 3; Vol. XIV Nos. 46, 47: Vol. XV, No.1.
76. In Colombia, the guerillas have generally given up bombing the crude pipelines since it never affected loading. Instead, they have taken to leaving notice of their physical presence at points on the line - i.e. "we could have blown it up if we had wanted to" MEES, Vol. XII, Nos. 32, 33, 47; Vol. XIII, No. 3; Vol. XIV Nos. 46, 47: Vol. XV, No.1.
77. In Colombia, the guerillas have generally given up bombing the crude pipelines since it never affected loading. Instead, they have taken to leaving notice of their physical presence at points on the line - i.e. "we could have blown it up if we had wanted to" MEES, Vol. XII, Nos. 32, 33, 47; Vol. XIII, No. 3; Vol. XIV Nos. 46, 47: Vol. XV, No.1.
78. In Colombia, the guerillas have generally given up bombing the crude pipelines since it never affected loading. Instead, they have taken to leaving notice of their physical presence at points on the line - i.e. "we could have blown it up if we had wanted to" MEES, Vol. XII, Nos. 32, 33, 47; Vol. XIII, No. 3; Vol. XIV Nos. 46, 47: Vol. XV, No.1.
79. One author claims the move was "in alliance with Libya" A. Al-Sowayegh, Arab Petro-Politics (London: Croom Helm, 1984). p. 105.
