Using the "F" word: Federalism in Indonesia's decentralization discourse

Publius: The Journal of Federalism

Volumn 30, Issue 2, 2000, Pages 63-85

  Ferrazzi, Gabriele ^a  

^a NONE

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[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 0034146906     PISSN: 00485950     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1093/oxfordjournals.pubjof.a030085     Document Type: Article

References (104)

1. Having recently lost a province, Indonesia is making up for it by dividing provinces elsewhere, in West Papua (formerly Irian Java) and Maluku; however, these controversial creations are in limbo.
2. Andres Perez, "Legitimacy and the administrative capacity of the state: public administration in developing countries," International Review of Administrative Sciences 57 (December 1991): 646.
3. Gabriele Ferrazzi, "Criteria for Transferring Functions to Sub-national Governments: Selection and Application in Indonesian Decentralization Initiatives." (Ph.D. diss., University of Guelph, 1998).
4. See, for example, Teun A. van Dijk, "Discourse and Society: A New Journal for a New Research Focus," Discourse and Society 1 (July 1990): 5-16.
5. For a description of these elements of discourse, see John Gastil, "Undemocratic Discourse: A Review of Theory and Research on Political Discourse," Discourse and Society 3 (October 1992): 469-500.
6. Raphael Zariski, "The Establishment of the Kingdom of Italy as a Unitary State. A Case Study in Regime Formation." Publius: The Journal of Federalism 13 (Fall 1983): 1-19.
7. Ronald L. Watts, Comparing Federal Systems in the 1990's (Kingston, ON: Institute of Intergovernmental Relations, Queen's University. 1996), p. 104.
8. Quoted in Joachim Jens Hesse and Vincent Wright, "Federating Europe: The Path to Adjustment," Federalizing Europe? The Cost, Benefits, and Preconditions of Federal Political Systems, eds. Joachim Jens Hesse and Vincent Wright (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996), p. 378.
9. William Riker, Federalism: Origin, Operation, Significant (Boston, MA: Little, Brown and Company, 1964), p. 10.
10. Daniel J. Elazar, Covenant and Civil Society - The Constitutional Matrix of Modern Democracy (New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishers, 1998), p. 302.
11. This is true in other countries as well. See, for example, John Kincaid, "Values and Value Tradeoffs in Federalism," Publius: The Journal of Federalism 25 (Spring 1995): 29-44.
12. George McTurnin Kahin, Nationalism and Revolution in Indonesia (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1952), p. 450.
13. For an account of the states' consolidation, see The Liang Gie, Pertumbuhan Pemerintahan Daerah Di Negara Republik Indonesia Edisi Kedua, Jilid I (Yogyakarta: Liberty, 1993), p. 192.
14. The Dutch only overcame central Java in 1825-1830, all of Java and much of Sumatra by 1850, and the Islamic Sultanate of Aceh and South Sulawesi by the first decade of the twentieth century. Submission to Dutch rule, and subsequently to the Indonesian central government, has never been ingrained in many parts of the archipelago.
15. Indonesia's first vice-president, Mohammad Hatta, held Soekarno's decree on returning to the 1945 constitution to be unconstitutional; see Mohammad Hatta "Demokrasi Kita, Pustaka Antara," (Jakarta: Pustaka Antara Pt, 1966), p. 6, 17, 18, as reported in Muhammad Ridhwan Indra, The 1945 Constitution-A Human Creation (Jakarta: CV Haji Masagung, 1990), p. 27.
16. Indonesia's first vice-president, Mohammad Hatta, held Soekarno's decree on returning to the 1945 constitution to be unconstitutional; see Mohammad Hatta "Demokrasi Kita, Pustaka Antara," (Jakarta: Pustaka Antara Pt, 1966), p. 6, 17, 18, as reported in Muhammad Ridhwan Indra, The 1945 Constitution-A Human Creation (Jakarta: CV Haji Masagung, 1990), p. 27.
17. After losing East Timor, and splitting Irian Java and Maluku (though these divisions may not "hold"), there were 29 provinces and more than 300 districts and cities (the latter are all commonly referred to as districts).
18. For a description of these powers, see Muhammad Ridhwan Indra, The President's Position Under the 1945 Constitution (Jakarta: CV Haji Masagung, 1989).
