The emergence of the Palestinian women's movement, 1929-39

Journal of Palestine Studies

Volumn 29, Issue 3, 2000, Pages 16-32

  Fleischmann, Ellen L ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF DAYTON   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

FEMINISM; SOCIAL MOVEMENT; WOMENS STATUS;

PALESTINE;

EID: 0034125697     PISSN: 0377919X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2307/2676453     Document Type: Article

References (102)

1. High Commissioner (HC) to Cunliffe-Lister (Secretary of State for the Colonies), 23 October 1933, British Colonial Office Correspondence (CO) 733 239/5, Part I; Inspector-General of Police to Chief Secretary, 14 October 1933, CO 733 239/5, Part II; HC to Cunliffe-Lister; Palestine Gazette Supplement: Report of the Commissioner, 7 February 1934, CO 733 346/8.
2. al-Difa', 29 July 1936.
3. Ghazi al-Khalili, al-Mar'a al-Filastiniyya wa al-Thawra (Beirut: PLO Research Center, 1977), p. 80.
4. For a discussion of why this is so, see Rosemary Sayigh, "Femmes palestiniennes: Une histoire en quête d'historiens" Revue d'études Palestiniennes, no. 23 (Spring 1987), pp. 13-33; and the introduction in A Social History of Women and Gender in the Modern Middle East, ed Margaret L Meriwether and Judith E Tucker (Boulden Westview Press, 1999), p. 9.
5. For a discussion of why this is so, see Rosemary Sayigh, "Femmes palestiniennes: Une histoire en quête d'historiens" Revue d'études Palestiniennes, no. 23 (Spring 1987), pp. 13-33; and the introduction in A Social History of Women and Gender in the Modern Middle East, ed Margaret L Meriwether and Judith E Tucker (Boulden Westview Press, 1999), p. 9.
6. Concepts of feminism have been dominated by Western definitions focusing on gender inequality without taking into account colonial situations in which "various systemic networks of class, race, (hetero)sexuality, and nation" intersect in a complex fashion. See Chandra Talpade Mohanty, "Cartographies of Struggle: Third World Women and the Politics of Feminism," in Third World Women and the Politics of Feminism, ed Chandra Talpade Mohanty, Ann Russo, and Lourdes Torres (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1991), p. 13.
7. Yehoshua Porath, The Emergence of the Palestinian National Movement, 1928-1929 (London: Frank Cass, 1974), pp. 258-73.
8. For more on these and other early women's societies, see Asma Tubi, 'Abir wa Majd (Beirut: Matba'at Qalalat, 1966); and Ellen Fleischmann, "The Nation and Its 'New' Women: Feminism, Nationalism, Colonialism, and the Palestinian Women's Movement" (Ph.D. diss., Georgetown University, 1996), chap. 4.
9. For more on these and other early women's societies, see Asma Tubi, 'Abir wa Majd (Beirut: Matba'at Qalalat, 1966); and Ellen Fleischmann, "The Nation and Its 'New' Women: Feminism, Nationalism, Colonialism, and the Palestinian Women's Movement" (Ph.D. diss., Georgetown University, 1996), chap. 4.
10. Letter to the Administrator, O.E.T.A., from Arab Women in the North, 23 March 1920, Israel State Archives, RG 2 30/I.
11. Intelligence report by Col. Commandant J. Bryon and Captain C. D. Brunton, 12 May 1921, CO 733 13; Ann Lesch, Arab Politics in Palestine, 1917-1939: The Frustration of a Nationalist Movement (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1979), p. 205; al-Karmil, 17, 21, and 31 December 1921 and 8 November 1922.
12. Intelligence report by Col. Commandant J. Bryon and Captain C. D. Brunton, 12 May 1921, CO 733 13; Ann Lesch, Arab Politics in Palestine, 1917-1939: The Frustration of a Nationalist Movement (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1979), p. 205; al-Karmil, 17, 21, and 31 December 1921 and 8 November 1922.
13. Sir John Chancellor to Lord Passfield, Colonial Secretary, 31 October 1929, Papers of Sir John Robert Chancellor, Rhodes House, Bodleian Library, Oxford, 31 October 1929; Mirat al-Sharq, 28 October 1929. See Matiel Mogannam, The Arab Woman and the Palestine Problem (London: Herbert Joseph, 1937), pp. 70-75, for the complete list of resolutions.
