For the welfare of children: The origins of the relationship between US public health workers and pediatricians

American Journal of Public Health

Volumn 90, Issue 6, 2000, Pages 893-899

  Markel, Howard ^a,b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN MEDICAL SCHOOL   (United States)

^b 102 Observatory   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

CHILD WELFARE; HEALTH CARE ACCESS; HEALTH CARE PERSONNEL; HEALTH EDUCATION; HEALTH PRACTITIONER; HISTORY; PEDIATRICIAN; REVIEW; UNITED STATES;

EID: 0034129762     PISSN: 00900036     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2105/AJPH.90.6.893     Document Type: Review

References (75)

1. Fielding H. Garrison, "A History of Pediatrics," in Abt-Garrison History of Pediatrics, ed. A. F. Abt (Philadelphia, Pa: W. B. Saunders Co., 1965), 130; Howard Markel, "Academic Pediatrics, the View From New York, A Century Ago," Academic Medicine 71 (1996): 36-41.
2. Fielding H. Garrison, "A History of Pediatrics," in Abt-Garrison History of Pediatrics, ed. A. F. Abt (Philadelphia, Pa: W. B. Saunders Co., 1965), 130; Howard Markel, "Academic Pediatrics, the View From New York, A Century Ago," Academic Medicine 71 (1996): 36-41.
3. Clement A. Smith, The Children's Hospital of Boston: "Built Better Than They Knew" (Boston, Mass: Little, Brown & Co, 1983).
4. H. Faber and R. McIntosh, History of the American Pediatric Society (New York, NY: McGraw-Hill, 1966); D.H. Sherman, C. A. Aldrich, B.E. Bonar, W. L. Carr, and H. McCullough, eds., Semi-Centennial Volume of the American Pediatric Society, 1888-1938 (Menasha, Wis: George Banta Publishing Co, 1938).
5. H. Faber and R. McIntosh, History of the American Pediatric Society (New York, NY: McGraw-Hill, 1966); D.H. Sherman, C. A. Aldrich, B.E. Bonar, W. L. Carr, and H. McCullough, eds., Semi-Centennial Volume of the American Pediatric Society, 1888-1938 (Menasha, Wis: George Banta Publishing Co, 1938).
6. A. Jacobi, "An Address on the Claims of Pediatric Medicine," Transactions of the A.M.A. 31 (1880): 711.
7. S. Halpern, American Pediatrics: The Social Dynamics of Professionalism, 1880-1980 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1988), 1.
8. P. Van Ingen, "The History of Child Welfare Work in the United States," in A Half Century of Public Health. Jubilee Historical Volume of the American Public Health Association, ed. M. P. Ravenal (New York, NY: American Public Health Association, 1921), 290-322. Quotations are from pp 290-291, 293, and 322, respectively.
9. Richard Meckel, Save the Babies: American Public Health Reform and the Prevention of Infant Mortality, 1850-1929 (Baltimore, Md: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1990), 5-10.
10. S. H. Preston and M. R. Haines, Fatal Years: Child Mortality in Late Nineteenth Century America (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1991), 3-6; for a fascinating account of the practice of pediatrics during this period, see A. Jacobi, "The History of Pediatrics in New York," Archives of Pediatrics 34 (1917): 1-11, 144-149, 191-198.
11. S. H. Preston and M. R. Haines, Fatal Years: Child Mortality in Late Nineteenth Century America (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1991), 3-6; for a fascinating account of the practice of pediatrics during this period, see A. Jacobi, "The History of Pediatrics in New York," Archives of Pediatrics 34 (1917): 1-11, 144-149, 191-198.
12. A. Jacobi, Infant Feeding and Infant Foods: The Anniversary Address Delivered Before the New York State Medical Society, February 11, 1882 (Philadelphia, Pa, 1882), quoted in Meckel, 41; C.G. Kerley, "A Study of 555 Cases of Summer Diarrhea Among the Outpatient Poor," Archives of Pediatrics 18 (1901): 561-582.
13. A. Jacobi, Infant Feeding and Infant Foods: The Anniversary Address Delivered Before the New York State Medical Society, February 11, 1882 (Philadelphia, Pa, 1882), quoted in Meckel, 41; C.G. Kerley, "A Study of 555 Cases of Summer Diarrhea Among the Outpatient Poor," Archives of Pediatrics 18 (1901): 561-582.