19. Benedict Anderson was an early proponent of the fit between the precolonial Javanese kingdom and Weber's patrimonial state; see Benedict Anderson, "The Idea of Power in Javanese Culture," Culture and Politics in Indonesia, eds. C. Holt et al. (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1972). See also Hans I. Bakker, "The Hindu-Javanese World View in Java: The Structural Roots of the Pancasila State," Managing Change in Southeast Asia: Local Identities, Global Connections, eds. J. Bernardi, G. Forth and S. Niessen, (Ottawa: Canadian Council for Southeast Asian Studies XXI, 1995), pp. 189-205
20. Benedict Anderson was an early proponent of the fit between the precolonial Javanese kingdom and Weber's patrimonial state; see Benedict Anderson, "The Idea of Power in Javanese Culture," Culture and Politics in Indonesia, eds. C. Holt et al. (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1972). See also Hans I. Bakker, "The Hindu-Javanese World View in Java: The Structural Roots of the Pancasila State," Managing Change in Southeast Asia: Local Identities, Global Connections, eds. J. Bernardi, G. Forth and S. Niessen, (Ottawa: Canadian Council for Southeast Asian Studies XXI, 1995), pp. 189-205
21. For an argument on the resurgence of patrimonialism, see Gabriele Ferrazzi and Hans I. Bakker, Of Vestiges, Shadows and Re-emergence: The Persistence of Patrimonial Prebendalism in the Indonesian Polity (University of Guelph, unpublished,
22. Soemitro Maskun, "Otonomi Daerah adalah Program Pemerintah," Prisma 4 (April 1995): 44.
23. Majelis Permusyawaratan Rakyat, Garis Besar Haluan Negara 1993-1998, (Jalarta: Repulik Indonesia, 1993), p. 26.
24. "Pemda agar Sungguh-sungguh Mensukseskan Otonomi Daerah," Kompas, 31 January 1995, p. 13.
25. See Ferrazzi, "Criteria for Transferring Functions to Sub-national Governments."
26. See, for example, the comments of the East Java governor in "Otonomi Perlu, tapi Bertahap," Kompas, 10 October 1990, p. 1.
27. "Penataan Kembali Otonomi Daerah Jangan Dipolitisasi," Jawa Pos, 4 January 1991, p. 1.
28. "Don't Politicise Financial Woes, Jakarta Military Warns," Strait Times, 28 January 1998, p. 11.
29. "L.B. Moerdani: Otonomi Harus Tunjang Ketahanan Nasional," Merdeka, 13 May 1991, p. 1.
30. See, for example, the work of projects like the Support for Decentralization Measures located in the Ministry of Home Affairs and supported by the German GTZ, and the Municipal Finance Project, located in the Ministry of Finance and supported by USAID.
31. See, for example, J. B. Kristiadi, "Mencari Kriteria Alokasi Dana Regional-Prospek Kebijaksanaan yang Ideal," Prisma 8 (April 1991): 44-48.
32. See, for example, the governor of West Sumatra, in his use of the analogy in relation to the second region governments, "Gubernur Sumbar Drs. Hasan Basri Durin akui: Masih Banyak Aparat Pemerinta di Daerah Ini Terjebak Pola Pikir Lama," Haluan, 15 February 1995, p. 1.
33. For an account of the 1995 district-autonomy pilot program, see Christoph Beier and Gabriele Ferrazzi, "The District Autonomy Pilot Program: A New Approach to Decentralization in Indonesia." Nord-Süd XI (April 1997): 94-101.
34. See Republic of Indonesia, "Government Regulation Number 45/1992 concerning the implementation of regional autonomy with emphasis on Level II."
35. One exception is Josef Riwu Kaho, "Jumlah Tingkatan Daerah Otonom: Suatu Analisis," (paper presented at the Seminar Terbatas Tentang Otonomi Daerah, Badan, Penelitian dan Pengembangan, Departemen Dalam Negeri, Jakarta, 8-9 Oktober 1990).
36. Ibid., 19.
37. S. Pamudji, "Titik Berat Otonomi Pada Daerah Tingkat II (Landasan Pembinaan Sistem Pemerintahan Daerah Di Indonesia)," (paper presented at the Seminar Terbatas Tentang Otonomi Daerah, Badan, Penelitian dan Pengembangan, Departemen Dalam Negeri, Jakarta, 8-9 Oktober 1990), p. 8.
38. Mohammad Hatta, "Demokrasi dan Autonomi," Harian Keng Po, 27 April 1957, in The Liang Gie, Pertumbuhan Pemerintahan Daerah Di Negara Republik Indonesia, Edisi Kedua, Jilid I (Yogyakarta: Liberty,
39. Mohammad Hatta, "Demokrasi dan Autonomi," Harian Keng Po, 27 April 1957, in The Liang Gie, Pertumbuhan Pemerintahan Daerah Di Negara Republik Indonesia, Edisi Kedua, Jilid I (Yogyakarta: Liberty,
40. Republik Indonesia, "Penjelasan Atas Undang-Undang Republik Indonesia Nomor 5 Tahun 1974 Tentang Pokok-Pokok Pemerintahan Di Daerah," (Jakarta: Menteri Negara Sekretaris Negara), p. 2.