14. Sir John Chancellor to Lord Passfield, Colonial Secretary, 31 October 1929, Papers of Sir John Robert Chancellor, Rhodes House, Bodleian Library, Oxford, 31 October 1929; Mirat al-Sharq, 28 October 1929. See Matiel Mogannam, The Arab Woman and the Palestine Problem (London: Herbert Joseph, 1937), pp. 70-75, for the complete list of resolutions.
15. Mogannam, Arab Woman, pp. 70-76; Filastin, 29 October 1929; al-Sirat al-Mustaqim, 28 October 1929; Mirat al-Sharq, 28 October 1929; al-Mawsu'a al-Filastiniyya, vol. 2 (Damascus: Ha'iyya al-Mawsu'a al-Filastiniyya, 1984, p. 212; and Julie Peteet, Gender in Crisis: Women and the Palestinian Resistance Movement (New York: Columbia University Press, 1991), pp. 44-47.
16. Mogannam, Arab Woman, pp. 70-76; Filastin, 29 October 1929; al-Sirat al-Mustaqim, 28 October 1929; Mirat al-Sharq, 28 October 1929; al-Mawsu'a al-Filastiniyya, vol. 2 (Damascus: Ha'iyya al-Mawsu'a al-Filastiniyya, 1984, p. 212; and Julie Peteet, Gender in Crisis: Women and the Palestinian Resistance Movement (New York: Columbia University Press, 1991), pp. 44-47.
17. Mogannam, Arab Woman, pp. 70-76; Filastin, 29 October 1929; al-Sirat al-Mustaqim, 28 October 1929; Mirat al-Sharq, 28 October 1929; al-Mawsu'a al-Filastiniyya, vol. 2 (Damascus: Ha'iyya al-Mawsu'a al-Filastiniyya, 1984, p. 212; and Julie Peteet, Gender in Crisis: Women and the Palestinian Resistance Movement (New York: Columbia University Press, 1991), pp. 44-47.
18. Mogannam, Arab Woman, pp. 70-76; Filastin, 29 October 1929; al-Sirat al-Mustaqim, 28 October 1929; Mirat al-Sharq, 28 October 1929; al-Mawsu'a al-Filastiniyya, vol. 2 (Damascus: Ha'iyya al-Mawsu'a al-Filastiniyya, 1984, p. 212; and Julie Peteet, Gender in Crisis: Women and the Palestinian Resistance Movement (New York: Columbia University Press, 1991), pp. 44-47.
19. Mogannam, Arab Woman, pp. 70-76; Filastin, 29 October 1929; al-Sirat al-Mustaqim, 28 October 1929; Mirat al-Sharq, 28 October 1929; al-Mawsu'a al-Filastiniyya, vol. 2 (Damascus: Ha'iyya al-Mawsu'a al-Filastiniyya, 1984, p. 212; and Julie Peteet, Gender in Crisis: Women and the Palestinian Resistance Movement (New York: Columbia University Press, 1991), pp. 44-47.
20. Mogannam, Arab Woman, pp. 70-76; Filastin, 29 October 1929; al-Sirat al-Mustaqim, 28 October 1929; Mirat al-Sharq, 28 October 1929; al-Mawsu'a al-Filastiniyya, vol. 2 (Damascus: Ha'iyya al-Mawsu'a al-Filastiniyya, 1984, p. 212; and Julie Peteet, Gender in Crisis: Women and the Palestinian Resistance Movement (New York: Columbia University Press, 1991), pp. 44-47.