14. A. C. Klaus, Every Child A Lion: The Origins of Maternal and Infant Health Policy in the United States and France, 1890-1920 (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1993).
15. J. Grant, Raising Baby by the Book: The Education of American Mothers (New Haven, Conn: Yale University Press, 1998); M. Ladd-Taylor, ed., Raising a Baby the Government Way: Mothers' Letters to the Children's Bureau, 1915-1932 (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1986).
16. J. Grant, Raising Baby by the Book: The Education of American Mothers (New Haven, Conn: Yale University Press, 1998); M. Ladd-Taylor, ed., Raising a Baby the Government Way: Mothers' Letters to the Children's Bureau, 1915-1932 (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1986).
17. David Nasaw, Children of the City: At Work and at Play (New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 1985); Deborah Dwork, "Health Conditions of Immigrant Jews on the Lower East Side of New York: 1880-1914," Medical History 24 (1981): 1-40; Maureen Ogle, All the Modern Conveniences: American Household Plumbing, 1840-1890 (Baltimore, Md: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1997).
18. David Nasaw, Children of the City: At Work and at Play (New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 1985); Deborah Dwork, "Health Conditions of Immigrant Jews on the Lower East Side of New York: 1880-1914," Medical History 24 (1981): 1-40; Maureen Ogle, All the Modern Conveniences: American Household Plumbing, 1840-1890 (Baltimore, Md: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1997).
19. David Nasaw, Children of the City: At Work and at Play (New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 1985); Deborah Dwork, "Health Conditions of Immigrant Jews on the Lower East Side of New York: 1880-1914," Medical History 24 (1981): 1-40; Maureen Ogle, All the Modern Conveniences: American Household Plumbing, 1840-1890 (Baltimore, Md: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1997).
20. David Rosner, "Introduction: Hives of Sickness and Vice," in David Rosner, ed., Hives of Sickness: Public Health and Epidemics in New York City (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press), 1995, 1-21; M. B. Katz, In the Shadow of the Poorhouse: A Social History of Welfare in America (New York, NY: Basic Books, 1986).
21. David Rosner, "Introduction: Hives of Sickness and Vice," in David Rosner, ed., Hives of Sickness: Public Health and Epidemics in New York City (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press), 1995, 1-21; M. B. Katz, In the Shadow of the Poorhouse: A Social History of Welfare in America (New York, NY: Basic Books, 1986).
22. L. Veiller, "Tenement House Reform in New York City, 1834-1900," in R. W. De Forest and L. Veiller, The Tenement House Problem, Including the Report of the New York Tenement House Commission of 1900, vol 1 (Albany, NY: J. B. Lyon, 1903), 115; see also R. Plunz, A History of Housing in New York City (New York, NY: Columbia University Press, 1990).
23. L. Veiller, "Tenement House Reform in New York City, 1834-1900," in R. W. De Forest and L. Veiller, The Tenement House Problem, Including the Report of the New York Tenement House Commission of 1900, vol 1 (Albany, NY: J. B. Lyon, 1903), 115; see also R. Plunz, A History of Housing in New York City (New York, NY: Columbia University Press, 1990).
24. Nurith Zmora, Orphanages Reconsidered: Child Care Institutions in Progressive Era Baltimore (Philadelphia, Pa: Temple University Press, 1994); Reena S. Friedman, These Are Our Children: Jewish Orphanages in the United States, 1880-1925 (Hanover, NH: Brandeis University Press/University Press of New England, 1994); Howard Markel, "Orphanages Revisited: Some Historical Perspectives of America's Orphaned, Abandoned and Dependent Children," Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine 149 (1996): 609-610.
25. Nurith Zmora, Orphanages Reconsidered: Child Care Institutions in Progressive Era Baltimore (Philadelphia, Pa: Temple University Press, 1994); Reena S. Friedman, These Are Our Children: Jewish Orphanages in the United States, 1880-1925 (Hanover, NH: Brandeis University Press/University Press of New England, 1994); Howard Markel, "Orphanages Revisited: Some Historical Perspectives of America's Orphaned, Abandoned and Dependent Children," Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine 149 (1996): 609-610.
26. Nurith Zmora, Orphanages Reconsidered: Child Care Institutions in Progressive Era Baltimore (Philadelphia, Pa: Temple University Press, 1994); Reena S. Friedman, These Are Our Children: Jewish Orphanages in the United States, 1880-1925 (Hanover, NH: Brandeis University Press/University Press of New England, 1994); Howard Markel, "Orphanages Revisited: Some Historical Perspectives of America's Orphaned, Abandoned and Dependent Children," Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine 149 (1996): 609-610.