80. MEES, Vol. XIII, No. 29; Vol. XIV, Nos. 6, 7, 15; Vol. XIII, Nos. 31, 34.
81. MEES, Vol. XIII, No. 29; Vol. XIV, Nos. 6, 7, 15; Vol. XIII, Nos. 31, 34.
82. MEES, Vol. XIII, No. 29; Vol. XIV, Nos. 6, 7, 15; Vol. XIII, Nos. 31, 34.
83. MEES, Vol. XIV, Nos. 17, 24, 27, 41; Vol. XVI, No. 29; Vol. XV, No.22.
84. MEES, Vol. XIV, Nos. 17, 24, 27, 41; Vol. XVI, No. 29; Vol. XV, No.22.
85. MEES, Vol. XIV, Nos. 17, 24, 27, 41; Vol. XVI, No. 29; Vol. XV, No.22.
86. MEES, Vol. XVII, No. 33; Vol. XVIII, Nos. 18, 26 p. 4, 32; Vol. XXIV, No. 18.
87. MEES, Vol. XVII, No. 33; Vol. XVIII, Nos. 18, 26 p. 4, 32; Vol. XXIV, No. 18.
88. MEES, Vol. XVII, No. 33; Vol. XVIII, Nos. 18, 26 p. 4, 32; Vol. XXIV, No. 18.
89. MEES, Vol. XX, No. 42; Vol. XXVII, No. 21; Nawwab et.al., Saudi Aramco.
90. MEES, Vol. XX, No. 42; Vol. XXVII, No. 21; Nawwab et.al., Saudi Aramco.
91. MEES, Vol. XX, No. 42; Vol. XXVII, No. 21; Nawwab et.al., Saudi Aramco.
92. MEES, Vol. XIV, No. 43; Vol. XV, No. 51; Vol. XVII, No. 1; Vol. XVII, No. 9; Vol. XX, Nos. 11 p.3, 49, 36.
93. MEES, Vol. XIV, No. 43; Vol. XV, No. 51; Vol. XVII, No. 1; Vol. XVII, No. 9; Vol. XX, Nos. 11 p.3, 49, 36.
94. MEES, Vol. XIV, No. 43; Vol. XV, No. 51; Vol. XVII, No. 1; Vol. XVII, No. 9; Vol. XX, Nos. 11 p.3, 49, 36.
95. MEES, Vol. XIV, No. 43; Vol. XV, No. 51; Vol. XVII, No. 1; Vol. XVII, No. 9; Vol. XX, Nos. 11 p.3, 49, 36.
96. MEES, Vol. XIV, No. 43; Vol. XV, No. 51; Vol. XVII, No. 1; Vol. XVII, No. 9; Vol. XX, Nos. 11 p.3, 49, 36.
97. MEES, Vol. XXII, Nos. 8, 26; Vol. XXIII, No. 17.
98. MEES, Vol. XXII, Nos. 8, 26; Vol. XXIII, No. 17.
99. MEES, Vol. XXV, Nos. 18, 23, 51.
100. MEES, Vol. XXVI, No. 33; Vol. XXX, No. 4; Vol. XXXIII, No. 7; Vol. XXXIV, Nos. 7, 12, 13, 25; Vol. XL No. 46.
101. MEES, Vol. XXVI, No. 33; Vol. XXX, No. 4; Vol. XXXIII, No. 7; Vol. XXXIV, Nos. 7, 12, 13, 25; Vol. XL No. 46.
102. MEES, Vol. XXVI, No. 33; Vol. XXX, No. 4; Vol. XXXIII, No. 7; Vol. XXXIV, Nos. 7, 12, 13, 25; Vol. XL No. 46.
103. MEES, Vol. XXVI, No. 33; Vol. XXX, No. 4; Vol. XXXIII, No. 7; Vol. XXXIV, Nos. 7, 12, 13, 25; Vol. XL No. 46.
104. MEES, Vol. XXVI, No. 33; Vol. XXX, No. 4; Vol. XXXIII, No. 7; Vol. XXXIV, Nos. 7, 12, 13, 25; Vol. XL No. 46.
105. A. Aissaoui, "The Maghreb-Europe Gas Pipeline Project" MEES, Vol. XXXVII, No. 12: I. G. Castiella, The Maghreb-Europe Pipeline: A Case Study Paper for Workshop - Regulatory Framework for Transborder Pipelines with Reference to the Caspian - Caspian Oil and Gas Summit, 6th November 1998 MEES, XXXIII 6; XXXIV 31.
106. A. Aissaoui, "The Maghreb-Europe Gas Pipeline Project" MEES, Vol. XXXVII, No. 12: I. G. Castiella, The Maghreb-Europe Pipeline: A Case Study Paper for Workshop - Regulatory Framework for Transborder Pipelines with Reference to the Caspian - Caspian Oil and Gas Summit, 6th November 1998 MEES, XXXIII 6; XXXIV 31.
107. A. Aissaoui, "The Maghreb-Europe Gas Pipeline Project" MEES, Vol. XXXVII, No. 12: I. G. Castiella, The Maghreb-Europe Pipeline: A Case Study Paper for Workshop - Regulatory Framework for Transborder Pipelines with Reference to the Caspian - Caspian Oil and Gas Summit, 6th November 1998 MEES, XXXIII 6; XXXIV 31.
108. B. McLellan, "Transporting Oil and Gas - The Background to the Economics", Oil and Gas Finance and Accounting Vol. 7 no 2 (Summer 1992).
109. R. Vernon, Sovereignty at Bay: The Multinational Spread of US Enterprises (London: Longman, 1971).
110. This arises because of the underlying economics of pipelines. High fixed costs make full capacity operation vital to protect profitability. Hence, independent pipeline operators are a very rare breed. The best guarantee for a full pipeline lies in owning both production and line.
111. This can be simply defined as the difference between the cost of production and the selling price.
112. Stauffer, Natural Gas.
113. It is assumed the cheapest route would be chosen first and so the second route would be more costly. Also, pipelines are subject to very large economies of scale (McLellan, Transporting Oil and Gas). Two pipelines built to carry a total capacity would together incur very much higher average total costs than one line for the same capacity.
114. W. J. Baumol, J. C. Panzar & R. D. Willig, Contestable Markets and the Theory of Industry Structure (New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1982).
115. N. Ghorban, Iran's Petroleum Links to West and Central Asia: Projects and Challenges, Paper to IBC Conference - Exploring Oil & Gas Investment Opportunities in West Asia. (9-11th March 1998); Stauffer, The Iranian Connection.
116. N. Ghorban, Iran's Petroleum Links to West and Central Asia: Projects and Challenges, Paper to IBC Conference - Exploring Oil & Gas Investment Opportunities in West Asia. (9-11th March 1998); Stauffer, The Iranian Connection.