21. See Mirat al-Sharq, 23 October 1929, and Filastin-English, 26 October 1929.
22. See Mirat al-Sharq, 23 October 1929, and Filastin-English, 26 October 1929.
23. Mogannam, Arab Woman, pp. 73-74; Sir John Chancellor to Lord Passfield, 31 October 1929; Filastin, 29 October 1929.
24. Mogannam, Arab Woman, pp. 73-74; Sir John Chancellor to Lord Passfield, 31 October 1929; Filastin, 29 October 1929.
25. Mirat al-Sharq, 28 October 1929.
26. This group was also called the Arab Women's Committee. There are numerous discrepancies in the name of this group, possibly due to differences between Arabic and English or to inaccurate translations. The press, which along with Mogannam's book and British documents constitute the major written source on the women's movement, tends to use either al-Jam'iyya al-Nisa'iyya al-'Arabiyya (the Arab Women's Association) or Jam'iyyat al-Sayyidat al-'Arabiyyat (the Arab Ladies Association).
27. Mogannam, Arab Woman, p. 77.
28. Khadija Abu 'Ali, Muqaddimat hawla al-Waqi'a al-Mar'a wa Tajribatiha fi al-Thawra al-Filastiniyya (Beirut: General Union of Palestinian Women, 1975), p. 45.
29. By the mid-1930s, the AWE had ceased to have a separate existence, having been largely subsumed by the Jerusalem AWA.
30. See Appendix I in Fleischmann, "The Nation and Its 'New' Women," pp. 360-64.
31. Approximately five members of the ten to fourteen women in the AWE were unmarried It is difficult to obtain accurate biographical information about women in this period, but the ages of some of the AWE members are known. In 1929, of the unmarried women, Shahinda Duzdar was 23, and Zlikha Shihabi was 26. Melia Sakakini, at 39, was older than most of her single colleagues. Of the married women, Na'imati al-Husayni was 34, and Matiel Mogannam was 29.
32. Peteet (Gender in Crisis, p. 48) writes that nine of the women were married to Arab Executive Committee members, but I could not confirm this after checking lists of the Arab Executive in Porath (Emergence, pp. 383-87) or in Bayan Nuwayhid al-Hut, al-Qiyyadat wa al-Mu'assasat al-Siyasiyya fi Filastin, 1917-1948 (Beirut Dar al-Huda, 1986), p. 866.
33. Peteet (Gender in Crisis, p. 48) writes that nine of the women were married to Arab Executive Committee members, but I could not confirm this after checking lists of the Arab Executive in Porath (Emergence, pp. 383-87) or in Bayan Nuwayhid al-Hut, al-Qiyyadat wa al-Mu'assasat al-Siyasiyya fi Filastin, 1917-1948 (Beirut Dar al-Huda, 1986), p. 866.
34. Peteet (Gender in Crisis, p. 48) writes that nine of the women were married to Arab Executive Committee members, but I could not confirm this after checking lists of the Arab Executive in Porath (Emergence, pp. 383-87) or in Bayan Nuwayhid al-Hut, al-Qiyyadat wa al-Mu'assasat al-Siyasiyya fi Filastin, 1917-1948 (Beirut Dar al-Huda, 1986), p. 866.
35. Though her last name should be transliterated as Mughannam (her husband's name was Mughannam Mughannam), I use the English spelling she used as author of her book to avoid confusion.
36. There is some confusion in the sources about when Sakakini became involved in the movement and therefore whether she was a member of the AWE. Several scholars claim that it was she and Shihabi who founded the Palestinian women's union in 1921, but none cites a source. See Abu 'Ali, Muqaddimat, p. 44; Nuha Abu Daleb, "Palestinian Women and Their Role in the Revolution," Peuples méditerranéens, no. 5 (October-December 1978), p. 36; al-Khalili, al-Mar'a al-Filastiniyya, p. 77; Peteet, Gender in Crisis, p. 44.
37. There is some confusion in the sources about when Sakakini became involved in the movement and therefore whether she was a member of the AWE. Several scholars claim that it was she and Shihabi who founded the Palestinian women's union in 1921, but none cites a source. See Abu 'Ali, Muqaddimat, p. 44; Nuha Abu Daleb, "Palestinian Women and Their Role in the Revolution," Peuples méditerranéens, no. 5 (October-December 1978), p. 36; al-Khalili, al-Mar'a al-Filastiniyya, p. 77; Peteet, Gender in Crisis, p. 44.