27. Jacob A. Riis, How the Other Half Lives: Studies Among the Tenements of New York (New York, NY: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1890), 187-188. Riis returned to the topic of abandoned, impoverished, and unhealthy urban children again and again in his writings. See, for example, The Children of the Poor (New York, NY: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1892); The Battle With the Slum (New York, NY: Macmillan Co, 1902); and Children of the Tenements (New York, NY: Macmillan Co, 1903).
28. Jacob A. Riis, How the Other Half Lives: Studies Among the Tenements of New York (New York, NY: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1890), 187-188. Riis returned to the topic of abandoned, impoverished, and unhealthy urban children again and again in his writings. See, for example, The Children of the Poor (New York, NY: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1892); The Battle With the Slum (New York, NY: Macmillan Co, 1902); and Children of the Tenements (New York, NY: Macmillan Co, 1903).
29. Jacob A. Riis, How the Other Half Lives: Studies Among the Tenements of New York (New York, NY: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1890), 187-188. Riis returned to the topic of abandoned, impoverished, and unhealthy urban children again and again in his writings. See, for example, The Children of the Poor (New York, NY: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1892); The Battle With the Slum (New York, NY: Macmillan Co, 1902); and Children of the Tenements (New York, NY: Macmillan Co, 1903).
30. Jacob A. Riis, How the Other Half Lives: Studies Among the Tenements of New York (New York, NY: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1890), 187-188. Riis returned to the topic of abandoned, impoverished, and unhealthy urban children again and again in his writings. See, for example, The Children of the Poor (New York, NY: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1892); The Battle With the Slum (New York, NY: Macmillan Co, 1902); and Children of the Tenements (New York, NY: Macmillan Co, 1903).
31. Felix Adler, "Child Labor in the United States and Its Attendant Evils," Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 25 (1905): 8-9; "Proceedings of the Annual Meeting of the National Child Labor Committee, 1905," Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 25 (1905): 565-566; Jeremy P. Felt, Hostages of Fortune: Child Labor Reform in New York State (Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 1965), vii; for an engaging account of the "war" that occurred daily between New York City police officers and little boys, see Harpo Marx and Rowland Barber, Harpo Speaks! (New York, NY: Free-way Press, 1974), 36.
32. Felix Adler, "Child Labor in the United States and Its Attendant Evils," Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 25 (1905): 8-9; "Proceedings of the Annual Meeting of the National Child Labor Committee, 1905," Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 25 (1905): 565-566; Jeremy P. Felt, Hostages of Fortune: Child Labor Reform in New York State (Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 1965), vii; for an engaging account of the "war" that occurred daily between New York City police officers and little boys, see Harpo Marx and Rowland Barber, Harpo Speaks! (New York, NY: Free-way Press, 1974), 36.
33. Felix Adler, "Child Labor in the United States and Its Attendant Evils," Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 25 (1905): 8-9; "Proceedings of the Annual Meeting of the National Child Labor Committee, 1905," Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 25 (1905): 565-566; Jeremy P. Felt, Hostages of Fortune: Child Labor Reform in New York State (Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 1965), vii; for an engaging account of the "war" that occurred daily between New York City police officers and little boys, see Harpo Marx and Rowland Barber, Harpo Speaks! (New York, NY: Free-way Press, 1974), 36.
34. Felix Adler, "Child Labor in the United States and Its Attendant Evils," Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 25 (1905): 8-9; "Proceedings of the Annual Meeting of the National Child Labor Committee, 1905," Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 25 (1905): 565-566; Jeremy P. Felt, Hostages of Fortune: Child Labor Reform in New York State (Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 1965), vii; for an engaging account of the "war" that occurred daily between New York City police officers and little boys, see Harpo Marx and Rowland Barber, Harpo Speaks! (New York, NY: Free-way Press, 1974), 36.
35. Meckel, 131.
36. See, for example, George Rosen, Preventive Medicine in the United States, 1900-1975: Trends and Interpretations (New York, NY: Prodist/Science History Publications, 1975), 47; Elizabeth Ewen, Immigrant Women in the Land of Dollars: Life and Culture on the Lower East Side, 1890-1925 (New York, NY: Monthly Review Press, 1985); Andrew R. Heinze, Adapting to Abundance: Jewish Immigrants, Mass Consumption, and the Search for American Identity (New York, NY: Columbia University Press, 1990); Isaac Metzker, ed., A Bintel Brief: Sixty Years of Letters From the Lower East Side to the Daily Forward (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1971), 87-89; Howard Markel, "Caring for Children: The Health of Immigrant Children in the United States, 1890-1925," Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine 152 (1998): 1020-1027. Health education and the Americanization of immigrants during the Progressive Era are deftly discussed by Nancy Tomes in The Gospel of Germs: Men, Women and the Microbe in American Life (Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press, 1998).