117. The Transmed sales agreement was framed so that once the gas crossed the Algerian frontier it immediately became Italian property. Any transit fee dispute would technically have been between Tunisia and Italy.
118. J. Carver, "The Energy Charter Treaty and Transit" in T W Waelde and K M Christie (Eds.) Energy Charter Treaty: Selected Topics. (Dundee: CEPMLP University of Dundee, 1995); Energy Charter Secretariat, Energy Transit: The Multilateral Challenge (Brussels: The Energy Charter Secretariat, 1997); R. Leisen, Transit under the 1994 Energy Charter Treaty CEPMLP Electronic Library, Dundee http://www.dundee.ac.uk/ petroleumlaw/html/article3-7.html (1998); M. M. Roggenkamp, "Transit of Network-bound Energy: The European Experience" in T. W. Waelde (Ed.) The Energy Charter Treaty: An East-West Gateway for Investment and Trade (London: Kluwer Law International, 1996).
119. J. Carver, "The Energy Charter Treaty and Transit" in T W Waelde and K M Christie (Eds.) Energy Charter Treaty: Selected Topics. (Dundee: CEPMLP University of Dundee, 1995); Energy Charter Secretariat, Energy Transit: The Multilateral Challenge (Brussels: The Energy Charter Secretariat, 1997); R. Leisen, Transit under the 1994 Energy Charter Treaty CEPMLP Electronic Library, Dundee http://www.dundee.ac.uk/ petroleumlaw/html/article3-7.html (1998); M. M. Roggenkamp, "Transit of Network-bound Energy: The European Experience" in T. W. Waelde (Ed.) The Energy Charter Treaty: An East-West Gateway for Investment and Trade (London: Kluwer Law International, 1996).
120. J. Carver, "The Energy Charter Treaty and Transit" in T W Waelde and K M Christie (Eds.) Energy Charter Treaty: Selected Topics. (Dundee: CEPMLP University of Dundee, 1995); Energy Charter Secretariat, Energy Transit: The Multilateral Challenge (Brussels: The Energy Charter Secretariat, 1997); R. Leisen, Transit under the 1994 Energy Charter Treaty CEPMLP Electronic Library, Dundee http://www.dundee.ac.uk/ petroleumlaw/html/article3-7.html (1998); M. M. Roggenkamp, "Transit of Network-bound Energy: The European Experience" in T. W. Waelde (Ed.) The Energy Charter Treaty: An East-West Gateway for Investment and Trade (London: Kluwer Law International, 1996).
121. J. Carver, "The Energy Charter Treaty and Transit" in T W Waelde and K M Christie (Eds.) Energy Charter Treaty: Selected Topics. (Dundee: CEPMLP University of Dundee, 1995); Energy Charter Secretariat, Energy Transit: The Multilateral Challenge (Brussels: The Energy Charter Secretariat, 1997); R. Leisen, Transit under the 1994 Energy Charter Treaty CEPMLP Electronic Library, Dundee http://www.dundee.ac.uk/ petroleumlaw/html/article3-7.html (1998); M. M. Roggenkamp, "Transit of Network-bound Energy: The European Experience" in T. W. Waelde (Ed.) The Energy Charter Treaty: An East-West Gateway for Investment and Trade (London: Kluwer Law International, 1996).
122. C. Bamberger & T.W. Waelde, The Energy Charter Treaty: Entering a New Phase (Dundee: CEPMLP Working Paper, CEPMLP University of Dundee, 1998); T. W. Waelde (Ed.), The Energy Charter Treaty: An East-West Gateway for Investment and Trade. (London: Kluwer Law International, 1996).
123. C. Bamberger & T.W. Waelde, The Energy Charter Treaty: Entering a New Phase (Dundee: CEPMLP Working Paper, CEPMLP University of Dundee, 1998); T. W. Waelde (Ed.), The Energy Charter Treaty: An East-West Gateway for Investment and Trade. (London: Kluwer Law International, 1996).
124. A view expressed privately to the author on several occasions.