38. There is some confusion in the sources about when Sakakini became involved in the movement and therefore whether she was a member of the AWE. Several scholars claim that it was she and Shihabi who founded the Palestinian women's union in 1921, but none cites a source. See Abu 'Ali, Muqaddimat, p. 44; Nuha Abu Daleb, "Palestinian Women and Their Role in the Revolution," Peuples méditerranéens, no. 5 (October-December 1978), p. 36; al-Khalili, al-Mar'a al-Filastiniyya, p. 77; Peteet, Gender in Crisis, p. 44.
39. There is some confusion in the sources about when Sakakini became involved in the movement and therefore whether she was a member of the AWE. Several scholars claim that it was she and Shihabi who founded the Palestinian women's union in 1921, but none cites a source. See Abu 'Ali, Muqaddimat, p. 44; Nuha Abu Daleb, "Palestinian Women and Their Role in the Revolution," Peuples méditerranéens, no. 5 (October-December 1978), p. 36; al-Khalili, al-Mar'a al-Filastiniyya, p. 77; Peteet, Gender in Crisis, p. 44.
40. The relationship between the Palestinian women's movement and the nationalist movement is little documented either in primary or secondary sources, one exception being Akram Zu'aytir's report on the 1938 Eastern Women's Conference in Cairo, in Yawmlyyat Akram Zu'aytir: al-Haraka al-Wataniyya al-Filastiniyya, 1935-1939 (Beirut Institute for Palestine Studies, 1980), pp. 397-98, 451, 471-76. al-Mawsu'a al-Filastiniyya (vol. 2, pp. 211-19) makes sweeping statements about women being a constituent part of the national movement, but without citing primary sources. Interestingly, historical memory concerning the extent of cooperation differs according to gender. Men who were interviewed tended to down-play or even deny coordination between the movements (author's interviews with Raja al-'Isa and Hasan Istambuli), while women interviewed contended that the men encouraged the movement, sometimes combining forces and coordinating activities (author's interviews with Samira Khuri, Madiha Nusseibeh, and Samah Nusseibeh). The evidence would appear to bear out the women's claims. See Fleischmann, "The Nation and Its 'New' Women," chap. 6.
41. The relationship between the Palestinian women's movement and the nationalist movement is little documented either in primary or secondary sources, one exception being Akram Zu'aytir's report on the 1938 Eastern Women's Conference in Cairo, in Yawmlyyat Akram Zu'aytir: al-Haraka al-Wataniyya al-Filastiniyya, 1935-1939 (Beirut Institute for Palestine Studies, 1980), pp. 397-98, 451, 471-76. al-Mawsu'a al-Filastiniyya (vol. 2, pp. 211-19) makes sweeping statements about women being a constituent part of the national movement, but without citing primary sources. Interestingly, historical memory concerning the extent of cooperation differs according to gender. Men who were interviewed tended to down-play or even deny coordination between the movements (author's interviews with Raja al-'Isa and Hasan Istambuli), while women interviewed contended that the men encouraged the movement, sometimes combining forces and coordinating activities (author's interviews with Samira Khuri, Madiha Nusseibeh, and Samah Nusseibeh). The evidence would appear to bear out the women's claims. See Fleischmann, "The Nation and Its 'New' Women," chap. 6.
42. The relationship between the Palestinian women's movement and the nationalist movement is little documented either in primary or secondary sources, one exception being Akram Zu'aytir's report on the 1938 Eastern Women's Conference in Cairo, in Yawmlyyat Akram Zu'aytir: al-Haraka al-Wataniyya al-Filastiniyya, 1935-1939 (Beirut Institute for Palestine Studies, 1980), pp. 397-98, 451, 471-76. al-Mawsu'a al-Filastiniyya (vol. 2, pp. 211-19) makes sweeping statements about women being a constituent part of the national movement, but without citing primary sources. Interestingly, historical memory concerning the extent of cooperation differs according to gender. Men who were interviewed tended to down-play or even deny coordination between the movements (author's interviews with Raja al-'Isa and Hasan Istambuli), while women interviewed contended that the men encouraged the movement, sometimes combining forces and coordinating activities (author's interviews with Samira Khuri, Madiha Nusseibeh, and Samah Nusseibeh). The evidence would appear to bear out the women's claims. See Fleischmann, "The Nation and Its 'New' Women," chap. 6.
43. al-Sirat al-Mustaqim, 24 November 1929.