37. See, for example, George Rosen, Preventive Medicine in the United States, 1900-1975: Trends and Interpretations (New York, NY: Prodist/Science History Publications, 1975), 47; Elizabeth Ewen, Immigrant Women in the Land of Dollars: Life and Culture on the Lower East Side, 1890-1925 (New York, NY: Monthly Review Press, 1985); Andrew R. Heinze, Adapting to Abundance: Jewish Immigrants, Mass Consumption, and the Search for American Identity (New York, NY: Columbia University Press, 1990); Isaac Metzker, ed., A Bintel Brief: Sixty Years of Letters From the Lower East Side to the Daily Forward (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1971), 87-89; Howard Markel, "Caring for Children: The Health of Immigrant Children in the United States, 1890-1925," Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine 152 (1998): 1020-1027. Health education and the Americanization of immigrants during the Progressive Era are deftly discussed by Nancy Tomes in The Gospel of Germs: Men, Women and the Microbe in American Life (Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press, 1998).
38. See, for example, George Rosen, Preventive Medicine in the United States, 1900-1975: Trends and Interpretations (New York, NY: Prodist/Science History Publications, 1975), 47; Elizabeth Ewen, Immigrant Women in the Land of Dollars: Life and Culture on the Lower East Side, 1890-1925 (New York, NY: Monthly Review Press, 1985); Andrew R. Heinze, Adapting to Abundance: Jewish Immigrants, Mass Consumption, and the Search for American Identity (New York, NY: Columbia University Press, 1990); Isaac Metzker, ed., A Bintel Brief: Sixty Years of Letters From the Lower East Side to the Daily Forward (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1971), 87-89; Howard Markel, "Caring for Children: The Health of Immigrant Children in the United States, 1890-1925," Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine 152 (1998): 1020-1027. Health education and the Americanization of immigrants during the Progressive Era are deftly discussed by Nancy Tomes in The Gospel of Germs: Men, Women and the Microbe in American Life (Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press, 1998).
39. See, for example, George Rosen, Preventive Medicine in the United States, 1900-1975: Trends and Interpretations (New York, NY: Prodist/Science History Publications, 1975), 47; Elizabeth Ewen, Immigrant Women in the Land of Dollars: Life and Culture on the Lower East Side, 1890-1925 (New York, NY: Monthly Review Press, 1985); Andrew R. Heinze, Adapting to Abundance: Jewish Immigrants, Mass Consumption, and the Search for American Identity (New York, NY: Columbia University Press, 1990); Isaac Metzker, ed., A Bintel Brief: Sixty Years of Letters From the Lower East Side to the Daily Forward (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1971), 87-89; Howard Markel, "Caring for Children: The Health of Immigrant Children in the United States, 1890-1925," Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine 152 (1998): 1020-1027. Health education and the Americanization of immigrants during the Progressive Era are deftly discussed by Nancy Tomes in The Gospel of Germs: Men, Women and the Microbe in American Life (Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press, 1998).
40. See, for example, George Rosen, Preventive Medicine in the United States, 1900-1975: Trends and Interpretations (New York, NY: Prodist/Science History Publications, 1975), 47; Elizabeth Ewen, Immigrant Women in the Land of Dollars: Life and Culture on the Lower East Side, 1890-1925 (New York, NY: Monthly Review Press, 1985); Andrew R. Heinze, Adapting to Abundance: Jewish Immigrants, Mass Consumption, and the Search for American Identity (New York, NY: Columbia University Press, 1990); Isaac Metzker, ed., A Bintel Brief: Sixty Years of Letters From the Lower East Side to the Daily Forward (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1971), 87-89; Howard Markel, "Caring for Children: The Health of Immigrant Children in the United States, 1890-1925," Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine 152 (1998): 1020-1027. Health education and the Americanization of immigrants during the Progressive Era are deftly discussed by Nancy Tomes in The Gospel of Germs: Men, Women and the Microbe in American Life (Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press, 1998).