41. See, for example, Mashuri Maschab, "Mengapa Tidak Satu Tingkat Daerah Otonom?" and Ichlasul Amal, "Otonomi Tingkat Dua," (paper presented at the Seminar Terbatas Tentang Otonomi Daerah, Badan, Penelitian dan Pengembangan, Departemen Dalam Negeri, Jakarta, 8-9 Oktober 1990).
42. This difficulty has been acknowledged by provincial officials if not the center; see the comments of governor of Bali, Ida Bagus Oka, "Fungsi Pemerintah Daerah Tingkat I Dalam Pelaksanaan Titik Berat Otonomi Pada Daerah Tingkat II," (paper delivered by the governor of Bali at the Seminar Otonomi Daerah, Jakarta, 16 April 1997).
43. See Ismail Husin, "Daerah Besar Dan Daerah Kecil Dalam Sistem Pemerintahan Daerah Di Indonesia," (paper presented at the Seminar Terbatas Tentang Otonomi Daerah, Badan, Penelitian dan Pengembangan, Departemen Dalam Negeri, Jakarta, 8-9 Oktober 1990).
44. B. Zainun, "Decentralization for Rural Development in Indonesia," Building from Below-Local Initiatives for Decentralized Development in Asia and Pacific, ed. A. Bhatt et al., (Konrad Adenauer Stiftung and the Asia and Pacific Development Centre, 1988), 3:104-128.
45. The idea "officially" came from the Litbang section of Home Affairs, through the letter of its chair dated 4 June 1990/No. 188.2.294/Litbang.
46. Lasting from May 1998 to November 1999.
47. Republik Indonesia, "TAP MPR No. XV/MPR/1998" (regarding the Implementation of Regional Autonomy; a Just Regulation, Division and Utilization of National Resources and the Balancing of Center-Regional Finances within the framework of the Unitary Republic of Indonesia).
48. Undang-undang tentang Pemerintahan Daerah (regional government law) and Undang-undang tentang Perimbangan Keuangan antara Pemerintah Pusat dan Daerah (center-regional finances law).
49. See special summary edition on the parties, Kompas, 6 March 1999.
50. Gabriele Ferrazzi, Decentralization Reform: Can it keep Indonesia together? (Jakarta: Almanac of Indonesian Political Parties, 1999).
51. "16 LSM Tolak RUU Pemerintahan Daerah," Suara Pembaruan, 3 March 1999, p. 15.
52. See, for example, Arif Aryman, director of Econit economic research agency in Antara, "Autonomy: Bill on Financial Balance Needs Revising, Says Observer," 7 April 1999; http://www.antara.co.id/rx/eng/ curr/national/1999/04/07/ANT28537.html.
53. Cooperative Minister Adi Sasono in "Decentralization of State Finances Needs More Time," Bisnis Indonesia, 5 April 1999 (Netscape version).
54. Emil Salim, "Otonomi Daerah," Kompas, 11 Februari 1999, p. 2.
55. See "Debat Golkar-PAN Siap Digelar di Teve," Republika, 7 September 1998, p. 1.
56. See Yusril Izha Mahendra, "Perpolitkan Konsep Federal di Indonesia dan Konsekuensinya," Federalism untuk Indonesia, eds. Adnan B. Nasution, Harun Alrasid, and Ichlasul Amal (Jakarta: Kompas, 1999), pp. 154-164.
57. These are impressions of the author, gained from nine years of cooperation with the Indonesian government at all levels, and through discussion with non-government stakeholders during this time.
58. See, for example, Soedjati Djiwandono, "Is a Federal System Suitable for Indonesia?" Jakarta Post, 23 July 1998, p. 1; Cornelius Lay, "Sistem Presidentiil Masih Dibutuhkan 15-20 Tahun Lagi," Republika, 15 August 1998 (Netscape version); and Amien Syam, "Semua Dati I Harus Diberi Otonomi Luas," Kompas, 24 August 1998, p. 8.
59. See, for example, Soedjati Djiwandono, "Is a Federal System Suitable for Indonesia?" Jakarta Post, 23 July 1998, p. 1; Cornelius Lay, "Sistem Presidentiil Masih Dibutuhkan 15-20 Tahun Lagi," Republika, 15 August 1998 (Netscape version); and Amien Syam, "Semua Dati I Harus Diberi Otonomi Luas," Kompas, 24 August 1998, p. 8.