44. When I asked Samah Nusseibeh, president of the Arab Women's Association in 1993, about the AWA's membership practices during the Mandate, she replied, "It was open to the public, but . . . no one was interested in joining the society except the . . . well-known notables." Interview, Jerusalem, 23 November 1993.
45. Peteet, Gender in Crisis, p. 56.
46. Mogannam, interview with Julie Peteet and Rosemary Sayigh, Washington, , 10 August 1985. I warmly thank them for allowing me to use this interview.
47. Jam'iyyat al-Sayyidat al-'Arabiyyat al-Quds, pamphlet prepared by Yaqub al-'Ansari and Ibrahim al-Husayni (Jerusalem: 1980), p. 19.
48. Palestine Post, 7 December 1936.
49. Among the Jerusalem leadership only a minority used such coverings, but women in areas such as Nablus and Tulkarm, for example, tended to be more conservative in their dress. There was also a certain differentiation in matters of dress by age.
50. They were Katrin Dib, Matiel Mogannam, Melia Sakakini, and Mary Shihada.
51. al-Difa', 15 May 1936; al-Jami'a al-'Arabiyya, 16 April 1933.
52. al-Difa', 15 May 1936; al-Jami'a al-'Arabiyya, 16 April 1933.
53. "The Women's Movement," al-Karmil, 25 March 1935.
54. See, Peteet, Gender in Crisis, pp. 48-49; Rosemary Sayigh, "Palestinian Women: Triple Burden, Single Struggle," Peuples méditerranéens, nos. 44-45 (July-December 1988), p. 249. For more about women's role in the revolt, see Ted Swedenburg, Memories of Revolt: The 1936-1939 Rebellion and the Palestinian National Past (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1995); and Fleischmann, "The Nation and Its 'New' Women," pp. 204-26.
55. See, Peteet, Gender in Crisis, pp. 48-49; Rosemary Sayigh, "Palestinian Women: Triple Burden, Single Struggle," Peuples méditerranéens, nos. 44-45 (July-December 1988), p. 249. For more about women's role in the revolt, see Ted Swedenburg, Memories of Revolt: The 1936-1939 Rebellion and the Palestinian National Past (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1995); and Fleischmann, "The Nation and Its 'New' Women," pp. 204-26.
56. See, Peteet, Gender in Crisis, pp. 48-49; Rosemary Sayigh, "Palestinian Women: Triple Burden, Single Struggle," Peuples méditerranéens, nos. 44-45 (July-December 1988), p. 249. For more about women's role in the revolt, see Ted Swedenburg, Memories of Revolt: The 1936-1939 Rebellion and the Palestinian National Past (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1995); and Fleischmann, "The Nation and Its 'New' Women," pp. 204-26.
57. See, Peteet, Gender in Crisis, pp. 48-49; Rosemary Sayigh, "Palestinian Women: Triple Burden, Single Struggle," Peuples méditerranéens, nos. 44-45 (July-December 1988), p. 249. For more about women's role in the revolt, see Ted Swedenburg, Memories of Revolt: The 1936-1939 Rebellion and the Palestinian National Past (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1995); and Fleischmann, "The Nation and Its 'New' Women," pp. 204-26.
58. Of the AWE members, Na'imati al-Husayni's husband, Jamal, was aligned with the Husayni faction, while Matiel Mogannam's husband was secretary of the Nashashibi-dominated National Defense party. The affiliations of the husbands of other AWE members were as follows: 'Auni 'Abd al-Hadi, Istiqlal; Subhi al-Khadra, Istiqlal; and Bulos Shihada, sympathetic to the National Defense party. Porath, Emergence, pp. 383-87; al-Hut, al-Qiyyadat wa al-Mu'assasat, p. 866. Other AWE members from the two rival hamulas included Fatima al-Husayni, Khadija al-Husayni, and Zahiyya Nashashibi; Diya Nashashibi may have been an AWE member. All of these women were single.