41. See, for example, George Rosen, Preventive Medicine in the United States, 1900-1975: Trends and Interpretations (New York, NY: Prodist/Science History Publications, 1975), 47; Elizabeth Ewen, Immigrant Women in the Land of Dollars: Life and Culture on the Lower East Side, 1890-1925 (New York, NY: Monthly Review Press, 1985); Andrew R. Heinze, Adapting to Abundance: Jewish Immigrants, Mass Consumption, and the Search for American Identity (New York, NY: Columbia University Press, 1990); Isaac Metzker, ed., A Bintel Brief: Sixty Years of Letters From the Lower East Side to the Daily Forward (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1971), 87-89; Howard Markel, "Caring for Children: The Health of Immigrant Children in the United States, 1890-1925," Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine 152 (1998): 1020-1027. Health education and the Americanization of immigrants during the Progressive Era are deftly discussed by Nancy Tomes in The Gospel of Germs: Men, Women and the Microbe in American Life (Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press, 1998).
42. C. E. Rosenberg, "Social Class and Medical Care in 19th Century America: The Rise and Fall of the Dispensary," in J. W. Leavitt and R. L. Numbers, eds., Sickness and Health in America: Readings in the History of Medicine and Public Health, 3rd rev ed. (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1997), 157-171. Quotation is from p 157.
43. Helen Campbell, Darkness and Light; or, Lights and Shadows of New York Life (Hartford, Conn: Hartford Publishing Co, 1898), 322-325.
44. Semi-Centennial Volume of the American Pediatric Society, 1888-1938 (Menasha, Wis: George Banta Publishing Co, 1938), 1-76; Howard Pearson and A. K. Brown, The Centennial History of the American Pediatric Society, 1888-1988 (New Haven, Conn: Yale University Printing Service, 1988), 2-12.
45. Semi-Centennial Volume of the American Pediatric Society, 1888-1938 (Menasha, Wis: George Banta Publishing Co, 1938), 1-76; Howard Pearson and A. K. Brown, The Centennial History of the American Pediatric Society, 1888-1988 (New Haven, Conn: Yale University Printing Service, 1988), 2-12.
46. M. J. Wasserman, "Henry Coit and the Certified Milk Movement in the Development of Modern Pediatrics," Bulletin of the History of Medicine 46 (1972): 359-390.
47. Howard Markel and Frank A. Oski, The H. L. Mencken Baby Book: Comprising the Contents of H. L. Mencken's What You Ought to Know About Your Baby With Commentaries (Philadelphia, Pa: Hanley & Belfus, 1990), 92-97.
48. The more complex story of how pediatricians and others developed "artificial" infant formulas is described in R. D. Apple, Mothers and Medicine: A Social History of Infant Feeding (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1987); for the role that wet-nursing played during this period, see J. L. Golden, A Social History of Wet Nursing in America: From Breast to Bottle (New York, NY: Cambridge University Press, 1996).
49. The more complex story of how pediatricians and others developed "artificial" infant formulas is described in R. D. Apple, Mothers and Medicine: A Social History of Infant Feeding (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1987); for the role that wet-nursing played during this period, see J. L. Golden, A Social History of Wet Nursing in America: From Breast to Bottle (New York, NY: Cambridge University Press, 1996).
50. Henry Koplik, "The History of the First Milk Depot or Goutte de Lait with Consultations in America," Journal of the American Medical Association 63 (1914): 1574-1575; Meckel, 78-79.
51. Howard Markel, "Henry Koplik, MD, the Good Samaritan Dispensary of New York City and the Description of Koplik's Spots," Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine 150 (1996): 535-539; Meckel, 129-142; Lillian Wald, The House on Henry Street (New York, NY: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1915); George Rosen, A History of Public Health, expanded ed. (Baltimore, Md: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1993), 330-331.
52. Howard Markel, "Henry Koplik, MD, the Good Samaritan Dispensary of New York City and the Description of Koplik's Spots," Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine 150 (1996): 535-539; Meckel, 129-142; Lillian Wald, The House on Henry Street (New York, NY: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1915); George Rosen, A History of Public Health, expanded ed. (Baltimore, Md: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1993), 330-331.
53. Howard Markel, "Henry Koplik, MD, the Good Samaritan Dispensary of New York City and the Description of Koplik's Spots," Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine 150 (1996): 535-539; Meckel, 129-142; Lillian Wald, The House on Henry Street (New York, NY: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1915); George Rosen, A History of Public Health, expanded ed. (Baltimore, Md: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1993), 330-331.