60. See, for example, Soedjati Djiwandono, "Is a Federal System Suitable for Indonesia?" Jakarta Post, 23 July 1998, p. 1; Cornelius Lay, "Sistem Presidentiil Masih Dibutuhkan 15-20 Tahun Lagi," Republika, 15 August 1998 (Netscape version); and Amien Syam, "Semua Dati I Harus Diberi Otonomi Luas," Kompas, 24 August 1998, p. 8.
61. Y. B. (Romo) Mangunwijaya, "Menyalamatkan Ketunggalan Negara," Federalism untuk Indonesia, pp. 32-43.
62. See "Debat tentang Negara Federal Harus Diakomodasi," Kompas, 27 August 1998, p. 6.
63. Andi Mallarangen and Ryaas Rasyid, "Otonomi dan Federalism," Federalism untuk Indonesia, pp. 17-31.
64. See, for example, Gerald S. Maryanov, Decentralization in Indonesia as a Political Problem (Ithaca: Modern Indonesia Project, Cornell University, 1958).
65. "Otonomi Lebih Realistis daripada Federasi," Kompas, 10 September 1998, p. 6.
66. "Otonomi Daerah Tetap Mengandung Risiko," Kompas, 21 September 1999, p. 17.
67. "Golkar Tolak Negara Federal," Kompas, 1 September 1998, p. 6.
68. For instance, Dewi Fortuna Anwar (former Habibie advisor and member of the Indonesian Institute of Science) and Andi Mallarangeng (an architect of the laws and lecturer in the Home Affairs Institute for Governmental Studies); see "Regional Discontent Threatens Unity," Jakarta Post, 24 October 1999, p. 1.
69. Provincial and district officials gathered on 30 October 1999 to begin preparations for autonomy. They noted the lack of regulations and warned that if this was not corrected soon, it would lead to conflicts down the road (reported 30 October 1999 by Television Republik Indonesia, news program). The preparations to be taken were not made clear, and it is hard to see what the regions can do without being given a road map of some type.
70. "Government Says Autonomy Law Ready in 2000," Jakarta Post, 23 November 1999 (Netscape version).
71. District-level unrest or calls for independence have been rare but not unheard of in Indonesia's history. The district of Minahasa, in North Sulawesi, is probably the best example. Following the war of independence, the regional elite, led by the Persatuan Minahasa (Minahasan Unity) movement and the local leader Ratulangie (a nationalist) voiced their preference for "independence" within a federal Indonesian Republic; see Henley David, "Nationalism and Regionalism in Colonial Indonesia: The Case of Minahasa," Indonesia 55 (April 1993): 91-112.
72. See editorial "Delay Not the Autonomy," Jakarta Post, 23 December 1999 (Netscape version).
73. "RI Forced into Federal State by 2010," Jakarta Post, 15 November 1999 (Netscape version).
74. This kind of confusion could also stem from inappropriate English translations of the term daerah (region) which could mean province or district, and requires specification in Indonesian (unless ambiguity is sought). The fact that the terms remain unspecified may be an indication of how successfully the government has been able to muddle or avoid the issue of provincial autonomy.
75. Brought to the author's attention by Bernhard May as quoted in The Straits Times, 22 December 1999.
76. "Aceh to Hold Referendum in Seven Months: President," Jakarta Post, 16 November 1999 (Netscape version).
77. "DPR Diminta Prioritaskan Pembahasan Otonomi Khusus Aceh," Kompas, 23 December 1999 (Netscape version).
78. "Indonesians Fear Domino Effect if Province Goes," Globe and Mail, 13 November 1999, p. A15.
79. This message, among others, was conveyed to the minster for regional autonomy by the donor community, see Advisory Working Group, Decentralization in Indonesia: Managing the Risks, Maximizing the Benefits, Prepared by advisors from World Bank, UNDP, USAID, CIDA, GTZ, November 1999, Jakarta.
80. "East Kalimantan Legislators Join Call for Federalism," Jakarta Post, 2 December 1999 (Netscape version).
81. "Bercerai Kita Runtuh," Gatra, 6 November 1998, p. 42.
82. "Marwah Daud Siap Mundur," Kompas, 8 November 1999, p. 7.
83. "Ketua DPR Tolak Opsi Merdeka," Kompas, 4 December 1999 (Netscape version).
84. "Ditawarkan Empat Alternatif-Ryaas Rasyid soal Otonomi untuk Aceh," Kompas, 27 November 1999 (Netscape version).