59. Of the AWE members, Na'imati al-Husayni's husband, Jamal, was aligned with the Husayni faction, while Matiel Mogannam's husband was secretary of the Nashashibi-dominated National Defense party. The affiliations of the husbands of other AWE members were as follows: 'Auni 'Abd al-Hadi, Istiqlal; Subhi al-Khadra, Istiqlal; and Bulos Shihada, sympathetic to the National Defense party. Porath, Emergence, pp. 383-87; al-Hut, al-Qiyyadat wa al-Mu'assasat, p. 866. Other AWE members from the two rival hamulas included Fatima al-Husayni, Khadija al-Husayni, and Zahiyya Nashashibi; Diya Nashashibi may have been an AWE member. All of these women were single.
60. The actual date is difficult to ascertain, since women from the different groups apparently worked together on and off even after the split.
61. See Swedenburg, Memories of Revolt; and Ellen Fleischmann, "Selective Memory, Gender and Nationalism: Palesnian Women Leaders in the Mandate Period," History Workshop Journal 47 (Spring 1999), pp. 141-58.
62. See Swedenburg, Memories of Revolt; and Ellen Fleischmann, "Selective Memory, Gender and Nationalism: Palesnian Women Leaders in the Mandate Period," History Workshop Journal 47 (Spring 1999), pp. 141-58.
63. Sayigh, "Palestinian Women," p. 250.
64. Interviews with author: Salma Husayni, Jerusalem, 19 April 1993; Sa'ida Jarallah, Jerusalem, 19 April 1994; Amina al-Kadhimi and Hasan Istambuli, Jerusalem, 22 April 1993; Madiha Nusseibeh, Jericho, 25 April 1999. Major leaders who remained with the AWA were Shahinda Duzdar, Matiel Mogannam, and Zahiyya Nashashibi; those who were allied with the AWU were Melia Sakakini and Zlikha Shihabi.
65. al-Jam'ia al-'Arabiyya, 1 January 1930; al-Sirat al-Mustaqim, 14 March 1935.
66. al-Jam'ia al-'Arabiyya, 1 January 1930; al-Sirat al-Mustaqim, 14 March 1935.
67. Filastin, 27 and 29 August 1931. This mutual aid was typical; the Haifa AWU sent aid to victims of violence in Nablus via the Nablus AWU in 1939 during the Revolt, for example.
68. Filastin, 27 October 1933.
69. Though Nassar was apparently never president of the Haifa AWU, holding instead the position of secretary, she dominated the organization.
70. Telegram from the HC to the Secretary of State for the Colonies, 6 June 1936; diary of Sir Thomas Scrivenor, 23 April 1938, papers of Scrivenor, Rhodes House, Oxford; Palestine Post, 7 June 1936 and 24 and 26 April 1938.
71. al-Karmil, 8 November 1933.
72. Filastin, 28 January 1939 and 14 May 1936; Daily Intelligence Summary, CID, 1 August 1938, Central Zionist Archives (CZA), S25 22732.
73. It should be noted, however, that this stability was at the expense of democratic structures; the fact that so many of the leaders were continuously reelected hints that their dominance left little room for other women to advance to leadership positions.
74. Matiel Mogannam, in a speech delivered to a mixed audience of Arab women and British officials' wives. Filastin-English, 1 August 1931.
75. Mogannam, Arab Woman, pp. 93-100; CID Report, 22 April 1933, Foreign Office (FO) 371 16926.
76. Mogannam, Arab Woman, pp. 93-100; CID Report, 22 April 1933, Foreign Office (FO) 371 16926.
77. Police Dispositions for Friday, 27 October 1933, Secret Dispatch 3/99/s, J. M. Faraday Papers, Middle East Center, St Antony's College, Oxford.
78. The Arab Executive complained to the government about women being struck by police, who compiled a special report in response to their grievances.
79. "First Time in the History of Palestine-Conference of the Arab Ladies," Filastin, 29 October 1929; "For the First Time in History," Filastin-English, 2 November 1929; Mirat al-Sharq, 28 October 1929; al-Sirat al-Mustaqim, 28 October 1929.
80. "First Time in the History of Palestine-Conference of the Arab Ladies," Filastin, 29 October 1929; "For the First Time in History," Filastin-English, 2 November 1929; Mirat al-Sharq, 28 October 1929; al-Sirat al-Mustaqim, 28 October 1929.