54. Halpern, 98; George Rosen, "The First Neighborhood Health Center Movement - Its Rise and Fall," in Leavitt and Numbers, 185-199.
55. Michael M. Davis, Immigrant Health and the Community (New York, NY: Harper & Bros, 1921), 328-334; Michael M. Davis and A. R. Warner, Dispensaries: Their Management and Development (New York, NY: Macmillan, 1918); Public Health Committee of the New York Academy of Medicine Report on the Study of New York Dispensaries, 1919, Rare Book and Manuscript Collections, New York Academy of Medicine.
56. Michael M. Davis, Immigrant Health and the Community (New York, NY: Harper & Bros, 1921), 328-334; Michael M. Davis and A. R. Warner, Dispensaries: Their Management and Development (New York, NY: Macmillan, 1918); Public Health Committee of the New York Academy of Medicine Report on the Study of New York Dispensaries, 1919, Rare Book and Manuscript Collections, New York Academy of Medicine.
57. Michael M. Davis, Immigrant Health and the Community (New York, NY: Harper & Bros, 1921), 328-334; Michael M. Davis and A. R. Warner, Dispensaries: Their Management and Development (New York, NY: Macmillan, 1918); Public Health Committee of the New York Academy of Medicine Report on the Study of New York Dispensaries, 1919, Rare Book and Manuscript Collections, New York Academy of Medicine.
58. S. S. Goldwater, "Dispensaries. A Growing Factor in Curative and Preventive Medicine,Boston Medical and Surgical Journal 172 (1915): 613-617.
59. John Duffy, "School Vaccination: The Precursor to School Medical Inspection," Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences 33 (1978): 344-355.
60. John Duffy, "School Buildings and the Health of American School Children in the Nineteenth Century," in C. E. Rosenberg, ed., Healing and History: Essays for George Rosen (New York, NY: Science History Publications, 1979), 161-178.
61. Markel and Oski, 116-117.
62. J. T. Sullivan, T. J. Murphy, and M. J. Cronin, "Medical Inspection of the Schools from the Standpoint of the Medical Inspector," Boston Medical and Surgical Journal 159 (1908): 815-820.
63. W. P. Coues, "The Medical Inspection of Schools in Boston: The Present Limitations and Future Possibilities," Boston Medical and Surgical Journal 160 (1909): 746-748.
64. Luther H. Gulick and Leonard P. Ayers, Medical Inspection of Schools, 2nd ed. (New York, NY: Russell Sage Foundation/Survey Associates Inc, 1913), 15-16; Lewis M. Terman, The Hygiene of the School Child (Boston, Mass: Houghton Mifflin, 1914).
65. Luther H. Gulick and Leonard P. Ayers, Medical Inspection of Schools, 2nd ed. (New York, NY: Russell Sage Foundation/Survey Associates Inc, 1913), 15-16; Lewis M. Terman, The Hygiene of the School Child (Boston, Mass: Houghton Mifflin, 1914).
66. W. S. Cornell, Health and Medical Inspection of School Children (Philadelphia, Pa: F. A. Davis Co, 1913), v.
67. Josephine E. Young, "Hygiene of the School Age," in I. A. Abt, ed., Pediatrics, vol 1 (Philadelphia, Pa: W. B. Saunders, 1923), 866-1131.
68. L. E. Holt, Diseases of Infancy and Children, 3rd ed. (New York, NY: D. Appleton & Co, 1907), 299-307.
69. Markel, "Caring for Children"; Howard Markel, Quarantine! East European Jewish Immigrants and the New York City Epidemics of 1892 (Baltimore, Md: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1997).
70. Markel, "Caring for Children"; Howard Markel, Quarantine! East European Jewish Immigrants and the New York City Epidemics of 1892 (Baltimore, Md: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1997).
71. Rosenberg, "Social Class and Medical Care."
72. Judith Walzer Leavitt, Typhoid Mary: Captive to the Public's Health (Boston, Mass: Beacon Press, 1996).
73. S. Josephine Baker, Child Hygiene (New York, NY: Harper & Bros, 1925).
74. S. Josephine Baker, Fighting for Life (New York, NY: Macmillan, 1939), 79-80.
75. G. L. Freed, W. C. Bordley, and G. H. DeFriese, "Childhood Immunization Programs: An Analysis of Policy Issues," Milbank Quarterly 71 (1993): 65-96.