85. See comments by Anhar Gonggong, director of history and traditional values at the Ministry of National Education, who stated that preparations for a federal state should be complete by 2005, "RI Forced into Federal State by 2010," Jakarta Post, 15 November 1999 (Netscape version).
86. Private communications with Luc de Meester, GTZ advisor for the Home Affairs based Support for Decentralization Measures project, Jakarta.
87. See "PDI Perjuangan Seeks to Censure Amien," Jakarta Post, 30 November 1999 (Netscape version).
88. "PDI Perjuangan Rules Out Option of Federal State," Jakarta Post, 13 December 1999 (Netscape version).
89. "Unitary vs. Federal System Sized Up," Jakarta Post, 8 December 1999 (Netscape version).
90. "Ada Upaya Merombak Bentuk Negara Kesatuan," Kompas, 2 December 1999 (Netscape version).
91. See "Pertemuan Bondan-Abdullah Terganggu 'Pemusatan' TNI GAM ingin negara federal," Suara Kaltim, 18 Maret 2000 (Netscape version).
92. "Mahasiswa Riau Se-Indonesia Tuntut DPR," Riau Pos, 9 Maret 2000 (Netscape version).
93. Translated from Indonesian by the author from the report found in "Pelaksanaan Otonomi Hendaknya tidak Timbulkan Konflik," Suara Pembaruan, 23 February 2000, p. 2.
94. A public debate was held in Hotel Meridien, Jakarta on 16 February 2000, titled "Antara Bentuk Negara Kesuatuan dan Federasi" (Between the Unitary and Federal Form of the State).
95. See, for example, the views expressed by the members of the Gesellschaft für Technische Zusammenarbeit, the executing arm of the German government in the latter's cooperation in the Support for Decentralization Measures project of the Government of Indonesia. These are found in "Wawancara Dr. Bernhard May-Janggan Menunggu Daerah Berteriak," Integrasi, 2, 24-30 Januari 2000, Pp. 12-17, and in "Otonomi Baik, Federal tidak Perlu-Ir. Luc de Meester, Penasehat Pengembangan Pemerintah Lokal dan Regional Depdagri," Sorotan Khusus, 15 Juni 1999, p. 69.
96. See, for example, the views expressed by the members of the Gesellschaft für Technische Zusammenarbeit, the executing arm of the German government in the latter's cooperation in the Support for Decentralization Measures project of the Government of Indonesia. These are found in "Wawancara Dr. Bernhard May-Janggan Menunggu Daerah Berteriak," Integrasi, 2, 24-30 Januari 2000, Pp. 12-17, and in "Otonomi Baik, Federal tidak Perlu-Ir. Luc de Meester, Penasehat Pengembangan Pemerintah Lokal dan Regional Depdagri," Sorotan Khusus, 15 Juni 1999, p. 69.
97. See, for example, the proposal by LIPI to hold a seminar to compare the merits of the unitary versus the federal model for Indonesia; LIPI, "Seminar Internasional-Negara Kesatuan Versus Negara Federal: Mencari Bentuk Ideal Negara Indonesia Masa Depan," February 2000.
98. LIPI, "Resume and Recommendation of International Workshop on 'Unitary State versus Federal State: Searching for an Ideal Form for the Future of the Indonesian State'," Proceedings of the International Workshop, 28-30 March 2000, p. 2.
99. South Africa has skated close to a federal model within a unitary structure. Its new constitution is perhaps too young to be used as an example for others. Spain and Italy have had considerable regionalization, but continuing regional discontent over their constitutional arrangements persist.
100. Daniel J. Elazar, "Federalism," International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences (New York: Macmillan Co. and The Free Press, 1968), 5:354.
101. James MacPherson, "The Future of Federalism," Federalism and the New World Order, ed. Stephen J. Randall and Roger Gibbins (Calgary: University of Calgary Press, 1994), p. 12.
102. These scholars include the constitutional expert Harun Alrasid and political scientist Ramlan Surbakti; see Idris Kyrwan, Kyrwan Report, 15 June 2000.
103. The historical record could be reappraised, and the myths about federalism could be dispelled. The contention that an established nation cannot restructure itself as a federation of states could be countered with the case of the incremental Belgium conversion to a federal state. Discussions being held in the United Kingdom, Sri Lanka, and Italy, all pertaining to the merits of a federal or quasi-federal state, indicate that the transformation is not deemed impossible by these nations.
104. Requests from central departments and agencies for amendments or exceptions to government regulation 25/2000 on the distribution of functions are already trickling in to the minister for regional autonomy. Some departments are taking steps to fashion decentralization according to their own vision.