81. "First Time in the History of Palestine-Conference of the Arab Ladies," Filastin, 29 October 1929; "For the First Time in History," Filastin-English, 2 November 1929; Mirat al-Sharq, 28 October 1929; al-Sirat al-Mustaqim, 28 October 1929.
82. "First Time in the History of Palestine-Conference of the Arab Ladies," Filastin, 29 October 1929; "For the First Time in History," Filastin-English, 2 November 1929; Mirat al-Sharq, 28 October 1929; al-Sirat al-Mustaqim, 28 October 1929.
83. Filastin, 4 September 1932, 2 May 1939; al-Sirat al-Mustaqim, 15 November 1929; Filastin, 4 May 1936; al-Difa', 4 May 1936.
84. Filastin, 4 September 1932, 2 May 1939; al-Sirat al-Mustaqim, 15 November 1929; Filastin, 4 May 1936; al-Difa', 4 May 1936.
85. Filastin, 4 September 1932, 2 May 1939; al-Sirat al-Mustaqim, 15 November 1929; Filastin, 4 May 1936; al-Difa', 4 May 1936.
86. Filastin, 4 September 1932, 2 May 1939; al-Sirat al-Mustaqim, 15 November 1929; Filastin, 4 May 1936; al-Difa', 4 May 1936.
87. Filastin-English, 26 October 1929.
88. For the somewhat Byzantine relationships between the press and the different national factions, see Yehoshua Porath, The Palestinian Arab National Movement: From Riots to Rebellion, 1929-1939 (London: Frank Cass, 1977), pp. 65-66, 71; Anonymous Analysis of the Arabic Press (n.d., probably the late 1930s), CZA S25 22760; and Aida Najjar, "The Arabic Press and Nationalism in Palestine, 1920-1948" (Ph.D. diss., University of New York-Syracuse, 1975).
89. For the somewhat Byzantine relationships between the press and the different national factions, see Yehoshua Porath, The Palestinian Arab National Movement: From Riots to Rebellion, 1929-1939 (London: Frank Cass, 1977), pp. 65-66, 71; Anonymous Analysis of the Arabic Press (n.d., probably the late 1930s), CZA S25 22760; and Aida Najjar, "The Arabic Press and Nationalism in Palestine, 1920-1948" (Ph.D. diss., University of New York-Syracuse, 1975).
90. al-Difa', 11 October 1937; al-Sirat al-Mustaqim, 25 January 1934 and 15 April 1935.
91. al-Difa', 11 October 1937; al-Sirat al-Mustaqim, 25 January 1934 and 15 April 1935.
92. Filastin, 21 December 1944, for example, writes of the "world famous . . . democratic justice, which was and still remains, the fundamental British generous character."
93. A telegram sent during the Arab Revolt to a sympathetic English woman reads in part, "Traditional British justice where, confidence lost; hopes frustrated . . . entreat you in the name of humanity to put an end to Chaos and Tyranny; protect British honor; don't break Arab Moslem friendship forever." Telegram from the Arab Women Committee [sic] to Miss Farquharson, 1 July 1936, CO 733 313/6.
94. Letter to the HC from the Arab Women's Committee, 25 July 1936, FO 371 20929.
95. Interview, CO 733 239/5.
96. Interview, CO 733 239/5, Part II; Inspector-General of Police to Chief Secretary, 14 October 1933, CO 733 239/5, Part II.
97. Filastin, 11 July 1936.
98. Filastin, 14 May 1936; al-Difa', 14 May 1936.
99. Filastin, 14 May 1936; al-Difa', 14 May 1936.
100. For more on this incident and about this unique woman, see Fleischmann, "The Nation and Its 'New' Women," pp. 220-22.
101. Najmabadi is writing about Iranian women in the early twentieth century, but her ideas are suggestive for other societies as well. Afsaneh Najmabadi, "Crafting an Educated Housewife in Iran," in Remaking Women: Feminism and Modernity in the Middle East, ed. Lila AbuLughod (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1998), pp. 113-15.
102. Orayb Aref Najjar, "Between Nationalism and Feminism: The Palestinian Answer," in Women Transforming Politics: Worldwide Strategies for Empowerment, ed. Jill M. Bystydzienski (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1992), p. 144. Emphasis in original.